IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, VOL. IECI-16, NO.
2, SEPTEMBER 1969 III
A Dynamic Analysis of Magnetic Stepping Motors
D. J. ROBINSON AND C. K. TAFT,
Abstract-A mathematical model of the permanent magnet step-
ping motor is developed and experimentally verified. Linearized
equations which allow the motor to be expressed in terms of a damp-
ing ratio and natural frequency are developed for a single step re-
sponse. Multistep motor operation, when driven by a current source,
is analyzed using phase plane techniques. Failure of a stepping motor
to follow a fixed stepping rate command is analyzed. Dimensionless
curves showing maximum stepping rate as a function of motor
parameters and applied load torque are derived and experimentally
verified.
INTRODUCTION
N RECENT years the use of digital control has
found increased application in the field of auto-
matic control systems. One inherent problem in
applying digital control is in selecting suitable digital
actuators. One promising actuator is the magnetic
stepping motor. The magnetic stepping motor is an
incremental device that accepts discrete input pulses
and responds to these pulses by rotating its output
shaft in equal angular increments, one increment for
each input pulse.
MVagnetic stepping motors fall into two categories:
variable reluctance motors and permanent magnet
motors. The variable reluctance stepping motor con-
sists of three or more stator phases and a rotor of soft
magnetic iron. The stator phases are wound on salient
poles forming electromagnetic structures. When a stator
winding is energized, the rotor will seek a path of mini-
mum magnetic reluctance between the stator salient
poles and the rotor. The permanent magnet stepping
motor consists of a stator containing phases wound on
salient poles and a permanent magnet rotor. When a
stator winding is energized, a magnetic flux pattern is
set up which interacts with the permanent magnet
rotor. The rotor will move in a manner such that the
magnetic moment of the permanent magnet will align
with the field set up by the stator winding current.
Bailey [1], O'Donouhue [2], and Kieburtz [3] have
analyzed magnetic stepping motors. In each case the
stepping motor was approximated by a linear second-
order model. The model describes the response for small
disturbances, but it only approximately describes the
dynamics of the stepping motor for single step inputs
and is unsuitable for multiple step inputs.
In this paper the magnetic stepping motor is first
examined on a single step basis, and linearized equa-
tions of motion are developed to characterize the motor
in terms of a maximum developed torque, damping
Manuscript received July 18, 1968.
D. J. Robinson is with the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration, Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.
C. K. Taft is at the University of New Hampshire, Durham, N.H.
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MEMBER, IEEE
ratio, and natural frequency. An analysis of multistep
operation is then presented using the characteristic
parameters from the single step analysis. A constant
current source is assumed. The analysis uses phase
plane techniques to show conditions when the motor
will fail to folloxv a set of input commands. The results
are then generalized to give a plot of maximum stepping
rate as a function of normalized damping ratio and ap-
plied load torque.
The analysis in this paper is based on the permanent
magnet stepping motor, although the variable reluc-
tance stepping motor can be analyzed in a similar man-
ner.
THE PERMANENT MXIAGNET STEPPING MOTOR
The permanent magnet (PM) stepping motor con-
sists of a stator containing two or more phases wound
on salient poles, and a permanent magnet rotor. When
a stator winding is energized, a magnetic flux is formed
which interacts with the permanent magnet rotor. The
rotor will move in a manner such that the magnetic
moment of the permanent magnet rotor will align with
the field set up by the stator winding currents. There
are several different PA\ stepping motor configurations
available commercially. The most common types are
derived from two- or four-phase ac synchronous motor
structures [4]- [7].
Fig. 1 shows a layout of a simplified synchronous
inductor motor. The stator has a two-phase, four-
salient-pole winding configuration. The rotor contains a
cylindrical permanent magnet which is magnetized
axially. The rotor is divided into two sections, as shown
in Fig. l(b), forming north and south magnetic poles.
Each section has five teeth. The two rotor sections are
offset by one-half of a rotor tooth minimizing the air
gap making a more efficient magnetic structure. For
this motor the rotor tooth pitch angle is 720 while the
salient poles are located every 90°. One step corresponds
to one-quarter of the rotor tooth pitch or a rotor move-
ment of 18°. Fig. 1(c) shows an expanded layout of the
rotor and stator.
Torque is produced on the rotor of the PM stepping
motor as the result of an interaction between the flux
created by the stator windings and the permanent mag-
net rotor. To obtain maximum torque while stepping,
both phases are energized and stepping is accomplished
by reversing the direction of current in one of the phases.
For a two-phase four-salient-pole motor, the stator
current direction can form four possible pole combina-
tions. Fig. 2 shows the developed torque as a function of
rotor position for these cases. (The curves of Fig. 2
112 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

South magnetic disk North magnetic disk

Salient poles1

(a) (b)
3600
Stator pitch

I P2A PIB P2 B PIA

South magnetic - I¶ 1 Step - 18°

section of rotor - _7 SJ
1 L _ Jf
_j. ,---North magnetic
section of rotor
1t
..-.72°9
Rotor tooth pitch

(c)
Fig. 1. Simplified synchronous inductor motor. (a) Cross section. (b) Axial view. (c) Expanded rotor-stator layout.

