Introduction To Spread Spectrum Communications: Outline

OUTLINE
Introduction to Spread
Spectrum Communications Introductions
Basic digital communication concepts
Spread spectrum systems
Jung–Lang Yu
Binary shift-register sequences
Department of Electronic Engineering Synchronization, code acquisition, code tracking
Fu Jen Catholic University Performance of spread spectrum systems in jamming
Taipei, Taiwan environments
Tel: +866-2-29052102 Code division multiple access channel
Fax:+866-2-29042638 Single user matched filter
e-mail : yujl@ee.fju.edu.tw
Optimum multi-user detection, Decorrelating Detector,
Ftp: http://www.ee.fju.edu.tw/communication/main.html Nondecorrelating linear multi-user detection
Multi-Carrier CDMA (OFDM)
FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 1 FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 2
TEXT BOOKS GRADE
Textbook: Computer Exercise 35%

1. R.L. Peterson, et. al., “Introduction to spread spectrum
communications,” 1995, Midterm project and presentation 30% (paper survey) : 23th
2. V.P. Ipatov, “Spread spectrum and CDMA, Principles and April
Applications,”, 2005 Term project and presentation 35% (duplicate its simulation
results) : 11th June
Reference:
1. IS-95 CDMA and CDMA 2000 Cellular/PCS Systems Implementation,
V.K. Grag, 2000, Chap 1~Chap7 Due date
2. S.G. Glisic, “Adaptive WCDMA,” 2003. 全華書局 z Computer exercise: a week after assignment
3. S. Verdu, “Multi-user Detection,” 1998
z Midterm project : on 2nd April
4. P. Van Rooyen, et., al., “Space-time processing for CDMA mobile
communications,” 2000 z Term project : on 21th May
5. A.J. Viterbi,”Principles of spread spectrum communication,” 1995
FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 3 FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 4
Project topics:
Topics :
z Multi-user detection
z RAKE receivers
z Channel Estimation
z Synchronization in spread spectrum systems
z Power control in CDMA systems
z Handover techniques
z Wireless LANs based on spread spectrum technology
z Advanced wireless techniques: OFDM, UWB, etc.
z Any topics related CDMA are OK after discussing with Dr. Yu.
References :
z IEEE Transaction on Communication
z IEEE Transaction on Vehicle Technology
z IEEE Transaction on Signal Processing
z IEEE Transaction on Wireless Communication
z Signal Processing
FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 5

0.1 Mobile communications 0.1 Mobile communications
1st Generation: analog voice service (9.6Kbps) 2.5 Generation: enhanced data service for GSM
z AMPS(USA), Advances Mobile Phone Service, IS-54 z GPRS for packet switching system (9k, 13.4k, 15.6k,
z NMTS(Europe), Nordic Mobile Telephone System 21.4k/slot, 8 slots/channel)
z TACS(England), Total Access Communication System z HSCSD for high-speed circuit switching data (14.4k/slot, 8
z NAMTS(Japan), NEC Advances Mobile Telephone System slots/channel)
z EDGE integration of GPRS and HSCSD (384kbps)
2nd Generation: voice and lower-rate data service (9.6Kbps)

z D-AMPS(USA), Digital-AMPS, IS-136 3rd Generation: voice, data and multi-media service
z GSM(Europe), Global System for Mobile Communication (2Mbps)
z DCS(England), Digital Cellular System
z PDC(Japan), Personal Digital Cellular 4th Generation: voice, data and interactive-media service
z CDMA(North American), IS-95 (156Mbps)
FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Chapter0 - Page 1 FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Chapter0 - Page 2
0.1 Mobile communications 0.1 Mobile communications
Quality of Service in old generations:

z Voice Quality (improved) , Coverage (world-wide seamless
access) & Costs (low)
z Quality of Service aspects : low BER and low delay time
New Services and Capabilities in new generations

