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STUDY OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engine is a heat engine that converts chemical energy of a fuel into
mechanical
energy which is made available on a rotating output shaft.
The chemical energy of the fuel is first converted into thermal energy by means of
combustion
inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within
the
combustion chamber and the high pressure gases then expand against the mechanical components of
the
engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating
crankshaft,
which is the output of the engine.
In spark ignition (SI) engines, petrol or gasoline is used as fuel, while in compression ignition (CI)
engines, diesel is used as fuel. Petrol engines are lightweight and achieve higher speed. Diesel engines, on
the other hand, are heavy engines and achieve lesser speeds. Other differences below:
The most prominent difference between Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) engines is the
type of fuel used in each. In SI engines petrol or gasoline is used as fuel, hence these engines are also called
petrol engines. In CI engines diesel is used as fuel, hence they are also called diesel engines.
Here are some other major differences between the SI and CI engines:
1) Type of cycle used: In the case of SI engines, the Otto cycle is used. In this cycle, addition of heat or
fuel combustion occurs at a constant volume. The basis of working of CI engines is the Diesel cycle. In this
cycle the addition of heat or fuel combustion occurs at a constant pressure.
2) Introduction of fuel in the engine: In the case of SI engines, during the piston's suction stroke, a mixture of
air and fuel is injected from cylinder head portion of the cylinder. The air-fuel mixture is injected via the
carburetor that controls the quantity and the quality of the injected mixture. In the case of CI engines, fuel is
injected into the combustion chamber towards the end of the compression stroke. The fuel starts burning
instantly due to the high pressure. To inject diesel in SI engines, a fuel pump and injector are required. In CI
engines, the quantity of fuel to be injected is controlled but the quantity of air to be injected is not controlled.
3) Ignition of fuel: By nature petrol is a highly volatile liquid, but its self-ignition temperature is high. Hence
for the combustion of this fuel a spark is necessary to initiate its burning process. To generate this spark in SI
engines, the spark plug is placed in the cylinder head of the engine. The voltage is provided to the spark plug
either from the battery or from the magneto. With diesel, the self-ignition temperature is comparatively lower.
When diesel fuel is compressed to high pressures, its temperature also increases beyond the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel. Hence in the case of CI engines, the ignition of fuel occurs due to compression of the
air-fuel mixture and there is no need for spark plugs.
4) Compression ratio for the fuel: In the case of SI engines, the compression ratio of the fuel is in the range
of 6 to 10 depending on the size of the engine and the power to be produced. In CI engines, the compression
ratio for air is 16 to 20. The high compression ratio of air creates high temperatures, which ensures the diesel
fuel can self-ignite.
5) Weight of the engines: In CI engines the compression ratio is higher, which produces high pressures inside
the engine. Hence CI engines are heavier than SI engines.
6) Speed achieved by the engine: Petrol or SI engines are lightweight, and the fuel is homogeneously
burned, hence achieving very high speeds. CI engines are heavier and the fuel is burned heterogeneously,
hence producing lower speeds.
7) Thermal efficiency of the engine: In the case of CI engines the value of compression ratio is higher; hence
these engines have the potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency. In the case of SI engines the lower
compression ratio reduces their potential to achieve higher thermal efficiency.
1. INTAKE: this stroke of the piston begins at top dead center. The piston descends from the top of the
cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder, increasing the volume of the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air
is forced by atmospheric (or greater) pressure into the cylinder through the intake port.
2. COMPRESSION: with both intake and exhaust valves closed, the piston returns to the top of the
cylinder compressing the air or fuel-air mixture into the cylinder head.
3. POWER: this is the start of the second revolution of the cycle. While the piston is close to Top Dead
Centre, the compressed air–fuel mixture in a gasoline engine is ignited, by a spark plug in gasoline
engines, or which ignites due to the heat generated by compression in a diesel engine. The resulting
pressure from the combustion of the compressed fuel-air mixture forces the piston back down toward
bottom dead centre.
4. EXHAUST: during the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns to top dead centre while the
exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent fuel-air mixture through the exhaust valve(s). b)
Two stroke engine.
A two-stroke, or two-cycle, engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a power
cycle in only one crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and down movements, of the piston in
comparison to a "four-stroke engine", which uses four strokes. This is accomplished by the end of the
combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happening simultaneously and performing the
intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions at the same time. Two-stroke engines often provide high power-
to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow range of rotational speeds called the "power band". Compared to 4-stroke
engines, they have a greatly reduced number of moving parts, are more compact and significantly lighter. The
first commercial two-stroke engine involving in-cylinder compression is attributed to Scottish engineer Donald
Clerk,
who in 1881 patented his design, his engine having a separate charging cylinder. The crankcase-scavenged
engine, employing the area below the piston as a charging pump, is generally credited to Englishman Joseph
Day.
Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable) applications such as
chainsaws and motorcycles. They are used in diesel compression ignition engines in large and weight
insensitive applications, such as ships, locomotives and electricity generation. The heat transfer from the
engine to the cooling system is less in a two-stroke engine than in a four-stroke. This adds to the overall engine
efficiency. Two-stroke engines have higher exhaust emissions than four-stroke engines.
iii) Based on the shape of cylinder head iv) Based on cylinder arrangement : -
In order to understand the operation, function of the engine, it is very essential that
the
constructional features of the I.C engines are known. The I.C engine produces power with the help of
stationary parts such as cylinder block, crankcase, cylinder head and cylinder liner coupled with
moving parts such as crankshaft, connecting rod, piston, piston rings.
The piston housed by the cylinder is linked to the crankshaft through the connecting rod. The
piston
rotates the crank shaft through the connecting rod. The crank shaft revolves due to the reciprocatory
motion
of the piston. The crankshaft drives the cam shaft. The camshaft operates the valves by means of
cam,
tappet, push rods and rocker arm. The flywheel stores up the energy produced during the power stroke
and
releases the energy during the other strokes.
The cylinder head has passages for circulation of coolant. It supports the valve, spring and
rocker
arm. The head also possesses the inlet & exhaust ports.
iv) Cylinder liners :
The cylinder undergoes wear due to the movement of piston against the cylinder walls. To
prevent
the cylinder from wearing, a cylinder liner is used which can be replaced when it is worn out.
Cylinder
liners are cast centrifugally in the shape of a barrel using a special iron alloy. They can be classified
into
dry and wed type of liners.
v) Piston
The piston reciprocates within the cylinder. Nowadays pistons are manufactured from aluminium
alloys and are made in one piece. The top portion of the piston gets the maximum heat during the
combustion process.
There are piston rings in the piston to prevent any leakage. Suitable grooves are provided on the
piston to fit in the rings. There are holes provided in the piston to house the gudgeon pin and is seated to
accommodate the connecting rod.
vi) Piston rings
a) Compression rings
It is made of cast iron. The rings are installed in the
grooves of the piston. The rings press tightly against the
cylinder wall and therefore the fresh mixture and exhaust
gas cannot pass through the
piston clearance.
b) Oil rings
As the piston reciprocates, it rubs against cylinder wall and causes scratches on the piston
and cylinder wall. To prevent the rubbing, oil is splashed to the cylinder wall through the oil rings.
No of oil rings depends upon the design of the piston.
The poppet valve has its head in the shape of a mushroom and so it is also called mushroom valve.
It
has a head, stem and a spring retainer lock groove.
It is generally manufactured using steel or duraluminum. The top of the connecting rod called the
small end in connected to the piston pin and the bottom end called the big end is fitted to the crank shaft.
ix) Crankshaft.
The crank shaft is made of forged steel. The main parts of the shaft are journals, crankpins, crank
webs. The journals rotate the main bearings. The crank pin rotates the big end bearing of the connecting
rod. The webs join the journal to the crank pin and serve as balance weights. The flywheel is fitted to the
rear end of the crank shaft. A fan pulley is fitted in the front end of the crank shaft. Holes are provided in
the crankshaft from the main bearing journals to the crank pins for the lubricating oil to pass through.
x) Cam shaft.
It is made of forged steel or of cast iron. It has cams
for operating the inlet and exhaust valves against the
pressure of the valve springs. A gear is fitted to one
end of the camshaft to get the drive from crank shaft.