assume a sinusoidal torque variation. This assumption tooth pitch eaclh time the current is reversed in one
is experimentally verified later in this paper.) stator winding.
Fig. 2(a) shows a plot of developed torque as a func- The developed torque for each step command can be
tion of rotor position as the rotor is moved relative to generalized by defining an angle 0, suclh that when the
the stator when the stator windings are excited so that rotor moves one-quarter of a tooth pitch, 0 varies by4
P1A and PIB are north poles. Points of stable equilibrium 90°. The angle 0 is related to the angle of rotation
are found every rotor tooth pitch. If the rotor is moved taken during each step by the number of teeth on the
about a point of stable equilibrium, a torque is devel- rotor:
oped that will tend to drive the rotor back to the point 0 = NRTO- (1)
of stable equilibrium. Unstable points of equilibrium are
found midway between the points of stable equilibrium. The developed torque can be expressed by:
If the rotor is moved to a point of unstable equilibrium, TD = Tinax sin 0. (2)
it will theoretically stay at that position. If the rotor is
moved about the unstable equilibrium point, the devel- Referring to Fig. 2, the resultant developed torque
oped torque will drive the rotor to a point of stable curves for each successive step can be expressed as:
equilibrium. Reference position: PlA and P2A north magnetic poles
Fig. 2(b) shows tlhe developed torque against rotor
position with the field excited so that P1B and P2A are TD = Tma sin (0 -0) = - Tmax sin 0. (3)
north poles. Comparing the resultant curves of Fig. 2 (a)
and (b) shows that the equilibrium points have shifted Step 1: PlB and P2A north magnetic poles
by one-quarter rotor tooth pitch. Fig. 2(c) shows that TD = Tmax sin (90° - 0) = + Ti1ax cos 0. (4)
the developed torque against rotor position has shifted
one-quarter rotor tooth pitch when P1B and P2B are Step 2: PIB and P2B north magnetic poles
north poles. Fig. 2(d) shows the developed torque
TD = Tmax sin (1800 -0) = + Tmax sin 0. (5)
against rotor position when P2B and PIA are north poles.
If the motor is stepped by sequentially repeating the Step 3: P1A and P2B north magnetic poles
stator current magnetic pole combinations, the rotor
equilibrium points will be shifted by one-quarter rotor TD = TInaX sin (2700 - 0) = - Trnax Cos 0. (6)

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 ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 113

Salient Salient Salient Salient 1.4-

pole pole pole pole
P2A PIB P2B PlA A Stable equilibrium
points
J L i~~~~~~~~~~~~~tator * Unstable equilibrium
points 1.F0
.8
F,vlq-Y, Rotor shown in
Rotor reference position .6
Reference point "A" - -i RetEference position
.4
a,_
. 2
Salient poles P1A and P2A
are north magnetic poles.
(a) P,B and P2B are South
ax oj
magnetic ples. a;
5

.3r-
25-

Step number I
Salient poles P1B and P2A
25 30 Experimental
torque
(b) are north magnetic poles.
Salient poles P1A and P2B 15 20 developed
are south magnetic poles.

.1 10 TD =Tmax sin
05-
Step number 2
Salient poles P1I and P21 Motor B

(c) are north magnetic poles.

Salient poles PIA and P2A
0
0 20 40 60 80 90
are south magnetic poles. Degree, 8

Fig. 3. Torque as a function of rotor position

for two synchronous inductor motors.
Step number 3
Salient poles P2B and PIA
(d) li
are north magnetic poles.
Salient poles P1B and P2A
are south magnetic poles.

Step number 4
Salient poles P1A and P2A
(e) are north magnetic poles.
Salient poles P1 and P2B
are south magnelic poles.

Arrows indicate direc-

tion of developed torque
about equilibrium points

Fig. 2. Resultant torque as a function of rotor position

for a four-step sequence.
RJ

T il(t} t X~~~el t-
Step 4: P1A and P2A north magnetic poles
TD- Tirsax sin (360° 0) = Tmrx sin 0. -
(7) -
Fig. 4. Schematic representation of a PM stepping
Two synchronous inductor motors were used to motor for a single step.
experimentally verify the analytical model of the devel-
oped torque. Fig. 3 shows a plot of developed torque as
a function of rotor position for each motor. relative to the stator magnetic poles. Assuming the
stator flux density distribution to be sinusoidal and
SINGLE STEP LINEARIZED MIODEL OF THE PM using Maxwell's equations the induced voltage can be
STEPPING MJOTOR given by
A schematic representation of the PM stepping motor KV dO(t)
stator winding is shown in Fig. 4. The voltage supplied E, = sin 0(t). (10)
to the windings is given by
N\TRT di
dii(t)
The differential equations for the stator voltage in each
eo(t) = Ril(t) ++ EL (8) winding are
dt
dis(t)
di1(t) do(t)
e2(t) = Ri2(t) + L
t + Ev. (9) el(t) = Ril(t) + L
dl
+ K, d
dt
sin 0(t) (1 1)
dt