z Enabling new voice and data service that are not currently
available with 1G and 2G technology
z High bandwidth services (data, image, multimedia)
0.2 Development of CDMA 0.3 3G development history
Spread spectrum communications originate from MIT R.G. Cooper and Nettleton proposed the North American DS-CDMA
Lincoln Labs since 1920’s. systems in 1977. It is further commercialized by Qualcomm as
narrowband CDMA(IS-95)
The theory of spread spectrum communications has been In 1985, ITU (International Telecommunication Union) proposed the
well known since the late 1940's. 3G specification, which is called FPLMTS (Future Public Land Mobile
It has been used somewhat intensively in the field of secure Telecommunication Systems). In 1996 it is renamed as IMT-2000
(International Mobile Telecommunication) and defines the
military communications since 1950's, but in commercial
specifications
applications it is a relatively new technique.
z 144K bps in fast moving speed
The spread spectrum technique has been released from z 384K bps in walking, slow moving speed
military since 1970’s. z 2M bps in standstill environment
The first major commercial application of spread spectrum Proposals for 3G Standards
techniques was the Global Positioning System (GPS). z Wideband-CDMA (Europe)
z CDMA-2000 (North American)
z TD-SCDMA (China)
0.3 3G development history 0.3 3G development history
Seamless World-wide Access W-CDMA:

It is proposed by Ericsson (Sweden) and NTT DoCoMo
(Japan) which is an extension of GSM systems. In 2001,
The first W-CDMA 3G service is proposed in Japan by the
DoCoMo company.
CDMA-2000
It is an extension of narrowband CDMA (IS-95)
z CDMA one, integration of IS-95 in 1997, 8 voices, 64K
bps/channel
z CDMA-2000 1X, wideband service, 307K bps in 1.25M Hz
BW
z CDMA-2000 3X, wideband service 2M bps in 5M Hz BW
z CDMA 2000 1X EV-DO, 2.5M downlink /307K uplink bps in
1.25M Hz BW
0.3 3G development history 0.3 3G development history
TD-SCDMA
It is the combination of TDMA system and synchronization
CDMA, which is proposed by the Simens (Germany) and
Datang (China) in 1999.
3G Telecommunication licenses
z Taiwan : A,B,C,D for W-CDMW at 2G Hz and E for CDMA2000 at 800M
Hz.
z Japan: 2 for W-CDMA and 1 for CDMA2000
z Korean: 3 for W-CDMA and 1 for CDMA2000
0.3 3G development history 0.4 International Telecommunication Union
Network Operators IMT-2000 specification : ←→ ITU

z International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
z the time schedule for the first trial system : year 2000
z the frequency range to be used : around 2000 MHz
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is
responsible for the IMT-2000 specification.
z The requirements for the 3G standardisation have been
discussed under the term FPLMTS (Future Public Land
Mobile Telecommunications System) since the early 1990s.
z In the mid 1990s the term FPLMTS was changed to the term
IMT-2000.
http://www.cdg.org & http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/links.htm

0.4 International Telecommunication Union 0.4 International Telecommunication Union
UMTS (WCDMA) ←→ ETSI Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA

z UMTS stands for Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System
z UMTS is a member of the ITU‘s IMT-2000 global family of WCDMA
3G mobile communication systems
z The European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI)
GSM
is responsible for the UMTS standardization
z UMTS is the successor standard to the second generation
GSM.
z UMTS will play a key role in creating the future mass market
for high-quality wireless multimedia communications that
will approach 2 billion users worldwide by the year 2010
0.4 International Telecommunication Union 0.4 International Telecommunication Union
Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA Air Interfaces for 3G : CDMA2000
0.4 International Telecommunication Union 0.5 4G possible techniques
Spectrum Allocation for 3G

W-CDMA with OFDM technique → Multi-Carrier CDMA
LAS-CDMA (large area synchronization CDMA by China)
Position CDMA
UWB (ultra wideband) technique
4G standards will be proposed in 2010 ( NTT DoCoMo
plans to propose the 4G standard in 2007).
0.6 Important Research Topics 0.7 Reference
1. PN sequences 1. CDMA development group, http://www.cdg.org