The function of a fuel injection system is to inject proper quantity of fuel in to the engine cylinders
at the correct time and at a pre-determined rate.
Fuel Filter :
The most commonly used primary filter is the wire gauze installed on the suction side of the
feed pump. A better alternative is to use a sedimentation type primary filter. The fuel from the tank
enters the filter and flows around the conical diffuser funnel to accelerate downwards to the
sediments chamber. The secondary filter is installed after the feed pump and it separates out abrasive
particles and any water in the fuel. The fine pores of the filter element retain the abrasive particles and
other solid impurities.
Carburettors
Functions of a carburettor
Types of carburettors
i) Simple Carburettor
ii) Carter Carburettor
iii) Zenith Carburettor
iv) S.U. Carburettor
v) Solex Carburettor
vi) Solex Mikuni double venture carburettor.
Simple Carburettor
The main parts are a float chamber, fuel jet, venture, nozzle and a throttle valve. The needle
valve attached to the float lever serves to close or open the fuel inlet to the float chamber depending
upon the requirements. When the fuel level falls below a definite predetermined value, the float also
falls along with the fuel level, thus opening the passage for the fuel supply. The fuel starts flowing in
and the float rises gradually till the fuel level reaches the desired value. At this time, the float needle
closes the fuel inlet passage. Thus a constant head of fuel is maintained in the float chamber. This
constant level of fuel is slightly below the nozzle outlet, so that the fuel may not drop all the time
from the nozzle, evenwhen the engine is not working. A small vent in the float chamber keeps
the pressure inside is atmospheric. The fuel supply from the float chamber at any time is metered by
means of a fuel jet from where the fuel flows to the venture through the discharge nozzle. The
venture is simply a restriction in the air passage. Thus due to less area, the air velocity increases and
because of this increase in velocity, decrease in pressure is caused at the nozzle which is located in
the venture itself. Due to depression being applied at the nozzle, the fuel comes out and is vaporized
by the coming air stream. The mixture then goes to the inlet manifold, to the engine cylinders. The
amount of fuel delivered depends upon the jet size, float level and venture vacuum. The purpose of a
throttle valve is to control the quantity of air fuel mixture. It is attached to the accelerator pedal by
means of suitable linkage so that when the pedal is depressed the valve opens out.
In this system, there is a separate injector for each cylinder mounted in the inlet port. The
injectors direct fuel onto the back of the valve giving improved mixture preparation and distribution
compared to the conventional single point and carburettor systems. Air metering is controlled by a
throttle body and butterfly valve fitted in the intake manifold.
MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION
For running of a petrol engine fuel should be mixed with air and supplied to the engine cylinders according to
the speed and load conditions. In earlier years this was achieved with the help of carburetors. But in modern
cars fuel injection system is used. It may single point, multi point or direct injection. In single point injection
there will be only one fuel injector placed at the inlet manifold which continuously spays fuel. In direct
injection fuel will be directly injected into the engine cylinder at the proper timing.
Multi point fuel injection or MPFI uses several injectors, normally respective to the number of engine
cylinders and placed in the inlet port of each cylinders.It is to be noted that fuel spaying is taking place out side
of the cylinder at the correct time according to the piston position inside the cylinder.There will be electronic
control unit or ECU which will be receiving feed back from several sensors like engine speed sensor, fly wheel
position sensor, vehicle speed sensor, atmospheric temp. sensor, accelerator pedal position sensor intake
airflow sensor. This ECU will control the correct amount of fuel to be injected and the proper time at which the
fuel will be injected at any speed and load condition. This will ensure maximum power output at minimum
fuel.
IGNITION SYSTEM
Function
The function of the Ignition system is to produce a spark in the engine cylinder towards the end of
the compression stroke.
There are two basic circuits in the system, the primary and the secondary circuit. The battery,
primary winding of the Ignition coil, condenser and the contact breaker form the primary circuit,
whereas the secondary winding of the Ignition coil, the distributor and the spark plugs constitute the
secondary circuit.
When the Ignition switch is in the ‘ON’ position, the current flowing in the primary circuit will
grow exponentially during the make period of the contact breaker. The electromagnetic energy on
account of this build-up of current in the primary circuit is stored in the laminated iron core of the
Ignition coil. As the contact breaker points open, the magnetic field built up by the growth of the
current collapses and the energy stored during the make period is projected into the secondary circuit. It
is this energy which is suddenly passed on to the secondary, inducing an e.m.f there. As the break is
made very sharp, the induced e.m.f. is very large being proportional to the rate of change of flux in the
winding. This self-induction effect is combined with the transformer step-up action of the Ignition coil.
As a result a sudden voltage surge of very high amplitude is produced in the secondary causing a spark
to occur at the spark plug electrodes.
ii)Magneto Ignition System
In the magneto ignition system, it is the magnet which produces and supplies the current in
the primary winding. The other parameters are same as that of battery coil ignition system.
The magneto ignition system is of two types.
a) Rotating Armature type.
b) Rotating Magnet type.
a) Larger armature may be provided, which means more space for insulation.
b) No centrifugal stresses occur in the windings, because these remain stationary.
c) Contact breaker and condenser are also stationary.
COOLING SYSTEM
Introduction
All the heat produced by the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinder is not converted into
useful
power at the crank shaft. It is seen that the quantity of heat given to the cylinder wall is considerable and
if
this heat is not removed from the cylinders it would result in pre-ignition of the charge. In addition,
the
lubricant would also burn away, thereby causing the seizing of the piston. Excess heating will also
damage
the cylinder material. Keeping the above factors in view, it is observed that suitable means must
be
provided to dissipate the excess heat from the cylinder walls, so as to maintain the temperature
below
certain limits. However, cooling beyond optimum limits is not desirable because it decreases the
overall
efficiency of the engine.
Methods of Cooling
i) Air Cooling
ii) Water Cooling
a) Thermo syphon System of cooling
b) Pump circulation system.
i) Radiator.
The function of the radiator is to ensure close contact of the hot coolant coming out of
the
engine with outside air, so as to ensure high rates of heat transfer from the coolant to air.
A
radiator consists of an upper tank, core and the lower tank. Besides, an overflow pipe in
the
upper tank and drain pipe in the lower tank are provided. Hot coolant from the engine enters
the
radiator at the top and is cooled by the cross flow of air, while flowing down the radiator.
The
coolant collects in the collector tank from where it is pumped to the engine for cooling.
atmosphere through the overflow pipe. On the other hand if due to any reason a vacuum
is
created inside, the vacuum valve operates to avoid collapse of the radiator.
iii) Thermostat
To keep a rigid control over the cooling, a thermostat is used, which automatically keeps
the
cooling water temperature at a pre-determined value. Moreover, it also helps the engine to reach
the operating temperature as soon as possible after starting.
Two types of thermo stats are used in automobiles
a) Bellows or aneroid type.
b) Wax or hydrostatic type.
A coolant pump is a necessity for the forced circulation type of engine cooling system.
The
pump is mounted at the front end of the engine and is driven from the crank shaft by means of
a v-belt. Centrifugal type pump is the one which is used for this purpose. The coolant from the
radiator enters the pump at the centre where inlet is located. The flow of the coolant depends
upon the pump speed which is proportional to engine speed. The main parts of the pump are
casing and a shaft – mounted impeller having number of vanes. The impeller shaft is mounted on
bearing while the seal serves to prevent the leakage of coolant around the shaft.
v) Fan
When the vehicle is going at high speed with light load, the natural draft of air passing
through the radiator may be sufficient for cooling of the engine, but when the vehicle is moving
under heavy load and at a slow speed, the natural draft is certainly insufficient to produce the
desired cooling. That is why fan is a necessary part of the cooling system. It is mounted behind
the radiator on the same shaft on which the water pump is mounted. It is driven by a v-belt from
the crankshaft pulley. It may have four to seven blades, sometimes spaced unevenly to reduce
noise. It is generally made of sheet metal, but these days moulded plastic materials are being used
for making fans.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Introduction
Lubrication circuit is one of the most important ones in the engine. The engine cannot run
smoothly for more than a few minutes without lubricating oil.