The induced voltage (E,) generated in the stator e2(t) =

Ri2(t) + L
di2(t)
+ K0
do(t)
cos 0(1). (12)
windings is due to the permanent magnet rotor moving dt dt

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114 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

The torque developed by the stepping motor with
both passes energized, can be expressed in terms of the
magnetic flux density B produced in the stator and the
magnetic moment Ml of the rotor [8]:
(13)
TD = B2M cos 0(t) - B1M sin 0(t).
The miagnetic moment of the rotor is a function of the
geometry of the rotor and the strength of the permanent
mnagnet in the rotor. The magnetic flux density is pro-
portional to the number of stator turns and the current
i(t) in the stator windings. Thus the developed torque
can be expressed by
TD = KTi2(t) cos 0(t) - KTil(t) sin 0(t). (14)
Consider the transfer function of the PM stepping
motor about an operating point when the motor is in
equilibrium at the end of a step with both phases ener-
gized. This operating point is chosen because the motor
parameters can be easily obtained experimentally.
At the operating point the initial conditions of veloc-
ity and acceleration are considered to be zero. The
constraining equation is
KTI20 COS 00 - KT110 sin 00 = TL,O (16)
The linearized equations about the operating point,
neglecting friction are
- KTI1o sin 0,z0(t) - KTI20 cos O0z,(t)

In responding to a step command, the developed + KT cos 0,Ai2(t) - KT sin 0,Ai1(t)

(17)
torque produced by the motor will have to overcome J d2 D d
the mechanical load placed on the rotor. The mechanical ___ - AO(t) +
= ~~- AO(t) ± ATL(t)
\A RT dt2 A RT dt
load includes:
d KA d
1) The inertial torque-this torque includes the Ael(t) = ~~sin 0o - AO(t) (18)
RAi1(t) ± L - zAil(t) + NRT
inertia of the motor and the inertia of any load dt ~ dt
imposed on the stepping motor shaft: d K,, d
RAi2(t) + L - Ai2(t) + AT COS 0o - A0(t). (19)
Ae2(t) =
d42(t) dt NTRT dt
dt2 The Laplace transformation of (17), (18), and (19)
become
2) The viscous damping torque-this torque includes
the motor damping and any viscous damping on KT cos 0o I2(S) - KT sin 0d Xl (S) -A TL(S)
the motor shaft: JS2 DS (20)
+KTI10O sin 00+ KTI 20 cos 0o
D do(t)
NRT NRTJI
dt
AE2(S) + - K,K COS 0,20(S)
(21)
3) Torque due to coulomb friction: A12(S)
R+LS
Tf dc(t)/dt
do(t)/dt ElO - K, sin
AE1(S)+ 0,SAO(S)
S NRT (22)
4) External load torque applied to the motor shaft: AI1(S)
R+LS
TL(t) .
Combining (20), (21), and (22) gives the resultant
Equating the mechanical torques to the stepping linearized equation for both phases energized about an
motors developed torque, operating point at the end of a step:

K2 c_ofJO[ZE2(S) + E20] KY s_ [AE, (S) + E- _ TL (S)

R +LSL- si R±+LSL- si -LLS
(23)
AO (S) =
JS2 DS KTK7
AT T ATR+ NRT[R + LS [COS2 00 - sin2 00}S + KTI1o sin 00 + KTI20 COS 0o
N P,T N0RT IAR R S

TD(t) - K i2(t) cos 0(f) - KTil(l) sin 0(t) Equation (23) can be simplified by considering I20
J d 20(t) D d0(t)
=Iio-I and that the initial load torque TLO is zero.
Using these assumptions, (14) becomes
XRT dt2 ANRT dl
cos 0o sin 0o 0 (24)
(15) - =

Tf~ dt(t) dl or
d0(t)/dt Il =
450. (25)

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ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 115

Thus (23) can be written

0.707KT R + E20]
zAE2(S) 0.77KT FE]
R±+LSL- si
-I
R +-LsLS
AE,(S) + -I -
A~TL(S)
AO(S) = (26)
JS2 DS
+ + v/2 KTI
AT RT N\TRT