2. Code acquisition / Code tracking 2. 3G Partnership Project 2，http://www.3gpp2.org/
3. 3 G Partnership Project，http://www.3gpp.org/
3. Modulation/demodulation 4. UMTS World，http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/links.htm
4. Power control 5. 3G Today - IMT-2000 Standard，http://www.3gtoday.com/index.html
6. CDMA2000，http://www.ericsson.com/
5. Handover techniques 7. Cellular Online，http://www.cellular.co.za/main.htm
6. RAKE receivers 8. Cellular Technologies Of The World，http://www.cellular.co.za/main.htm
9. Philips Consumer Communications，
7. Channel Estimation http://www.wca.org/dgibson/index.htm
8. Adaptive CDMA networks 10. TDD White Paper，http://www.tddcoalition.org/
11. TD-SCDMA White Paper，http://www.siemens-mobile.com/mobile
9. Radio fading channel
12. Wireless Web Features - TD-SCDMA and W-CDMA make ideal partners
10. Multiuser detection for 3G，http://wireless.iop.org/
13. UMTS World，http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/links.htm
11. Advanced CDMA systems, MC-CDMA, OFDM
Ch1: Basic digital communication concepts 1/20
Reference
1. R.L. Peterson, et. al., “Introduction to spread spectrum communications,” Chapter 1
2. S. Haykin, ‘Communication Systems’, 4th Edition, 2000
1.1. Typical Digital Communications
1.2. Detection in AWGN channel
1.2.1. Coherent Modulation Scheme
z Matched filter (correlator receiver) :
y (t ) = s1 (t ) + n(t ) or s2 (t ) + n(t )
n(t ) ∈ N (0, N 0 / 2)
Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

z Error probability :
Send s1 (t )
T
v(T ) = ∫ ( s1 (t ) + n(t ))( s2 (t ) − s1 (t ))dt = E12 − E1 + W
0
Send s2 (t )
T
v(T ) = ∫ ( s2 (t ) + n(t ))( s2 (t ) − s1 (t ))dt = E2 − E12 + W
0
where
T
E12 = ∫ s1 (t ) s2 (t )dt
0
T
Ei = ∫ si2 (t )dt , i = 1, 2
0
T
W = ∫ n(t )( s2 (t ) − s1 (t ))dt ∈ Gaussian, with
0
E[W] = 0,
T T
E[W 2 ] = E[ ∫ n(t )( s2 (t ) − s1 (t ))dt ∫ n(q )( s2 (q ) − s1 (q ))dq ]
0 0
N0 T N0
=
2 ∫ 0
( s2 (t ) − s1 (t )) 2 dt =
2
( E1 + E2 − 2 E12 )

If s1 (t ), s2 (t ) are equally probable, then the optimum k is determined by
1 1
k = ( so1 (T ) + so 2 (T )) = ( E2 − E1 )
2 2
and
d /2 E1 + E2 − 2 E12 E + E2 − 2 E12
Pe = Q ( ) = Q( ) = Q( 1 )
σn 2σ n 2N0
Define
( E1 + E2 ) Eb
z= =
2N0 N0
2 E12 E
R12 = = 12
E1 + E2 Eb
Then
Pe = Q ( z (1 − R12 ))
z Example:
R12 = 0 for BFSK, orthogonal signaling, Pe = Q ( z )
R12 = −1 for BPSK, antipodal signaling, Pe = Q ( 2 z )
z Bandwidth:
For a rectangular pulse of period T, the spectrum is
S ( f ) = A2Tsinc( fT )
The spectrum for the passband is
A2T
Sm ( f ) = {sinc[( f − f 0 )T ] + sinc[( f + f 0 )T ]}
2
For PSK, ASK, we have

2
BWRF =
T
For FSK, f 2 − f1 = 1/ 2T (minimum frequency spacing for orthogonal signaling), we

have
2.5
BWRF =
T
z Bandwidth efficiency:
R 1
η= , R=
BW T
⎧1 for baseband signal
⎪
η = ⎨1/ 2 for ASK,PSK
⎪1/ 2.5 for FSK
⎩
1.2.2. Noncoherent Modulation Scheme
z ASK :
z Bandpass filter : correlator receiver or matched filter with cos(.) and sin(.).
z Envelope detector : square law detector.