Functions of Lubrication
i) It reduces the friction between moving parts & so that power loss in minimum.
ii) It reduces wear of the moving parts.
iii) It provides cooling effect.
iv) It provides cushioning effect.
v) It provides cleaning action.
vi) It provides sealing action.
The various systems adopted for the lubrication of automobile engines are
i) Petroil System.
ii) Splash System.
iii) Pressure System.
iv) Dry-Sump System.
i) Oil Strainers.
Oil strainer is attached at the inlet of the oil pump to guard it against the entry of grit etc.
The strainer is made of ordinary wire mesh screen. A good practice is to install a floating strainer,
which is hinged to the oil pump inlet. The floating strainer remains at the surface of the oil, whereas
the grit,dust etc., remains at the bottom of the crankcase. The result is that very small amount of
impurities goes to the strainer screen and hence the chances of it being blocked up are minimised.
Next to oil strainer in the lubrication system sequence, comes the pump. Its function is to
supply oil under pressure to the various engine parts. The oil pump is generally located inside
the crankcase below the oil level.
The pump is usually driven from the end of the distributor shaft, which gets its drive from
the camshaft through a skew gear if a low-mounted camshaft is employed. In some automobile
engines mounted transversely, the oil pump is driven directly from the camshaft end through a
coupling, since no separate shaft is required, this is a compact arrangement. The oil pressure in the
engine increases with the increase in engine speed which would increase the pump speed.The size
of the pump should be sufficient to maintain the desired pressure with reasonable amount of wear.
The different types of pumps used are.
a) Gear Pump.
b) Vane Pump.
c) Rotor Pump.
d) Plunger Pump.
The lubricating oil with use is deteriorated resulting in the formation of sludge, lacquer and
carbon. Further it is contaminated by various by-products of combustion of fuel. In addition to
these the fine particles of metal due to wear are the other impurities present in the oil. It is
therefore necessary to remove these impurities to avoid permanent damage to any running parts of
the engine. Commonly used materials for filtering are wire gauze, cotton, plastic – impregnated
paper etc. The filtering element must let the oil pass through without much resistance, but should
prevent the undesirable particles from entering the oil gallerie
Oil filters are basically of two types, the primary and the secondary, the primary filter is also
called as surface filter or strainer since the impurities are retained on the outer surface of the
filter. The secondary filters used in the automobile engines are of various kinds.
a) Cartridge Type.
b) Edge Type.
c) Centrifugal Type.
In all heavy duty engines, the temperature of oil becomes quite high because of high engine
temperature. As the viscosity of the lubricating oil decreases with temperature rise, the oil film
in the bearings might break and the conditions of boundary lubrication may be created instead
of fluid lubrication which is desired. To avoid such thing oil coolers are provided. Oil coolers
are simple heat exchangers.
If any leakage occurs at any part of the lubrication system, the pressure in the entire system
would fall, reducing consequently the oil supply to various bearings as a result of which they
are bound to starve and be damaged. Thus is very important for the driver to keep a watch on
the oil pressure in the gauge. The gauges generally are bourdon type or electrical type.
Methods of Braking
i) Mechanical Braking.
ii) Hydraulic Braking.
iii) Electric Braking.
iv) Vacuum Braking.
v) Air Braking.
Components of Hydraulic Braking
The two main components of the hydraulic braking system are master & wheel cylinder
i) Master Cylinder
In can be rightly named as the heart of the hydraulic braking system. It contains the reservoir for
the brake fluid. It is operated by the brake pedal and is further connected to the wheel cylinders in each
wheel through steel pipe lines, unions and flexible hoses.
There are two main chambers. One is the fluid reservoir and the other is the compression chamber
in which the piston operates. The fluid in the reservoir compensates for any change in the fluid
volume in the pipelines.
These are a number of holes in the piston head on the high pressure side. Two holes connect the
fluid reservoir to the compression chamber. The push rod is operated with the foot brake pedal through
linkage. As the pedal is pressed, push rod moves the piston to the left against the force of the spring,
till it covers the bypass port. Further movement of the push rod causes building up of pressure in the
compression chamber. Finally when sufficient pressure has builtup, the inner rubber cup of the fluid
check valve is deflected, forcing the fluid under pressure in the lines. This fluid enters the wheel
cylinder and moves the pistons there by applying the brakes.
Wheel cylinders.
They are meant to force the brake shoes against the drum. Each wheel cylinder is provided with
pistons, rubber seal, springs and dust covers. The brake line from the master cylinder is attached to the
inlet port and a bleeder screw with a cover is provided to bleed air from the system. Wheel cylinders
are mounted on the back plate.
When brakes are applied the fluid under pressure from the master cylinder enters the inlet port and
forces the piston to move outwards to push the shoes against the drum. Similarly when the brakes are
released, the brake shoe retractor springs force the brake fluid out of the wheel cylinder by pushing the
piston inwards.
Assembling Procedure
i) Fit the retractor spring and the wheel cylinders appropriately.
ii) Mount the brake drum over the brake shoe assembly and tighten the lock nuts.
iii) Fit the linkages from the master cylinder to the wheel cylinders including the rubber hoses.
iv) Fill the reservoir of the master cylinder with the brake fluid and remove any air present inside the
cylinder.
v) Fit the master cylinder and connect the push rod of the cylinder to the corresponding link of the
brake pedal.
vi) Finally ensure proper working of the brake system.
STUDY OF MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Automotive
Engine Systems & Sub Systems.
Theory:
Both are internal combustion engines. The difference is that Diesel engine is CI (compression Ignition) and
petrol is SI (Spark Ignition). In a petrol engine spark is used to initiate the ignition of the petrol air mixture. In a diesel
engine the Air is compressed to 21 times its normal volume (Approx) and then fuel is injected into the Cylinder head/ or
piston, due to the high compression the temperature rises and as fuel is injected it ignites.
Both diesel and petrol engines may be 2 stroke or 4 stroke engines. In 2 stroke cycle engine: The engine
revolves once (two strokes of the piston, one down, one up) for a complete cycle of the engine. Whereas in 4-stroke
cycle engine: Each complete cycle of the engine involves four strokes of the piston, a down, an up, a down, and an up
stroke for each complete cycle of the engine (which is two revolutions of the engine).
A single cylinder four-stroke piston engine spends three quarters of its running time exhausting burned gas,
drawing in fresh mixture and compressing it. On only one of the four strokes the power stroke is any energy produced
and this makes the output of a single cylinder four stroke engine very uneven. This can be smoothed out if more
cylinders, with their pistons driving a common crank shaft, are used. A twin-cylinder four stroke, for instance, will
produce one power stroke for each revolution of the crank shaft, instead of every other revolution as on a single cylinder
engine. If the engine has four cylinders it produces one power stroke for each half-turn of the crankshaft and at no time
is the crankshaft free wheeling’ on one of the three passive strokes. Even better results can be obtained using six
cylinders, as the power strokes can be made to overlap, so that the crankshaft receives a fresh impulse before the
previous power stroke has died away on an in-line six-cylinder engine the crankshaft receives three power impulses each
revolution. In theory, the more cylinders you can use to drive the crank- shaft, the smoother the power output, and 8 and
12 cylinder engines are used on some of the more expensive cars. A large number of cylinders can pose practical
problems. An engine with eight cylinders in a straight line for instance would have a very long crank- shaft which would
tend to twist and be more likely to break at higher engine speeds. The car would also need a long bonnet to enclose the
engine. So in the interests of crank- shaft rigidity and compactness, 8 and 12 cylinder engines have their cylinders
arranged in a V, with two cylinder heads and a common crankshaft. There are also V-6 and V-4 cylinder engines.
Working Principle and Operation of 2-Stroke (S.I) Engines: In a 2-Stroke engine, the filling process is accompanied
by the change compressed in a crank case or by a blower. The induction of compressed charge moves out the product of
combustion through exhaust ports. Therefore, no piston stroke is required. Out of these 2-strokes, one stroke is for
compression of fresh charge and second for power stroke. The charge conducted into the crank case through the spring
loaded valve when the pressure in the crank case is reduced due to upward motion of piston during the compression
stroke. After the compression & ignition expansion takes place in usual way. During the expansion stroke the charge in
crankcase is compressed. Near the end of the expansion stroke, the piston uncovers the exhaust ports and the cylinder
pressure drops to atmosphere pressure as combustion produced leave the cylinder.