For load torque disturbances about the operating quency and damping ratio of the linearized model about
point at the end of the step and the initial load torque the stable equilibrium point.
equal to zero, the transfer function reduces to The natural frequency and damping ratio of two
1 stepping motors were experimentally determined about
ATL(S)NRT an equilibrium point. To perform the test, both stator
-J windings were energized. The rotor was moved from the
AS(S) =
S2 +-S + V\/2-KTINRT
D equilibrium point and released, simulating a small
J J change in AO from the equilibrium point. A potentiom-
eter was used as a position transducer, the output being
The result is important for two reasons. First, it displayed on an oscilloscope.
allows the stepping motor to be described in terms of a The resulting position response for motor A, is shown
natural frequency, damping ratio, and mechanical stiff- as the lower trace in Fig. 5(a). From the trace the mea-
ness constant. Second, these parameters can easily be sured natural frequency was 420 rad/s and the damping
determined experimentally. ratio was determined to be 0.125.
Equation (27) can also be expressed in terms of the The upper trace of Fig. 5(a) is a plot of the phase 1
rotor angle q5. Recalling that stator current. The stator current oscillations are ap-
0 = NRTO, (28) proximately 3 percent of the total dc value. Thus, any
effect of the position disturbance on the stator current
(27) can be written in terms of the rotor angle for a can be neglected.
particular stepping motor: Fig. 5(b) shows the resulting position response for
1 motor B. For this motor the measured natural frequency
- - ATL(S) was 860 rad/s. The measured damping ratio was 0.21.
AO+(S) =
D S+ N7TRTV2 KTI (29) ANALYSIS
MULTISTEP OPERATION OF THE
OF
S2+ PM STEPPING MOTOR
J f
For multistep operation, the response of the PMA
The natural frequency obtained from (29) is stepping motor for a given load torque is governed by:
WVN=
1) the rate of the input pulses;
(30)
2) the current transients in the stator windings;
3) the mechanical parameters of the rotor.
and the damping ratio of (29) is
The transient response of the stator current has a
D significant effect on the stepping motor response as the
~~~(31)
2vV\,/ 2 JNR TKTI stepping rate is increased. Even if the back EM\IF in-
duced in the stator is not significant, as was shown in
The natural frequency and the damping ratio of the Fig. 5(a), the current turn-on transient affects the maxi-
linearized model of the PM stepping motor can also be mum torque developed by the motor.
evaluated by considering a small change in AO from the If the time between the application of step commands
equilibrium point. approaches the L/R time constant on the stator, the
Consider the linearized equations about the point of current will not reach its expected value. The maximum
stable equilibrium with the stator current held constant torque developed by the motor is reduced, and the
and no applied load torque. The linearized equations natural frequency of the stepping motor is reduced. The
reduce to amount of load torque which the motor can step against
[s + AG(0)-]
is also reduced.
A O(S)
In general, stepping motor drive circuits are designed
(32)
D V\2 KTINRT to compensate for stator current transients. The drive
SI + -S + circuit tends to act as a current source by controlling
the stator current independent of the inductance or

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 116 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

Stator /
Upper trace winding
Stator current response number 2-
I = 100 m A /div
Stator \
winding ,\
Position response number 1- 1
o = 0. 75°/div
Lower trace
Rotor command Rotor initial
Sweep = 20 m s /div > dt pOsiti~on,
Rotor command position,
(a) step 4

\IA
Position response Stator
o 0. 75'/div -Stato r
winding
number 2
winding
nomber 1-'\
.\

Fig. 6. Schematic representation of rotor command positions.

Multistep operation.
Sweep 5 .m s/div
(b)
Fig. 5. Position and current variation with position disturbance
about an equilibrium point. (a) Traces for motor A. (b) Traces /2 KTI sin [,- 0(t)] =
J
d2f(t)+d±(t)
D
for motor B. ART dt NRT di
(36)
dO(t)/dt
dS(t),/ + TL (t)
to compensate a stepping motor is presented by IdO(t),/dtI
Zeller [9]. Equation can be simplified by defining a new
For the multistep analysis discussed it will be as- parameter (36)
in terms of the natural frequency:
time
sumed that a drive circuit is used which approximates a
current source for stepping motors. The stator currents r = WNt. (3 7)
will be assumed to have magnitudes equal to +I or -I
during each step. Also
The differential equation of rotor motion can then D
be reduced to a second-order nonlinear differential (38)
2 WNJ
equation. Fig. 6 shows a schematic representation of the
rotor command positions during multistep operation. Defining a normalized damping ratio,
By rewriting (14), the developed torque with current
magnitude stator currents is given by _ D
D = = 2v. (39)
W,vJ
TD = KTI sin [f(t) - 450] + KTI sin [9(t) + 450]. (33)
Normalizing the friction and load torque,
Each step command requires that the rotor advance
90 electrical degrees. The developed torque generated
by the motor to accomplish this step is given by (40)
TL = V2K~
TD = KTI sin [90°- (O(t) - 450)]
+ KTI sin [900 - (0(t) + 45°] (34)
- TL
AN/2 KTI
TT, (41)

or (36) can then be written

TD = \/2 KTIcos O(t). (35) d20 - dO _ dO/dr
sin [&c-0] =- ±d+ D TL
+
. |(42)
Equation (35) can be extended to include multistep dr2 dr IdO/d,
operation. Each step command calls for the rotor equi- Time can be made implicit in (42) by substituting
librium position to shift by 900. At the instant the next
step command is applied the position and velocity of the dO dV dV
rotor form initial conditions for the new equation of dr
-=
dr
V-
dO
(43)
rotor motion.
Equating (35) to the mechanical load, Rewriting (42),

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ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 117