r (t ) = A cos( wct + φ ) + n(t )

A
rI = cos(φ )
2
A
rQ = sin(φ )
2
⎧ A2 / 4 if 1 is sent
y=⎨
⎩ 0 if 0 is sent
1 E
Pe ≈ e − z / 2 for z = b >> 1
2 N0
z FSK:
⎧ A cos( wct + φ ) + n (t ) if 1 is sent

r (t ) = ⎨
⎩ A cos( wc t + Δwt + φ ) + n(t ) if 0 is sent
1
Pe = e − z / 2 for all z
2
z DPSK:
Transmitter

a) Suboptimum Rx (ref Ziemer 5th p358)
r (t ) = A cos( wct + θ i + φ ) + n(t )

T
y = ∫ A2 cos( wc t + θ i + φ ) cos( wct + θ i −1 + φ )dt
0
A2 T A2T
2 ∫0
= cos(θ i − θ i −1 ) dt = cos( Δθ i )
2
Pe = Q ( z )
b) Optimum Rx

r (t ) = A cos( wc t + θ i + φ ) + n(t )
T AT
xi = ∫ A cos( wc t + θ i + φ ) cos( wc t )dt = cos(θ i + φ )
0 2
T AT
yi = ∫ A cos( wc t + θ i + φ )sin( wc t )dt = − sin(θ i + φ )
0 2
A2T 2 A2T 2
y = xi xi −1 + yi yi −1 = cos(θ i − θ i −1 ) = cos( Δθ i )
4 4
1 −z
Pe = e
2
1.2.3. Performance Comparison

1.3 Signal Detection in Geometric Representation

1.3.1 Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization (GSO)
Given a finite set of signals {si (t ), i = 1" M ,0 ≤ t ≤ T } , find orthonormal basis function
{φi (t ), i = 1" K ,0 ≤ t ≤ T }, K ≤ M by
v1 (t )
a) v1 (t ) = s1 (t ), φ1 (t ) =
v1
v2 ( t )
b) v2 (t ) = s2 (t ) − < s2 ,φ1 > φ1 (t ), φ2 (t ) =
v2
v3 ( t )
c) v3 (t ) = s3 (t ) − < s3 ,φ1 > φ1 (t )− < s3 ,φ2 > φ2 (t ), φ3 (t ) =
v3
d) Continue until all signals have been used.
Where
T T
< x, y >= ∫ x (t ) y * (t )dt , x = ∫ x (t ) x* (t )dt = < x, x >
0 0
Using {φi (t ), i = 1" K } , the signal sn (t ) can be represented by

K K
sn (t ) = ∑ < sn ,φi > φi (t ) = ∑ Sinφi (t )
i =1 i =1
Define Φ (t ) = [φ1 (t )"φ K (t ) ] , S n = [ S1n " S Kn ] , then

T
sn (t ) = Φ (t )S n
1.3.2 Geometric view of signal detection
If s j (t ) is transmitted, then
r (t ) = s j (t ) + n(t ) = Φ (t )S j + n(t )
T T T
Z = ∫ r (t )Φ H (t )dt = ∫ Φ H (t )Φ (t )S j dt + ∫ n(t )Φ H (t )dt =S j + N
0 0 0
Or
Z i = Sij + N i
T
N i = ∫ n(t )φi* (t )dt
0
z Statistics of Z i , N i
a) N i ∈ Gaussian, so is Z i
b) E [ N i ] = 0, E[ Z i ] = Sij
T T N0 T N0
c) cov( N i , N j ) = E [ N i N *j ] = E[ ∫ n(t )φi* (t )dt ∫ n* (τ )φ j (τ )dτ ] = ∫ φi* (t )φ j (t )dt = δ ij
0 0 2 0 2