Working Principle and Operation of Four Stroke (C.I.) Engine: In four strokes C.I. Engine compression ratio is
from 16 to 20. During suction stroke air is inducted. In C.I. engines high pressure. Fuel pump and injectors are provided
to inject the fuel into combustion chamber and ignition chamber system is not necessary. During suction stroke, air is
inducted through inlet valve. During Compression stroke the air inducted is compressed into the clearance volume.
During Expansion stroke the fuel injection starts nearly at the end of the compression stroke. The rate of injection is
such that the combustion maintains the pressure constant inspired of piston movement on its expansion stroke increasing
the volume. After injection of fuel, the products of combustion chamber expand. During Exhaust stroke the piston
traveling from BQC to TDC pushes out the products of combustion out of cylinder.
Fig: 4 stroke diesel engine
Construction Details:
Cylinder is a cylindrical vessel in which a piston makes up and down motion. Piston is a cylindrical component making
up and down movement in the cylinder. Combustion Chamber is the portion above the cylinder in which the combustion
of the Fuel-air mixture takes place. Inlet and Exhaust valves, the inlet valves allow the fresh fuel-air mixture to enter the
combustion chamber and the exhaust valve discharges the products of combustion. Crank Shaft is a shaft which converts
the reciprocating motion of piston into the rotary motion. Connecting Rod connects the Piston with the crankshaft. Cam
shaft controls the opening and closing of inlet and Exhaust valves. Fuel Injector is located at the top of head to inject the
fuel into the combustion chamber.
Engine Cooling Systems: The cooling system removes excess heat to keep the inside of the engine at an efficient
temperature, about 200oF (94oC). There are two types of cooling systems found on automotives, they are liquid cooling
system and air cooling system.
Engine Lubricating Systems: The engine lubrication system includes the lubricating oil, oil pump, oil filter and the oil
passages. Oil lubrication provides a barrier between rotating engine parts to prevent damage by friction. The engine oil
provides a method of cooling engine parts that are not cooled by the engine cooling system. Engine oil helps to protect
engine components from corrosion by neutralizing harmful chemicals that are the by-product of combustion.
(c) Engine starting Systems: The "starting system", the heart of the electrical system in the engine. The starting system
converts electrical energy from the batteries into mechanical energy to turn the engine over.
Construction, Working Principle and Operation of Engine starting System: Engine starting system, begins with the
Battery. The key is inserted into the Ignition Switch and then turned to the start position. A small amount of current then
passes through the Neutral Safety Switch to a Starter Relay or Starter Solenoid which allows high current to flow
through the Battery Cables to the Starter Motor. The starter motor then cranks the engine so that the piston, moving
downward, can create a suction that will draw a Fuel/Air mixture into the cylinder, where a spark created by the Ignition
System will ignite this mixture. If the Compression in the engine is high enough and all this happens at the right Time,
the engine will start.
The starting system has five main components: the ignition switch or start button, a neutral safety switch (an option on
some vehicles), the starter solenoid, the starter motor, and the batteries.
When the key is turned in the ignition switch to the start position, or the start button is pushed, electricity flows from the
batteries to the starter solenoid. Some vehicles are equipped with a neutral safety switch. If the vehicle is in gear when
the key is turned, the neutral safety switch blocks the signal to the batteries, so the engine doesn't start cranking.
Otherwise, the vehicle could jump forward or backward when the key is turned. The starter solenoid is an
electromagnetic switch mounted on the starter motor. When coils inside the solenoid are energized by electricity, they
create a magnetic field which attracts and pulls a plunger. Attached to one end of this plunger is a shift lever. The lever is
connected to the drive pinion and clutch assembly of the starter motor. The starter motor is a small but powerful electric
motor that delivers a high degree of power for a short period of time. When the starter motor is energized it engages the
flywheel ring gear and produces torque, which turns the flywheel and cranks the engine. When the driver releases the
ignition switch from the start position to the run position, the solenoid is deactivated. Its internal return springs cause the
drive pinion to be pulled out of mesh with the flywheel, and the starter motor stops.
(d) Contact Point & Electronic Ignition Systems: An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture. There
are two common ignition types associated with automotive engines, they are contact points and fully electronic. For
many years, the contact point ignition was the favored system to control the timing of the ignition spark. However, as
electronics in general became more reliable and less costly to produce, manufacturers turned to full electronic systems
cutting out the mechanical contact points.
5. An ignition coil
6. A spark plug
The job of the ignition system is to supply a spark at the correct time within the cylinder. The distributor cam is a part of,
or is attached to, the distributor shaft and has one lobe for each cylinder. As the cam rotates with the shaft at one half of
engine speed, the lobes cause the contact points to open and close the primary circuit. The contact points, also called
breaker points, act like spring-loaded electrical switches in the distributor. Its function is to cause intermittent
current flow in the primary circuit, thus causing the magnetic field in the coil to build up and collapse when it
reaches maximum strength. Wires from the condenser and ignition coil primary circuit connect to the points. The
condenser, also known as a capacitor, is wired in parallel with the contact points and grounded through the
distributor housing. The condenser prevents arcing or burning at the distributor contact points when the points are
first open. The condenser provides a place where current can flow until the contact points are fully open. With the
engine running, the distributor shaft and distributor cam rotate. This action causes the distributor cam to open and
close the contact points. With the contact points wired to the primary windings of the ignition coil, the contact
points make and break the ignition coil primary circuit. With the contact points closed, the magnetic field
builds up in the coil. As the points open, the magnetic field collapses and voltage is sent to the spark plugs.
With the distributor operating at one half of engine speed and with only one cam for each engine cylinder, each spark
plug only fires once during a complete revolution of the distributor cam. To ensure that the contact points are closed
for a set time, point dwell, also known as cam angle, is set by using a dwell meter. Point dwell is the amount of
time given in degrees of distributor rotation that the points remain closed between each opening. A dwell period is
required to assure that the coil has enough time to build up a strong magnetic field. If the point dwell is too small,
the current will have insufficient time to pass through the primary windings of the ignition coil, resulting in a
weak spark. However, if the point dwell is too great, the contact points will not open far enough, resulting in
arcing or burning of the points.
The spark must be sufficiently strong enough to jump a gap at the spark plug electrodes. To achieve this, the voltage
must be increased considerably from the motorcycle’s electrical system (6 or 12 volts) to around 25,000 volts at the
plug. To achieve this increase in voltage, the system has two circuits: the primary and the secondary. In the primary
circuit, the 6 or 12 volt power supply charges the ignition coil. During this phase the contact points are closed. When the
contact points open, the sudden drop in power supply causes the ignition coil to release stored energy in the form of the
increased high voltage. The high voltage current travels along a lead (HT lead) to a plug cap before entering the spark
plug via the central electrode. A spark is created as the high voltage jumps from the central electrode to the ground
electrode.
Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Automotive Engine Systems & Sub Systems is completed.
Date :
Aim :
To dismantle, Study and assemble the given four stroke, Multi – Cylinder petrol engine.
Tools Required
i) Double end spanner.
ii) Socket Spanner.
iii) Screw Driver
iv) Extension rod.
v) Vernier Calliper.
vi) Telescopic Gauge.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the crank shaft pulley and the timing gear set up. Notice that you have marked the reference
point.
ii) Remove the rocker cover
iii) Remove the inlet manifold from the cylinder head. The carburettor along with the air filter
should also be removed.
iv) Remove the exhaust manifold from the cylinder head.
v) Remove the rocker arm assembly and the push rods.
vi) Dismount the cylinder head after removing the lock nuts.
vii) Tilt the engine and then remove the crank case and the oil pump. Make sure you have drained
the oil completely before removing the crank case.
viii) Remove the connecting rod big end cap and its bearing.
ix) Remove the piston along with the connecting rod.
x) Remove the oil and compression rings from the piston.
xi) Remove the crankshaft main bearing and pull out the crankshaft.
xii) Remove the camshaft finally.