dV - V the step commands are applied at the following ilormnal-

sin [0 - 0 = V- + DV + Tf - [TLL (44) ized times.
dO
Step 1: T = 0, O, = 90°
The second order nonlinear differential equation Step 2: T= 1.31, O,= 180°
obtained in (44) can be analyzed using phase plane tech- Step 3: T = 2.62, 0, = 2700
niques. The phase plane solution is a plot of normalized Step 4: T=3.93, 0,=360o
velocity V against position 0. The initial conditions of Step 5: T=5.24, O,=450°.
velocity V(0) and position 0(0) locate a point in the
phase plane. The trajectory through this point gives the Step 1 calls for a position command of 90'. The tra-
solution for all positive time. jectory for the response to this command is shown in
The phase trajectories can be constructed by using Fig. 7(a). The rotor is assumed initially in equilibrium
the method of isoclines [10]. Using this method, the at 0(0) = 0 and V(0) = 0. The trajectory is drawn from
phase portrait is constructed from plots of constant 0(0), V(0) to point A. At point A, the normalized time
trajectory slope (dV/dO), called isoclines. The slopes of equals 1.31 and the command for Step 2 is applied.
the trajectories is given by Step 2 calls for a position command of 1800. The trajec-
tory for the response to this command is shown in Fig.
sin [06-6]- V-Tf -TL 7(b) from point A to point B. At point B the computed
dV _ _
time is equal to 2.62 and the command for Step 3 is
do V applied. Step 3 calls for a position command of 270°.
The trajectory for the response to this command is
For a given stepping sequence, set of initial condi- shown in Fig. 7(c) from point B to point C. At point C
tions, and stepping rate, the phase trajectory is devel- the computed time is equal to 3.93 and the command
oped by selecting one of the four sets of isoclines which for Step 4 is applied. Step 4 calls for a position command
corresponds to the given step command. The phase of 3600. The trajectory for the response to this command
trajectory is then drawn from the initial conditions is shown in Fig. 7(d) from point C to point D. At point
using that set of isoclines. Time is computed incremen- D the computed time is equal to 5.24 and the command
tally along the trajectory. The relationship for time is for Step 5 is applied. Step 5 calls for a position command
given by of 4500. This equation gives the same result as for the
slope of the trajectory in response to the 900 step com-
r=f _-do. (46) mand. Thus, the response for the 4500 position com-
mand can be shown on Fig. 7(a) from point D to point
For a segment along the trajectory, (46) can be approxi- E. This procedure can be continued for plotting the
mated by trajectory in response to any additional step commands
desired.
-l[O-lnl On] Increasing the stepping rate decreases the amount of
time in which the motor can respond to the step com-
1/2[VUn+±+ V,j
mand. As a result, the rotor tends to lag behind the
The total time is the summation of the increments of command position until sufficient velocity is built up
time along the trajectory. When the computed time to allow the rotor to reach the command position. The
equals the stepping period for the given command step, rotor can dynamically lag behind the command position
the next step command in the sequence is applied. Thus by as much as 180° (two steps) and still follow the com-
the point on the trajectory at which the computed time mand, but once the rotor falls behind by more than
equals the stepping period becomes the initial condition 180°, the motor cannot reach the correct command
for the next step command. The trajectory for this step position.
command is plotted using its corresponding set of iso- As an illustration, consider the previous step sequence
clines. Time is computed again along the trajectory and with the normalized stepping period reduced from
compared to the stepping period to determine the ap- AT = 1.31 to Ar = 0.92. The step commands are applied
plication of the succeeding step command. This method at the following times.
is continued for the given stepping sequence. Step 1':r=0, O =90°
Figs. 7 and 8 show the effect of stepping rate on the Step 2': r =0.92, O = 1800
ability of the PMI stepping motor to follow a set of se- Step 3': r=1.84, 0,=2700
quential step commands for t\vo diff erent stepping rates. Step 4': T=2.76, 0,=360'
These figures show a set of five sequential steps. Tf and Step 5': T=3.68, G,= 4500.
TL are assumed zero and D is given as 0.25.
For the sequential step commands, consider a nor- The response to Step 1' is shown in Fig. 8(a) from
malized stepping period of Ar = 1.31. Using Ar = 1.31, V(0) =0 and 0(0) to point A'. At point A', r=0.92 and

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118 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

(a) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 1 and step command 5.

(b) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 2.

Fig. 7. Multistep sequence for Ar = 1.31.

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ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 119

(c) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 3.

(d) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 4.

Fig. 7 (Cont'd).

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120 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

(a) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 1' and step command 5'.

(b) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 2'.

Fig. 8. Multistep sequence for Ar=0.92.

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ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 121

(c) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 3'.

(d) Phase plane portrait for response to step command 4'.

Fig. 8 (Cont'd).

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122 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

the 1800 step command is applied. Notice that the value Usable torque for
acceleration TD
of velocity and position reached is considerably lower