N0
it is uncorrelated Gaussian, with σ 2 =
2
N0
d) cov( Z i , Z j ) = E[( Z i − Z i )( Z j − Z j )* ] = E [ N i N *j ] = δ ij
2
1 ( Z i − Sij )2
K K − −
e) f ( Z / s j (t )) = ∏ f ( Z i / s j (t )) = ∏ (2πσ ) e 2 2 2σ 2
i =1 i =1
−
K K ( Z i − Sij ) 2 −
K
1
exp( ∑ −
2
= (π N 0 ) 2
) = (π N 0 ) 2
exp( − Z−Sj )
i =1 N0 N0
1.3.3 M-ary PSK
2 Es
si (t ) = cos( wc t + θ i ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts , i = 1" M
Ts
2π (i − 1)
Where θ i = , Es is symbol energy
M
⎡ 2 2 ⎤
si (t ) = Es ⎢ cos(θ i ) cos( wc t ) − sin(θ i ) sin( wc t ) ⎥
⎣ Ts Ts ⎦
= Es [ cos(θ i )φ1 (t ) − sin(θ i )φ2 (t )]
If only two neighboring symbols are considered, e.g. s1 (t ), sM (t ) , then the BER is
computed by

π
Es sin( )
P2 ( sM / s1 ) = Q ( M ) = Q ( 2 Es sin( π ))
σ N0 M
The SER of M-ary PSK is bounded by
2 Es π 2 Es π
Q( sin( )) ≤ Ps ≤ 2Q ( sin( ))
N0 M N0 M
1.3.4 M-ary FSK
2 Es
si (t ) = cos( wc t + (i − 1) Δwt ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts , i = 1" M
Ts
1
For continue-phase FSK, Δw ≥ . We define basis as
Ts
2
φi ( t ) = cos( wc t + (i − 1) Δwt ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts , i = 1" M
Ts
Then we have
si (t ) = Es φi (t )
The SER has the upper bound of
M M
2 Es 2
Ps = P ( s2 " sM s1 ) ≤ ∑ P2 ( si s1 ) = ∑ Q ( ) = ( M − 1)Q ( Es N 0 )
i =2 i =2 σ

1.3.5 QAM
2
si (t ) = ( Ai cos wot + Bi sin wot ) = Aiφ1 (t ) + Biφ2 (t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ Ts
Ts
Where Ai , Bi = ± a, ±3a," ± ( L − 1)a, L = M
If Es is the average symbol energy, then
2( M − 1) 2
Es = a
3
The symbol error rate is related to PAM error probability by
1 ⎡ 2a 2 2a 2 2a 2 ⎤ 1
Ps1 = ⎢Q( ) + Q( ) + 2Q ( )( L − 2) ⎥ = 2(1 − )Q ( 2a 2 N 0 )
L⎣ σ σ σ ⎦ L
Then SER for QAM is
1
Ps = 1 − Pc = 1 − (1 − Ps1 ) 2 ≈ 2 Ps1 = 4(1 − )Q ( 2a 2 N 0 )
L

1.4 Comparison of Modulation Schemes

1.4.1 Bandwidth efficiency
R
η=
BW
z M-PSK,M-QAM,M-DPSK
2
BW =
Ts
1
R= log 2 M (bps )
Ts
R log 2 M
η= = = 0.5log 2 M
BW 2
z Coherent M-FSK
The minimum frequency spacing to maintain orthogonality is 1 2Ts
1 M −1 1 M + 3
BW = + + =
Ts 2Ts Ts 2Ts
1
R= log 2 M (bps )
Ts
R 2log 2 M
η= =
BW M +3
z Noncoherent M-FSK
The minimum frequency spacing to avoid the cochannel interference is 2 Ts
2
BW = M
Ts
1
R= log 2 M (bps )
Ts
R log 2 M
η= =
BW 2M
1.4.2 SER vs. BER
z Es N 0 vs. Eb N 0

Ts = Tb log 2 M
Es = Eb log 2 M
E s Eb
= log 2 M
N0 N0
z Ps vs. Pb
for M-PSK, M-QAM, and Gray coding is used
Ps
Pb ≈
log 2 M
for M-FSK
MPs
Pb ≈
2( M − 1)