Study
i) The engine is a 4 – Cylinder, In 4stroke line type engine.
ii) The arrangement of valves is over head valve type.
iii) The type of cooling is water cooled.
iv) The type of lubrication in pressure lubrication.
v) The crankshaft has got three main bearings.
Assembling Procedure.
i) Fit the crankshaft and cam shaft along with its bearings.
ii) Neatly clean the rings and lubricate them with grease before placing them in the groove of the
piston.
iii) Fit the piston along with the connecting rod within the cylinder block.
iv) Fit the big end of the connecting rod and tighten the lock nuts appropriately.
v) Fit in the crank case and fill them with the oil.
vi) Mount the cylinder head suitably and tighten the lock nuts.
vii) Appropriately fit in the push rod and the rocker arm assembly.
viii) Fit the exhaust and the intake manifold along with the accessory components.
ix) Mount the rocker cover and tighten the lock nuts.
x) Finally position the timing gear according to the reference point and fit it.
xi) Fit the pulley and tighten them correspondingly.
Result :
Thus the given 4stroke, 4Cylinder Petrol engine was dismantled, studied, measurements and
assembled.
Aim :
To dismantle, study and assemble the given multicylinder diesel engine.
Tools Required
i) Double end spanner.
ii) Ring spanner.
iii) Screw Driver & Hammer.
iv) Telescopic gauge.
v) Vernier Calliper.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the crank shaft pulley along with the timing gear. Make sure you have marked the
reference point.
ii) Remove the rocker cover
iii) Dismount the intake manifold and its accessories. Remove the fuel injector along with the pump.
iv) Remove the exhaust manifold.
v) Remove the cylinder head by unlocking the lock nuts. Before doing so, ensure that you have
removed the valves along with the rocker arm assembly and the pushrods.
vi) Remove the crankcase and drain the oil.
vii) Remove the connecting rod big end cap
viii) Remove the piston along with the connecting rod.
ix) Remove the piston rings along with the circlips.
x) Remove the crankshaft bearings and pull out the crank shaft.
xi) Remove the camshaft as well.
Study :
i) The given engine is a 4cylinder, 4stroke InLine vertical type engine.
ii) The engine is watercooled and is pressure lubricated.
iii) The fuel is directly injected (DI injection). Naturally aspirated.
iv) Valve arrangement is over head valve type.
Assembling Procedure
i) Fit the crank shaft and the cam shaft assembly in the corresponding space provided in the block.
ii) Carefully insert the piston along with the connecting rod. Note that you have properly cleaned and
lubricated the rings before assembling.
iii) Fit the connecting rod big end cap and tighten the lock nut.
iv) Fit in the crankcase along with the lubricating oil.
v) Mount the cylinder head and tighten the lock nuts.
vi) Place the push rods, rocker arm assembly and the valves correspondingly.
vii) Mount the intake and exhaust manifold respectively.
viii) Fit the fuel injection system along with the injector.
ix) Fit the rocker cover and tighten the lock nut.
x) Fit the crankshaft pulley along with the timing gear set up based on the reference point.
Result :
Thus the given multi – cylinder diesel engine is dismantled, studied, measurements and assembled.
Ex No:
Date:
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Fuels supply
systems.
Apparatus: Models of
(a) Carburetors
(b) Diesel Fuel Injection Systems
(c) Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems.
Theory:
(a) Carburetors: A carburetor is a mechanical device on an internal combustion engine, for the purpose of mixing air
and gasoline into a combustible fine vapor, in automatically changing proportions, depending on the operating
conditions of the engine. As an example, an engine that runs continually at one speed, day in and day out has need only
for a carburetor of the simplest construction. One that has only to mix air and gasoline in one fixed ratio. However, when
the demands of the engine are changed and it is desirable to run it at variable speeds, the carburetor must mix air and
gasoline in different proportions and therefore, its construction must be more complex.
A carburetor is a tube attached to the intake port of the engine and open to the atmosphere. On the intake stroke a
volume with little to no pressure develops in the combustion chamber. As a result air flows from outside to inside the
engine. As the air flows through the carburetor, the fuel is metered, atomized and vaporized. To have available fuel, the
carburetor must have a source of fuel. In the float type carburetor this source is the fuel bowel. A pressure difference is
also needed to cause the fuel to flow from the fuel bowel into the air stream. This is accomplished using a venturi,
Bernoulli’s principle and a tube connecting the mouth of the venture to the fuel bowel.
This is a functioning carburetor and it will operate an engine as long as it has a constant load and constant speed. Very
few engines operate at a constant load and constant speed. To adjust the rate of fuel flow a throttle is used. When the
throttle is in the closed position there is minimum air flow through the carburetor. When the throttle is in the wide open
position, there is maximum air flow through the carburetor. To provide a means to adjust maximum fuel flow, a needle
valve was added to the orifice in the emulsion tube. A carburetor with this design would function well under varying
loads and speeds. Starting is a different condition; an engine needs a richer fuel-air mixture. This was accomplished by
adding a choke. Closing the choke increases the pressure difference between the fuel bowel and the venturi. Once engine
starts the choke must be opened to prevent the engine from running too rich. The addition of a choke/primer improved
engine starting, but this carburetor still has a problem if the engine needs to idle. When the throttle is in the idle position,
almost closed, the area with greatest restriction, and greatest pressure difference, moves from the venturi to the area
between the throttle plate and the wall of the tube. This problem was solved with the addition of an idle circuit and idle
needle valve. To have constant fuel flow with constant pressure difference the lift, distance from the top of the fuel to the
top of the main nozzle, must remain constant. A constant level of fuel is maintained in the fuel bowel by the float, float
needle valve and float needle valve seat.
Fig: Carburetor Operation
Ex No:
Date:
Diesel Fuel Injection Systems: The injection system in diesel engines can be of two types as air injection and
airless injection. In air injection system the diesel is injected along with the compressed air whereas in
airless injection system only the liquid diesel is injected into the cylinder.
A fuel tank is used for storage. The feed pump is used to feed the fuel to filter where fuel can be filtered. A fuel injection
pump is used to supply precisely metered quantity of diesel under high pressure to the injectors at well timed instants. A
fuel injector is used to inject the fuel in the cylinder in atomized form and in proper quantity. Main components
of fuel injectors are nozzle, valve, body and spring. The nozzle is its main part which is attached to the nozzle holder.
Entry of fuel in the injector is from the fuel injection pump. Diesel injector nozzles are spring-loaded closed valves that
spray fuel directly into the combustion chamber. Injector nozzles are threaded into the cylinder head, one for each
cylinder. The top of the injector nozzle has many holes to deliver an atomized spray of diesel fuel into the cylinder.
(c) Gasoline Fuel Injection Systems: A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to
spray fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with the correct air-fuel mixture
for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor, however, pressure, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the
engine. This makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.
A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel system. Some advantages
are as follows:
1. Improved atomization: Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure that helps break fuel droplets into
a fine mist.
2. Better fuel distribution: Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
3. Smoother idle: Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of better fuel distribution and low-
speed atomization.
5. Better old weather drivability: Injection provides better control of mixture enrichment than a carburetor.
6. Increased engine power: Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air flow can result in more
horsepower output.
7. Fewer parts: Simpler, late model, electronic fuel injection system has fewer parts than modern computer-
controlled carburetors.
There are many types of gasoline injection systems. Before studying the most common ones, you should have a basic
knowledge of the different classifications:
1. Single- or Multi-Point Injection
2. Indirect or Direct Injection
The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system. A single-point injection system,
also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector nozzles in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is
sprayed into the top center of the intake manifold.
A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel passage) going to each
cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each intake valve. Thereby, the term
multipoint (more than one location) fuel injection is used.
An indirect injection system sprays fuel into the engine intake manifold. Most gasoline injection systems are of this
type. Direct injection forces fuel into the engine combustion chambers. Diesel injection systems are direct type. So,
Gasoline electronic Direct Injection System is classified as multi-point and direct injection systems.
Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Fuels supply systems is completed.