than that in the previous case for r=1.31. Fig. 8(b)
Developed motor i r Developed motor torque
torque versus _- 1- for step command
shows the trajectory for the response to the 1800 step position before
step command
command between points A' and B'. Note on Fig. 8(b) X//N ~-
/
Ll:. a

that the rotor position at point B' is lagging the com- A9ot oj\900 \

mand position by more than 900. At point B', r= 1.84 Rotor initial Rotor final
and the step command for 2700 is applied. Fig. 8(c) position position

shows the trajectory for the response to the 2700 step (a)
command, between points B' and C'. The velocity Usable torque for
of the rotor actually decreases during this step and the acceleration --- T
/D -Developed motor
rotor lags further behind the command position. At Developed motor torque for step
"

torque versus t--Jc command

point C', r = 2.76 and the 3600 step command is applied. position before / M r
step command
Note by examining the isoclines, that had the 3600 step A- ai
command not been applied, the rotor could still have t A3. 69
_9f3
d\0-I
reached the correct command position of 270°. Fig. 8(d) Rotor initial
shows the trajectory for the response to the 360° step position Rotor final
position
command between points C' and D'. Again during the (b)
step the rotor velocity decreases. At point D' the rotor
is approximately 180° behind the command position. T Developed motor torque
Developed motor ~ iTD
However, the rotor can still reach the proper command Developedmtorque
torque versuves,
5 = 0. 707
forstep command
position of 360°. At point D', r = 3.68 and the 450° step position beforeT
step command / /\ step -
comman
L
- No torque available for acceler-
command is applied. Fig. 8(a) shows the response to the 2ation. Motor cannot step.

4500 step command points D' and E'. The rotor is more 45' if 90 Arrows indicate di-
than 1800 behind the command position during the Rotor initial
rection developed
motor torque acts
entire step. Clearly, the motor cannot reach the desired position
command position of 4500. If no further steps are ap- (c)
plied the rotor will come to rest at 0 = 900 or four steps Fig. 9. The effect of load torque on the developed motor torque
behind the desired command position. for a step command. (a) TL = 0. (b) TL = 0.4. (C) TL=0.707.

Failing to Execute the Desired Command

down the step response. With load torque applied, the
In general, the rotor will fail to execute the step initial position of the rotor is determined by the equi-
command if the stepping motor trajectory crosses the librium point of the previous step.
position axis before the desired command position is The previous step command required to reach this
reached. This can only occur if the position of the rotor position is given by
lags the step command by more than 1800. The failure
analysis must be carried out using enough steps to show
that either the motor fails to follow the desired com- sin [0°-0]
LU I = V ~dO + DV. (48)
mand or that it reaches a steady-state condition for the
given command rate. The equilibrium position is given by
Once it is established that it will follow step com-
mands at a given stepping rate, the motor will follow -sin 0 = 0 or 0 = 0°. (49)
the step commands at this rate regardless of the number
of steps applied. Also, once it has been established that Fig. 9(a) shows the developed motor torque when
it cannot follow a step command, the motor will con- TL=O. Assume that the equilibrium position with no
tinue to lose steps. The steps that it loses are applied load torque before the step command is given is 00. This
after the step commands have been completed. This can forms the initial conditions for the next step. Notice that
be accomplished by feedback but introduces more at this position no motor torque is developed. If the
complications [1 ]. rotor is moved about this point the motor develops a
In general, any step sequence or stepping rate can be torque which tends to drive it back to the point of equi-
considered by selecting the proper set of isoclines corre- librium. As the rotor moves toward 900 the amount of
sponding to the step sequence. Thus, any input step available torque is reduced until the 900 position is
sequence from the PM stepping motor can be investi- reached. At this point the developed torque is again 0.
gated by this method. Fig. 9(b) shows the developed motor torque for a
normalized load torque of 0.4. For the previous step, the
Effect of Applied Load Torque on MVotor Performance equilibrium position has shifted 23.6°. This is due to the
The addition of load torque causes an offset in the fact that some motor torque is required to hold the load
equilibrium position of the rotor. Load torque also slows torque. When the rotor reaches equilibrium,

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ROBINSON AND TAFT: ANALYSIS OF MAGNETIC STEPPING MOTORS 123

-sinG = 0.4; e = -23.6°. (50) 1.1

The shifted equilibrium position reduces the amount TL = 0

of motor torque that is available to accelerate the rotor
to the next step. The torque that is available for ac- a;,

celeration is given by cn
\-TL = 0. 2
CL
dV E TL=0.4
cos 0 -TL = V- + DV. (51) E

dO
._

r- TL=0 6
The amount of motor torque available for accelera-
co
E

tion decreases with increasing load torque until T7 /-TL = 0.

-0.707. From Fig. 9(c), for a load torque of 0.707 the ,'
rotor position offset is 45°. When the next step is O ..5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Single step damping ratio,
commanded
aL 1 2 3
4
4
dV Normalized motor damping, D
cos 45°-0.707 = V -+ DV = 0. (52)
dO Fig. 10. Dimensionless parameter curves for the
permanent magnetic stepping motor.
There is no motor torque available to accelerate the
rotor and a step command cannot be accomplished. D (53)
The motor can statically hold a load torque equal in 2JWN
value to the maximum torque of the motor. But the
motor cannot step a load torque that is equal to or Thus, the damping ratio can be lowered by decreasing