1.5 Signaling through fading channels
We discuss the effects of the flat-fading channel, with assumption that
z fading is independent of frequency

z signals are narrowband relative to channel filtering effect
z delay spread is much smaller than symbol period
1.5.1 flat-fading channel model
Modulation signal: θ m (t ) , it is either frequency variance or phase variance
Transmitted signal: st (t ) = A cos( wc t + θ m (t ))
Direct path A cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + ϕ )
∑
N
Scattering (indirect path) k =1
Ak cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + ϕ k )
z Scattering effect
sr (t ) = ∑ k =1 Ak cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + ϕ k )
N
= ∑ Ak cos(ϕ k ) cos( wc t + θ m (t )) − Ak sin(ϕ k ) sin( wc t + θ m (t ))

k
= X I cos( wct + θ m (t )) − X Q sin( wc t + θ m (t ))

With central limit theorem, we have
X I , X Q ∈ Gaussian with N (0, σ 2 )
Then sr (t ) can be expressed as
sr (t ) = R cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + φ )
Where
r2
r −
R= X +X 2 2
∈ Rayleigh distribution, f R ( r ) = e 2σ 2
σ2
I Q
φ = tan −1 ( X Q X I ) ∈ uniform distribution
z Direct path effect
sr (t ) = A cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + ϕ ) + X I cos( wc t + θ m (t )) − X Q sin( wc t + θ m (t ))

= R1 cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + φ1 )
Where
r1 r12 + A2 Ar1
R1 ∈ Rician distribution, f R1 ( r1 ) = exp(− )I0 ( ), r1 ≥ 0
σ 2
σ 2
σ2
I 0 (•) is modified bessel function of order zero
1.5.2 Rayleigh channel
z Consider the coherent receiver (the frequency and phase of the received signal are known)
T 2
yD = ∫ [ R cos( wc t + θ m (t ) + φ ) + n(t )] cos( wc t + φ )dt
0 T
T
=R cos(φm (T )) + W
2
T N
where R cos(φm (T )) indicates the signal term and W ∈ N (0, 0 ) is the noise term.
2 2
Further, the amplitude of cos(φm (T )) for BPSK, FSK, and DPSK is unity. Then we can find

the SNR at the receiver
Eb R 2T
z= =
N0 2 N0
Since R is of Rayleigh distribution, z is chi-square distribution with 2 degree of freedom, i.e.,
1 z ⎡ R 2T ⎤
f ( z) = exp(− ), z ≥ 0, z = E ⎢ ⎥
z z ⎣ 2 N0 ⎦
1.5.3 BER for BPSK in Rayleigh fading channel
For BPSK, the BER is given by
Pe ( z ) = Q ( 2 z )
However, z is random variable of chi-square distribution. We compute the averaged BER as

follows.
∞ ∞ ∞
1 t2 1 z
Pe = Pe ( z ) = ∫ Q( 2 z ) f ( z )dz = ∫ ∫ exp(− )dt exp(− )dz
0 0 2z 2π 2 z z
Define
∞
1 t2 1 z
u= ∫ 2π
exp(− )dt , dv = exp(− )dz
2 z z
2z
1 z
du = − e − z dz , v = − exp(− )
2π 2 z z
Therefore
∞
z ∞ z 1
Pe = −Q( 2 z ) exp(− ) − ∫ (− exp(− ))(− e − z )dz
z 0 0 z 4π z
∞
1 1 1 1
= −
2 2 π ∫
0 z
exp{− z (1 + )}dz
z
Let
dz
w = z , dw = ⇒ dz = 2wdw
2 z