STUDY AND MEASUREMENT OF LIGHT AND HEAVY COMMERCIAL
VEHICLE FRAME
Ex No :
Date :
Aim :
To study about various features and measure the various dimensions of the given chassis.
Tools Required
i) Light vehicle chassis and heavy vehicle chassis.
ii) Measuring tape.
iii) Wheel alignment machine.
Procedure
i) Study the layout of drive employed in vehicle
ii) Check whether it is of connectional frame construction or integral type. Draw the frame construction
including the details where the slide members have bean jointed with cross members, the position of
axles and location of suspension attachment. Draw the cross section of members of frame and measure
the dimension of it.
iii) Identify the type of clutch and gear box used in the vehicle
iv) Identify the suspension type whether it is of rigid axel suspension or independent suspension. Find out
the type of suspension fitted in the front and rear of vehicle
v) Identify the type of rear axle drive whether it is made up of one or two universal joints ,One or two
pieces propeller shaft with rear or without slip joint etc. The type of rear axle housing and the type of
rear axle employed.
vi) Identify the details of steering system including the type of steering box used. Its linkage etc.
vii) Identify the braking system and type brake used in vehicle.
viii) Identify the type of wheels and tyres fitted
.
ix) The steering geometry can be obtained by the procedure as described below before measuring it
is advisable to set that.
xi) Front wheels are true running and wheel bearing are properly adjusted.
xii) Tyres are inflated as specified.
xiii) Front suspension spring are properly scatted and ball joints are not excessively loose.
xiv) The vehicle is in the laden or un laden as recommended by the manufactories.
xv) As far as possible the surface over which the vehicle being checked should be per fatly used.
xvi) Measure the wheel base, wheel track, overall length, maximum width, overall height, ground
clearance front overhang rear, over hang etc. Using measuring tape.
Exp; fig1,2,3
Heavy duty commercial vehicle frame;
a) Maximum breadth-1
3
b) Maximum breadth-2
a) Diagonal length-1
4
b) Diagonal length-2
a) Wheel track-1
5.
b) Wheel track-2
Light duty commercial vehicle frame;
Result;
The various features of the chassis are studied and its dimensions have been measured.
Ex : No :
Date :
Aim :
To dismantle, study and assemble the given front axle.
Tools Required.
i) Double end Spanner.
ii) Ring Spanner.
iii) Socket with extension.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screw driver.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the steering knuckle arm joint.
ii) Remove the wheel bearing.
iii) Remove the brake shoe assembly.
iv) With the use of king pin remover, remove the king pin.
v) Finally remove the steering knuckle.
Study :
Conventionally the front axle is a dead axle. However for four wheel drive vehicles and most of the
cars, it is a live axle. The majority of front axles have steel I – beam for the main member. Front axle
consists of a beam, which extends across the underside of the vehicle for almost the entire width of the
tread.
Swivelling device is attached to both ends of this beam. The beam is attached to the vehicle frame by
means of springs. The swivelling device is called steering knuckle. The steering knuckle is attached to the
beam by means of kingpins.
Components of front Axle
Type of stub Axles
Elliot Axle.
In the Elliot axle, each end of the main beam is open to form a CShaped yoke. The steering
knuckle fits between the upper arms of this yoke. The king pin extends through the upper arm of this yoke
through the knuckle and in to the lower arm of the yoke. Usually the king pin is secured in the steering
knuckle so that when the knuckle swivels, the king pin turns in the yoke.
Reverse Elliot Axle :
In reverse Elliot axle, the yoke is a part of the steering knuckle and fits over the end of the axle.
The king pin is secured in a vertical hole through the end of the axle beam and the knuckle swivels on it.
Steering knuckles :
The steering knuckle consists of a spindle for the wheel, devices for attaching the unit to the main
beam or axle and an arm for holding the knuckle in any desired position in its swing or travel.
Steering knuckle arm
The steering knuckle arm is a lever for swivelling the knuckle. One end of the arm is secured to
the knuckle. The free end of the arm is made with either a ball or a hole for attaching the rod.
Assembling Procedure
i) Carefully position the steering knuckle.
ii) Fit the king pin appropriately in the steering knuckle.
iii) Mount the brake shoe assembly in the position appropriately.
iv) Fit the wheel bearings.
v) Connect the steering knuckle arm to the tie rod assembly.
Aim:
To dismantle, Study and assemble the given rear axle.
Tools Required
i) Double end spanner.
ii) Socket with extension
iii) Ring spanner.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screw driver.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the wheel bearing.
ii) Remove the brake drum from the brake assembly unit.
iii) Remove the brake shoe assembly.
iv) Remove the taper bearings of the half axle Shafts.
v) Pull the half axle shafts that are splined to the sun gear of the final drive unit.
Study :
The rear wheels are mounted on bearings on the ends of the axle shaft. There are two half
shafts. Various forces and torques experienced by the rear axle are.
i) Weight of the body.
ii) Driving thrust.
iii) Torque reaction.
iv) Side thrust.
There are two rear axle drives. In all the drives employed for near axle, the springs take the weight of
the body. The drives are i) Hotchkiss Drive ii) Torque Tube drive.
Types of Rear Axle Shaft support
i) Semi – Floating axle.
The wheel hub is directly connected to the axle shaft or is an extension of the same. The inner end of
the axle is splined and is supported by the final drive unit, whereas the outer end is supported by a single
bearing inside the axle casing. In this all the loads listed above are taken by the axle shaft, the vehicle load
is transmitted to each of the half shafts through the casing and the bearing. This causes a bending load and
a tendency to shear.
ii) Fully – Floating axle.
The axle shafts have flanges at the outer ends, which are connected to the flanged sleeve by means of
bolts. There are two taper roller bearings supporting the axle casing in the hub, which take up any side
load. Thus is this case the axle carries only the driving torque.
Assembling Procedure
i) Insert the half axle shafts such that the inner end is keyed to the sun gear of the final drive unit.
ii) Fit the taper roller bearing in the appropriate position within the housing of the axle casing.
iii) Fit in the brake shoe assembly.
iv) Fit in the wheel bearing and complete the assembly process.
Result :
Thus the given rear axle is dismantled, stud ied and asse
Aim :
To dismantle, Study and assemble the given differential unit.
Tools Required.
i) Double end spanner
ii) Socket with extension
iii) Ring spanner.
iv) Hammer.
v) Screw driver.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the two half axle shafts of the rear axle.
ii) Remove the crown wheel with the differential assembly.
iii) Disconnect the differential assembly from the crown wheel by removing the mounting bolts.
iv) Finally remove the sun gear, planet pinion and cross pin or spider from the differential
assembly.
Study
To the crown wheel of the final drive is attached a cage, which carries a cross pin or a spider. Two
sun gears mesh with the two or four planet pinions. Axle half shafts are splined to each of these gears.
The crown wheel is free to rotate on the half shaft.
When the vehicle is going straight, the cage and the inner gears rotate as a single unit and the two half
shafts revolve at the same speed. In this situation there is no relative movement among the various
differential gears.
When the vehicle is taking a turn, assume that the cage is stationary. Then turning one sun gear will cause
particular time, the right sun gear will also rotate ‘n’ times in the same period but in the opposite
direction. This rotation is super – imposed on the normal wheel speed when the vehicle is taking a turn.
Assembling Procedure
i) Assemble the differential unit by keeping all the planet pinions in the cross pin and by
positioning the sun gears in the cage.
ii) Fit the differential unit with the crown wheel by tightening the mounting bolts.
iii) Assemble the crown wheel with the differential unit in the rear axle and ensure that the crown
wheel tooth meshes with the pinion teeth.
iv) Finally the two half shafts of the rear axles are positioned and checked for proper working
conditions.
Result :
Thus the given differential unit is dismantled, studied and assembled,
STUDY DISMANTLING AND ASSEMBLING OF CLUTCH.
Apparatus: Models of
(a) Coil-Spring Clutch
(b) Diaphragm – Spring Clutch.
(c) Double Disk Clutch.
Theory:
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the driven shaft may be started
or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus provides an interruptible connection between two
rotating shafts. Clutches allow a high inertia load to be stated with a small power. A popularly known application of
clutch is in automotive vehicles where it is used to connect the engine and the gear box. Here the clutch enables to crank
and start the engine disengaging the transmission and change the gear to alter the torque on the wheels.