greater than 0.707 of the motor's maximum torque. the viscous damping or increasing the motor inertia or
Thus, a normalized load torque greater or equal to the natural frequency. The natural frequency is given by
0.707 will cause the PM stepping motor to fail to re- WN V V/A KTI
spond to a step command. WN = - = | (54)
DIMENSIONLESS CURVES FOR EXPRESSING PMA If the natural frequency of the motor is increased, the
STEPPING MOTOR PERFORMANCE time between steps can be decreased and the maximum
Using the parameters D, r, and TL described earlier, stepping rate can be increased since minimum step
multistep analysis in the phase plane can be used to period is determined by
specify the maximum stepping rate for any given PMI AT = WNAt (55)
stepping motor and desired value of load torque.
The maximum stepping rate is defined as the rate at 1 WN
which the motor can step with a given value of load (56)
'At At
torque and not miss a single step. The PM stepping
motor is assumed to be initially at rest at a point of Thus, for a given load torque, maximum stepping rate
stable equilibrium for the given value of load torque. By is obtained by minimizing the damping ratio and maxi-
determining the maximum stepping rate for various mizing the natural frequency. Fig. 10 also shows that
values of D and TL using phase plane analysis, a set of for a given damping ratio, increasing the load torque
dimensionless curves can be developed to predict maxi- decreases the maximum stepping rate that can be
mum stepping rate. achieved.
Fig. 10 shows the resulting computed dimensionless Since the dimensionless curves assume a constant
curves of maximum stepping rate against damping ratio current source, the maximum stepping rate will be de-
for various load torques. The curves show that for a creased if the motor is driven from a voltage source. The
given value of load torque, the maximum stepping rate stepping rate in this case will be decreased due to the
of a given PM\I stepping motor decreases as the damping stator winding L/R time constant and induced EMF,
ratios increase. This has a direct bearing on the applica- both of which cause the rotor position to further lag
tion of the PM stepping motor to system design. The behind the intended command position.
motion of the PM stepping motor for a single step is
highly underdamped, yielding low values of damping Experimental Verification of the Dimensionless Curves
ratio. The motor can be compensated to obtain a higher Several PM stepping motors were used to experi-
damping ratio and a better single step response. But mentally verify the dimensionless curves. It was as-
raising the value of the damping ratio decreases the sumed tllat the L/R time constant could be neglected
maximum stepping rate that can be obtained. The with small error and the drive circuit could be approxi-
damping ratio is given by mated by a current source.

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124 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, SEPTEMBER 1969

lFr
p
.18
-Experimental results a; A Experimental results
M-
an
c . 6
=3-

Q.
A E
x . 4
E
x
a,
-4 Computed curve
IV
curve for TL = ° la

.N . 2
F-
0

.2 .4 .6 .8
0 1 2 3 4 Normalized load torque
Normalized motor damping, D= 21. Fig. 12. Experimental verification of normalized stepping rate for
Fig. 11. Experimental verification of dimensionless
various values of load torque with D = 0.9.
parameter curves for TL =0.

Fig. 11 shows a comparison of the experimental values

usually highly underdamped. However, the maximum
obtained to the analytically derived values for 7TL=O.
stepping rate curves show that improving the single
step response by adding damping will lower the maxi-
The experimental data shows reasonable agreement with mum stepping rate that can be achieved.
the analytical data.
Finally, the maximum stepping rate was determined
for load torque of 0, 0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 of the PM stepping SYMBOLS
motor stall torque. For a fixed damping ratio and nat- B flux density, tesla
ural frequency, Fig. 12 shows the comparison of the D motor damping, g. cm2/s
experimental data with the corresponding analytical d/dt time rate of change, per seconid
points taken from the dimensionless curves. The results D normalized motor damping
show good agreement. el(t) stator input voltage, phase 1, volts
A\el(t) change in input voltage, phase 1, volts
CONCLUSIONS e2(t) stator input voltage, phase 2, volts
An analysis of the permanent magnet stepping motor Ae2(t) change in stator input voltage, phase 2, volts
can be used to study the effects of inertia, damping, Elo stator input voltage at an operating point, phase
current transients, etc., on the stepping motor response 1, volts
to a single step command. For multiple steps a phase E20 stator input voltage at an operating point, phase
plane analysis allowed the PM stepping motor to be 2, volts
analyzed for failure as a function of applied load torque E, induced EMIF, volts
and stepping rate. The analysis was carried out by as- i1(t) stator current, phase 1, amperes
suming that the stator windings are supplied by a con- Ail (t) change in stator current, phase 1, amperes
stant current drive circuit. Thus, the results represent i2(t) stator current, phase 2, amperes
an upper bound on stepping motor performance. Ai2(t) change in stator current, phase 2, amperes
Based on the phase plane analysis, it was found that I stator current per phase, amperes
the permanent magnet stepping motor cannot respond 110 stator current at an operating point, phase 1,
to a step command wlhen the applied load torque be- amperes
comes greater than 0.707 of the motor's maximum 120 stator current at an operating point, phase 2,
torque. This result was experimentally verified. amnperes
The permanent magnet stepping motor cannot follow hI(S) Laplace transformi of stator current, phase 1,
a sequential set of step commands if, during the se- amperes
quence, the rotor lags the command position by more 12(S) Laplace transformn of stator current, phase 2,