Pe becomes
∞
1 1 1 1
Pe = − ∫ w exp{− w (1 + z )}2wdw
2
2 2 π 0
∞
1 1 1
= − ∫ exp{− w (1 + z )}dw
2
2 π 0
Let
1 x2 1
x = 2 w2 (1 + ), or = w2 (1 + )
z 2 z
Then
∞
1 1 x2 1
Pe =
2
−
π ∫ exp{−
0
2
}(
2(1 + 1 z )
)dx
∞
1 1 1 x2 1 z
=
2
−
(1 + 1 z ) 2π ∫ exp{−
0
2
}dx = (1 −
2 1+ z
)
1.5.4 Other binary modulation
z Coherent FSK
The BER is given by
Pe ( z ) = Q( z )
1 z
⇒ Pe = (1 − )
2 2+ z
z DPSK
The conditional BER is given by
1
Pe ( z ) = exp(− z )
2
Then the averaged BER is computed by

∞ ∞
1 1 1 z
Pe = Pe ( z ) = ∫ exp(− z ) f ( z )dz = ∫ exp(− z ) exp(− )dz
0
2 0
2 z z
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
= ∫
2z 0
exp{− z (1 + )}dz =
z 2z
(−(1 + )−1 ) exp{− z (1 + )}
z z 0
1
=
2( z + 1)
z Noncoherent FSK
The conditional BER is given by
1 z
Pe ( z ) = exp(− )
2 2
Then the averaged BER is computed by
∞ ∞
1 z 1 z 1 z
Pe = Pe ( z ) = ∫ exp(− ) f ( z )dz = ∫ exp(− ) exp(− )dz
0
2 2 0
2 2 z z
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∫
2z 0
exp{− z ( + )}dz =
2 z 2z
(−( + ) −1 ) exp{− z ( + )}
2 z 2 z 0
1
=
z +2

Error probability for binary modulation schemes in flat-fading Rayleigh channels
(a) Coherent /Noncoherent FSK
Error probability for binary modulation schemes in flat-fading Rayleigh channels
(b) BPSK and DPSK

Ch2: Spread Spectrum communication Systems 1/16
Reference
1. R.L. Peterson, et. al., “Introduction to spread spectrum communications,” Chapter 2

2. V.P. Ipatov, “Spread spectrum and CDMA, Principles and Applications,” 2005, Chapter 2.4, 3.1,
3.2, 7.1
Matlab-based Program : Text 2 : 3.25, 3.26, 3.28, 7.31, 7.32
2.1 Introduction
z The modulation and demodulation of spread spectrum technique must have the following
characteristics
a) The transmitted signal energy must occupy a bandwidth which is much larger than the
information bit rate and which is approximately independent of the information bit rate.
b) Demodulation must be done in part by correlation of the received signal with a replica of the
signal used in the transmitter to spread the information signal.
2.2 Lowpass equivalent signals

z A bandpass signal is given as s (t ) = a (t ) cos( wc t + θ (t )) , where a (t ) is the envelope and
θ (t ) is the phase. Bandpass signal can be expressed in terms of lowpass equivalent signal
by s (t ) = Re[ sl (t )e
jwct
] where sl (t ) = a(t )e jθ (t ) is the lowpass equivalent signal (or
complex baseband signal).
z Signal energy (define for a symbol period)
∞
Es = ∫s (t )dt = ∫ a 2 (t ) cos 2 ( wc t + θ (t ))dt
2
−∞
1 2 1 1
∫ a (t ) dt = ∫ sl (t ) dt = El
2
=
2 2 2
Therefore, we have
El = 2 Es
2.3 Two communication problems

2.3.1 Pulse-noise jamming
Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University 2/27/2007

z A pulse-noise jammer having total averaged power J transmits pulses of bandlimited white
Gaussian noise whose PSD just covers the SS system bandwidth W (PSD= N J = J ). The
W
duty factor for the jammer is denoted by ρ , which is the fraction of time during which the
NJ
jammer is “ON”. When the jammer is “ON”, the received jammer PSD is N J' = J
ρW = ρ
⎛ T NJ ⎞
⎜ E = WN J T = WN J′ T ′ ⇒ N J′ = N J ′ = ρ ⎟⎠
⎝ T
z BER for coherent BPSK

Eb
a) For no jammer present, only AWGN exists PE = Q( 2 )
N0
Eb
b) For pulse-noise jammer present PE = Q ( 2 )
N 0 + N J'
c) The averaged BER becomes ( P(e)=P(e/A)P(A)+P(e/B)P(B) )