(a) Coil-Spring Clutch: The coil spring clutch shown in figure uses coil springs as pressure springs (only two pressure
spring is shown). The coil-spring clutch has a series of coil springs set in a circle. At high rotational speeds, problems
can arise with multi coil spring clutches owing to the effects of centrifugal forces both on the spring themselves and the
lever of the release mechanism.
(b) Diaphragm – Spring Clutch: The diaphragm spring clutch shown in figure. The diaphragm spring clutch has
consistently eliminated bolt springs which means it very from coil spring clutch by type of spring used.
(c) Double Disk Clutch: Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disc called the
clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running and the flywheel is rotating, the pressure plate also rotates
as the pressure plate is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is located between the two. When the driver has pushed
down the clutch pedal the clutch is released. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc.
There are now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and the pressure plate.
No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Fig: Double Disk Clutch
Clutch Basket: It is bowl shaped basket which holds entire clutch assembly. It has teethes on the outside surfaces which
fix on the primary drive teethes. It means that it is connected with the transmission. It is bolted onto the end of clutch
shaft.Clutch Hub: The clutch hub places between clutch basket and pressure plate. The clutch plates are mounted on it. It
has teethes in the centre hole which rotate with main shaft. It means it is connected with the engine.
Clutch Plate: There are two types of plates in clutch plate. One is Drive (friction) plate another is Driven (Steel) plate
Drive (friction) plate: The friction plate is ring shaped and coated with fiber. It is a wear and tear part of clutch assembly.
The friction plate surfaces interface between the clutch basket tangs (gaps) and pressure plate. It has teethes on the
outside surfaces. These teethes fix on the cutouts between clutch hub tangs (gaps). It is coated with the same material as
you see in brake pad (shoe).Driven (steel) plate: It is ring shaped and made of steel and sometime of aluminum. The
surfaces of steel or aluminum plate interfaces between pressure plate and clutch hub. It has teethes on inside surfaces.
This teethes are fix on the cutouts of clutch hub. Mostly steel plates are used in clutch assembly due to their durability.
The aluminum plates are used in Moto GP due to their lighter weight. These plates are worn out very fast compare to
steel plate.
Pressure Plate: It is the moving part of the clutch assembly which works against clutch spring tension. It releases the
clamping action on the clutch plates when the clutch lever is engaged.
Clutch springs: The clutch springs shape is like short coil. These springs continuously hold the friction and steel or
aluminum plates through spring tension. It also prevents slippage except when the clutch lever is engaged. Most of
motorcycle has five or more springs used per clutch assembly. For higher engine output stiffer or more springs are used
while softer or few springs used in order to lighter clutch level pulling effort.
Lever: It is metal rode which pivots on a perch located of the left handlebar. It gives input to clutch assembly.
Clutch Cable: The clutch cable is a cable through which the rider’s input passes to the clutch internals.
Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of
the Automotive Clutches is completed.
Aim :
To dismantle, study and assemble the given clutch system.
Tools Required
i) Double end spanner
ii) Ring Spanner
iii) Socket with extension
iv) Screw Driver
v) Hammer.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Hold the clutch cover assembly in the vice.
ii) Remove the lock nuts of the clutch cover by compressing the cover spring with the help of a
special tool.
iii) Remove the clutch spring, release lever, adjusting screw and cotter pin from their locations.
iv) Finally take out the clutch plate and the pressure plate separately.
Study :
The power developed in the engine is transmitted to the gear box through the clutch. When the
clutch is disengaged, the power is not transmitted. Clutch will always be in engaged position unless the
clutch pedal is depressed. The clutch permits the gradual taking up of the load. When the pressure on
the friction plate is decreased it automatically decreases the load on the engine. By the frictional contact
between the flywheel and the pressure plate it transmits the torque from the engine to the gear box.
Working
The clutch plate is placed between the flywheel and pressure plate. Pressure plate rigidly forces the
clutch plate towards the flywheel by the spring force. When the clutch pedal is in ordinary position, it
fully engages with the flywheel. Therefore the power is transmitted from the engine to the gear box. When
the pedal is pressed, pressure plate is forced against the spring force and a gap is created between the
pressure plate and the flywheel and hence no power is transmitted.
Assembling Procedure
i) Place the cultch springs, adjusting screw, Cotter pin, Release lever, lock plate in the appropriate
locations.
ii) Place the clutch cover over the springs and then the cover is held by means of the special tool to
compress the springs
iii) Assemble the cover by tightening the lock nuts.
Result :
Thus the given single plate clutch was dismantled, studied and assembled.
STUDY OF GEAR BOX
Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the Automotive
Drive Lines & Differentials.
Apparatus: Models of
(a) Rear Wheel Drive Line.
(b) Front Wheel Drive Line.
(c) Differentials, Drive Axles and Four Wheel Drive Line.
Theory:
(a) Constructional details, Working Principles and Operation of Rear Wheel Drive Line:
Rear-wheel drive (RWD) typically places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven wheels are located at the
rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-wheel drive line. The vast majority of rear-wheel-drive vehicles use a
longitudinally-mounted engine in the front of the vehicle, driving the rear wheels via a driveshaft linked via a
differential between the rear axles. Some FRL(front engine rear wheel drive line) vehicles place the gearbox at the rear,
though most attach it to the engine at the front. Some of the advantages of FRL are even weight distribution, weight
transfer during acceleration, steering radius, better handling in dry conditions, better braking, towing, serviceability and
robustness.
(b) Constructional details, Working Principles and Operation of Front Wheel Drive Line.
Front-wheel-drive lines are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven. The most popular lines used in cars
today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. This line
is typically chosen for its compact packaging; since the engine and driven wheels are on the same side of the vehicle,
there is no need for a central tunnel through the passenger compartment to accommodate a prop-shaft between the
engine and the driven wheels. As the steered wheels are also the driven wheels, FFL (front-engine, front-wheel-drive
line) cars are generally considered superior to FRL (front-engine, rear-wheel-drive line) cars in conditions such as snow,
mud or wet tarmac. Some of the advantages are interior space, cost, improved drive train efficiency, placing the mass of
the drive train over the driven wheels moves the centre of gravity farther forward than a comparable rear-wheel-drive
layout, improving traction and directional stability on wet, snowy, or icy surfaces.
Conclusion: Hence the study and preparation of report on the constructional details, working principles and operation
of the Automotive Drive Lines & Differentials is completed.
To dismantle, study and assemble the given sliding mesh gear box.
Tools Required
i) Double end spanner.
ii) Ring Spanner.
iii) Socket with extension
iv) Hammer.
v) Screw Driver.
Dismantling Procedure
i) Remove the clutch shaft from the gear box.
ii) Remove the main shaft with the gears
iii) Remove the idler (or) reverse gear from its shaft in the gear box.
iv) Remove the lay shaft from the gear box.
Study.