than 1800 (two steps). This result is extended to develop amperes
a set of dimensionless curves which express maximum J motor inertia, g cm2
normalized stepping rate as a function of normalized KU constant relating induced voltage and stator flux
damping and normalized applied load torque. These density, .s/deg.
V
curves allow the maximum stepping rate of a permanent KT inotor torque constant, watts per ampere
magnet stepping motor to be determined from simple L stator inductance per phase, watts
measurements of its parameters or from manufacturer's Al mnagnetic moment, amperes per meter
data. NRT number of rotor teeth
Stepping motor response to a single step command is R stator resistance per phase, ohms
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS AND CONTROL INSTRUMENTATION, VOL. IECI-16, NO. 2, SEPTEMBER 1969 125

S Laplace operation, per second REFERENCES

I time, seconds [1] S. J. Bailey, "Incremental servos. Part I-Stepping vs stepless
TD developed torque, N*m control," Control Engrg., vol. 7, pp. 123-127, November 1960;
"Part 1I-Operation and analysis," vol. 7, pp. 97-102, Decem-
Tmax maximum torque, N nm ber 1960; "Part 111-How they've been used," vol. 8, pp. 85-88,
Tf frictional torque, N m January 1961; "Part IV-Today's hardware," vol. 8, pp. 133-
135, March 1961; "Part V-Interlocking steppers," vol. 8, pp.
T.L load torque, N-m 116-119, May 1961.
Tf normalized frictional torque [2] J. P. O'Donohue, "Transfer function for a stepper motor," Con-
trol Engrg., vol. 8, pp. 103-104, November 1961.
rz normalized load torque [31 R. B. Kieburtz, "The step motor-The next advance in control
V normalized rotor velocity systems," IEEE Trans. Automatic Control, vol. AC-9, pp. 98-
104, January 1964.
damping ratio [4] J. Proctor, "Stepping motors move in," Prod. Engrg., vol. 34,
A change in a variable pp. 74-88, February 4, 1963.
rotor position, degrees, defined as one-fourth rotor [5] A. E. Snowden and E. WV. Madsen, "Characteristics of a syn-
chronous inductor motor," Trans. AIEE (Applications and
tooth pitch equal to 90° Industry), vol. 81, pp. 1-5, March 1962.
0 rotor command position, degrees [6] N. L. Morgan, "Versatile inductor motor used in solving indus-
trial control problems," Plant Engrg., vol. 16, pp. 143-146, June
rotor position at an operation point, degrees
60
1962.
change in rotor position, degrees [7] C. W. Swonger, "Polyphase motors as digital-analog stepping
devices," Data Systems Engrg., vol. 18, pp. 52-56, July-August
T normalized time 1963.
Ar change in normalized time [8] D. J. Robinson, "Dynamic analysis of digital stepping motor
normalized stepping rate actuators," Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, Ohio,
Rept. EDC-7-67-15, 1967.
rotor position in mechanical degrees [9] D. F. Zeller, "Digital control of a stepping motor," M.S. thesis,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 1966.
AO change in rotor position in mechanical degrees [10] D. Graham and D. McRuer, Analysis of Nonlinear Control Sys-
WNV natural frequency, rad/s tems. New York: Wiley, 1961.

The Fundamental Behavior of High-Speed Fuses

for Protecting Silicon Diodes and Thyristors
ERIC JACKS, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE

Abstract-The fundamental problem in applying fuses for the
protection of semiconductor devices is that of ensuring that the fault
energy let-through of the fuse comes within the withstand of the
device under the circumstances in which both are used in service.
Great progress has been made during the last few years towards this
end but more study is urgently needed.
The problems involved are complex because it is necessary to
compare the active and changing state of the fuse (i.e., when inter-
rupting the circuit) against the passive withstand of the device which
must remain unchanged. The successful application of fuses presup-
poses that fuse let-through and device withstand can be expressed in
directly comparable terms. A considerable measure of agreement is
essential between fuse and device designers regarding the conven-
tional terms to be adopted for this purpose.
Since the perfotmance of a fuse depends both on the physical
changes in itself and equally upon the character and behavior of the
circuit under highly transient conditions both aspects require careful
scrutiny in any attempt made to rationalize fuse application data.
Tll HE FUNDA-MENTAL problem in applying fuses
for the protection of semiconductor devices is that
of ensuring that the fault energy let-through of the
anulatnscript received July 29, 1968. This paper was presenited
at the 1968 IEEE International Con-vention, New York, N. Y.
The author is with English Electrjc Fusegear Ltd., Liverpool,
England.
fuse comes within the withstand of the device under all
the circumstances which can arise in service. This pre-
supposes that the behavior of both fuse and the device
are known in like terms over the whole range of duties
likely to be encountered; also, that the circumstances
whiclh occur in service can be predicted with reasonable
certainty. Protection can only be applied to the extent
that the essential parameters and conditions to be met
can be identified and specified in properly related terms.
The degree of protection achievable depends not only
upon the performance of the fuse and of the device it
protects, but also upon the degree to which the perfor-
mance can be expressed in terms which are mutually
meaningful.
The parameters on which semiconductor withstand
is normally compared to fuse let-through are peak cur-
rent, 12t let-through, rate of rise of current (di/dt), and
peak voltage. All these parameters other than di/dt are
functions of the mode of operation of the fuse as well as
of the circuit. Individual circuits are subject to a great
variety of conditions which are in turn imposed upon
tlhe fuse. Particular fuses can also be applied in a great
variety of circuits. Other variables are introduced in

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