Gear box is a main part of the transmission system. The torque produced by the engine varies only
by narrow limits. Therefore there is a necessity to change the torque produced by the engine. The
change of torque in the gear boxes is helpful in takeoff of the vehicle from rest or when full loaded
during normal speed. During high speed there is no need of high torques and hence you can change the
torque to the lowest gear.
i)
ii) Assembling Procedure.
iii)
iv) i) Assemble the lay shaft in the gear box housing.
v) ii) Position the reverse (or) idler gear in its location.
vi) iii) Assemble the main shaft with gears in the appropriate place.
vii) iv) Put back the clutch shaft in the other end of the gear box.
viii) v) After fitment of all the shaft and gears, the gear box is checked for proper working in all
gears.
ix)
x)
xi)
xii) SYNCHROMESH GEAR BOX
xiii)
xiv) Dismantling Procedure
xv)
i) Remove the clutch shaft from the gear box.
xvi)
ii) Remove the gears from the main shaft and then remove the main shaft.
xvii)
iii) Remove the synchronizer ring from the main shaft.
xviii)
iv) Remove the idler gear from its shaft.
xix)
v) Remove the lay shaft.
xx)
xxi)
xxii) Assembling Procedure
xxiii)
i) Fit the lay shaft.
xxiv)
ii) Assemble the idler gear shaft and the idler gear.
xxv)
iii) Place the gears in the main shaft appropriately.
xxvi)
iv) Fit the synchronizer ring in its position.
xxvii)
v) Fit the clutch shaft into the gear box assembly.
xxviii)
vi) Finally check proper working of the system.
xxix)
xxx)
xxxi)
xxxii)
xxxiii) Result :
xxxiv)
xxxv) Thus the given sliding mesh and synchromesh gear box is dismantled and assembled.
xxxvi)
xxxvii)
xxxviii)
xxxix)
xl)
xli)
xlii)
xliii) STUDY OF STEERING SYSTEM
xliv) Ex : No :
xlv)
xlvi) Date :
xlvii)
xlviii) Aim: To study and prepare report on the constructional details, working principles and operation of the
Automotive Steering Systems.
xlix)
l) Apparatus: Models of
li) (a) Manual Steering Systems, e.g. Pitman –arm steering, Rack & Pinion steering.
lii) (b) Power steering Systems, e.g. Rack and Pinion Power Steering System.
liii) (c) Steering Wheels and Columns e.g. Tilt & Telescopic steering Wheels, Collapsible Steering Columns.
liv)
lv) Theory:
lvi) (a) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Manual Steering Systems, e.g. Pitman
–arm steering, Rack & Pinion steering:
lvii)
lviii) The Pitman arm is a steering component in an automobile or truck. The pitman arm shaft is attached to
the steering box by a spline and nut. As the driver turns the steering wheel, the steering box mechanism moves
the steering linkages via the pitman arm shaft either left or right, depending on the direction in which the
steering wheel is turned. The steering box provides the change of angle at 90° to the steering linkage. The idler
arm is attached to the chassis and is positioned parallel to the pitman arm. The track rod connects the pitman
arm shaft to the idler arm shaft. In this way any movement in the pitman arm shaft is directly applied to the idler
arm shaft.
lix) The tie rods connect the track rod to the steering arms that are located on the steering knuckles. Thus all
movement from the pitman arm shaft is relayed directly to the front wheels, which steer the vehicle. Tie rod
ends are attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is extended or retracted when the vehicle is
negotiating turns. Tie-rods and tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded. The adjustment sleeve connects the
tie-rod to the tie-rod end.
lx)
lxi) The primary components of the rack and pinion steering system are: rubber bellows, pinion, rack, inner ball
joint or socket and tie-rod. This rubber bellows is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It protects the inner
joints from dirt and contaminants. In addition, it retains the grease lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing.
There is an identical bellows on the other end of the rack for the opposite side connection. The pinion is
connected to the steering column. As the driver turns the steering wheel, the forces are transferred to the pinion
and it then causes the rack to move in either direction. This is achieved by having the pinion in constant mesh
with the rack.
lxii) The rack slides in the housing and is moved by the action of the meshed pinion into the teeth of the rack.
It normally has an adjustable bush opposite the pinion to control their meshing, and a nylon bush at the other
end. The inner ball joint is attached to the tie-rod, to allow for suspension movement and slight changes in
steering angles. A tie rod end is attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is extended or retracted
when the vehicle is negotiating turns. Some tie-rods and tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded.
lxiii)
lxiv) (b) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Power steering Systems, e.g.
Rack and Pinion Power Steering System:
lxv)The use of electronics into automotive steering systems enables much more sophisticated control to be achieved.
Electric steering is more economical to run, and easier to package and install than conventional hydraulic power
steering systems. Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering, or EPHS, replaces the customary drive belts and
pulleys with a brushless motor that drives a high efficiency hydraulic power steering pump in a conventional
rack and pinion steering system. Pump speed is regulated by an electric controller to vary pump pressure and
flow. This provides steering efforts tailored for different driving situations. The pump can be run at low
speed or shut off to provide energy savings during straight ahead driving. An EPHS system is able to
deliver an 80 percent improvement in fuel economy when compared to standard hydraulic steering systems.
Electrically assisted steering or EAS, is a power-assist system that eliminates the connection between the engine
and steering system. EAS or direct electric power steering takes the technology a step further by completely
eliminating hydraulic fluid and the accompanying hardware from the system, becoming a full “electronic power
steering system” or EPS. An EPS Direct electric steering system uses an electric motor attached to the steering
rack via a gear mechanism and torque sensor. A microprocessor or electronic control unit, and diagnostic
software controls steering dynamics and driver effort. Inputs include vehicle speed and steering, wheel torque,
angular position and turning rate.
lxvi)
lxxxvi)
lxxxvii) Fig: Power Steering
lxxxviii)
lxxxix) (c) Constructional details, working principles and operation of the Steering Wheels and Columns
e.g. Tilt & Telescopic steering Wheels, Collapsible Steering Columns:
xc)
xci) The original Tilt Wheel was developed by Edward James Lobdell in the early 1900s. Originally a luxury
option on cars, the tilt function helps to adjust the steering wheel by moving the wheel through an arc in an up
and down motion. Tilt Steering Wheels rely upon a ratchet joint located in the steering column just below the
steering wheel. By disengaging the ratchet lock, the wheel can be adjusted upward or downward while the
steering column remains stationary below the joint. Some designs place the pivot slightly forward along the
column, allowing for a fair amount of vertical movement of the steering wheel with little actual tilt, while other
designs place the pivot almost inside the steering wheel, allowing adjustment of the angle of the steering wheel
with almost no change it its height. Telescope Wheel was developed by General Motors and can be adjusted to
an infinite number of positions in a 3-inch range. The Tilt and Telescope steering wheel was introduced as an
exclusive option on Cadillac automobiles.
xcii)
xciii) Fig: Tilt & Telescope Column
xciv)
xcv)
cxxix) Construction of a Steering System
cxxx)
cxxxi) The drop arm is rigidly connected to the crossshaft of the steering gear at its upper
end, while its lower end is connected to the link rod through a ball joint. To the other end of the link rod
arm is the stub axle on which the road wheel is mounted. Each stub axle has a forged track rod arm
rigidly bolted to the wheel axis.
cxxxii)
cxxxiii) The other ends of the track rod arms are connected to the track rod by means of ball
joints – an adjuster is also provided in the track rod to change its length for adjusting wheel alignment. The
steering gear provides mechanical advantage so that only a small effort is required at the steering wheel to
apply a much larger force to the steering linkage.
cxxxiv)
cxxxv) When the steering wheel is turned, the swinging action of the drop arm imparts a linear
motion to the link rod. This movement is transmitted through the link rod arm to the stub axle.
cxxxvi)
cxxxvii) Types of steering gears used
cxxxviii)
i) Worm and wheel steering gear
cxxxix)
cxl)
cxli)
cxlii)
cxliii)
i) Worm and nut steering gear.
cxliv)
cxlv)
cxlvi)
cxlvii)
cxlviii)
ii) Recirculating ball type steering gear
cxlix)
cl)
cli)
clii)
iii) Rack & pinion steering gear.
cliii)
cliv)
clv)
clvi) Assembling Procedure
clvii)
i) Fit the components of the steering gear box.
clviii)
ii) Assemble the track arm, tie rod, link rod with the corresponding linkages.
clix)
iii) Fit the cross shaft to the drop arm.
clx)
iv) Fit the steering column to the steering gear boy.
clxi)
v) Check the assembly for proper working of the steering system.
clxii)
clxiii)
clxiv)
clxv)
clxvi)
clxvii)
clxviii)
clxix)
clxx)
clxxi)
clxxii)
clxxiii)
clxxiv)
clxxv)
clxxvi)
clxxvii)
clxxviii)
clxxix)
clxxx)
clxxxi)
clxxxii)
clxxxiii)
clxxxiv)
clxxxv)
clxxxvi)
clxxxvii)
clxxxviii)
clxxxix)
cxc)
cxci)
cxcii)
cxciii)
cxciv)
cxcv)
cxcvi)
cxcvii)
cxcviii)
cxcix)
cc)
cci) Result :
ccii) Thus the given steering system was dismantled, studied & assembled.