Eb Eb
PE ( ρ ) = (1 − ρ )Q ( 2 ) + ρQ ( 2 )
N0 N 0 + N J'
z Worse case BER

NJ
Assume N J' =
ρ >> N 0 , then we have
Eb ρE
PE ( ρ ) ≈ ρQ( 2 '
) = ρQ( 2 b )
NJ NJ

2
exp(− x )
Using approximation in (1.19), Q( x) ≈ 2 , we have
x 2π
ρ E ρ
PE ( ρ ) ≈ exp(− b )
4πEb ρ N J NJ
The worse case BER over ρ is computed by

∂PE ( ρ ) N
=0 ⇒ ρ = J
∂ρ 2 Eb
The corresponding maximum BER is
1 1
PE ,max =
2πe 2 Eb N J
z The following plot shows that the BERs of BPSK in AWGN (continuous-noise jammer) and
worse-case pulse-noise jammer.
z The pulse-noise jammer can be alleviated by the combination of

a) Spread-spectrum techniques
b) Error correction + interleaving
2.3.2 Low probability of detection

z The goal of the LPD system is to use a signaling scheme that results in the minimum probability
of being detected within some time interval.
z The spread spectrum techniques can achieve the requirement of LPD.

2.4 Direct-sequence spread spectrum

2.4.1 BPSK
z Transmitter
Sd(t)
d(t)
St(t)

∞
t
d (t ) = ∑ b p (t − iT ), b ∈{±1}, p (t ) = Π ( T )
i =−∞
i 1 i 1
sd (t ) = 2 Pd (t ) cos( wo t ) = 2 P cos( wo t + θ d (t ))
∞
t
c(t ) = ∑ c p(t − iT )
i =−∞
i c : spreading code, p (t ) = Π (
Tc
), ci ∈ {±1},
st (t ) = 2 Pc(t ) d (t ) cos( wo t ) = 2 Pc(t ) cos( wo t + θ d (t ))
z Power spectrum density

a) Formula for PSD-- Wiener Khinchin theorem, (ref. Proakis, pp539, pp619 and Ziemer
Chapter 5)
∞
If v(t ) is a stationary R.P. and v(t ) = ∑ ai g (t − iT ), ai ∈ R.V . where g (t ) is the specified
i =−∞
waveform, then the PSD of v(t) is given by

1 2
Sv ( f ) = Sa ( f ) G( f ) ,
T
where
∞
S a ( f ) = ∑ Ra (m) exp(−2πfmT )
m =−∞
Ra (m) = E [ai am+i ]
G ( f ) = FT {g (t )}
If u (t ) = v(t ) cos(2πf 0t ) , then the PSD of u(t) is given by

1
Su ( f ) = [S v ( f − f o ) + S v ( f + f o )]
4
b) Baseband
∞
t
d (t ) = ∑ b p(t − iT ), b ∈{±1}, p(t ) = ∏ (T )
i =−∞
i i
Sb ( f ) = 1; P( f ) = Tsinc( fT )
1 2
PSD{d (t )} = Sb ( f ) P( f ) = Tsinc 2 ( fT ) D( f )
T
c) Passband
sd (t ) = 2 Pd (t ) cos( wo t )
2P
Sd ( f ) = [ D( f − f o ) + D( f + f o )]
4
1
= PT ⎡⎣sinc 2 ( f − f o )T + sinc 2 ( f + f o )T ⎤⎦
2
d) Spreading : treat d(t)c(t) as a new data sequence with period of Tc
snew (t ) = 2 Pd (t )c(t )
S new ( f ) = 2 PTcsinc 2 ( fTc )
1
St ( f ) = PTc ⎡⎣sinc 2 ( f − f o )Tc + sinc 2 ( f + f o )Tc ⎤⎦
2
Sd(f)

St(f)
z Receiver: jammer effect.
y(t)
r(t)
Considering a signal tone interference with noise absent

r (t ) = st (t − Td ) + 2 J cos( wo t + φ J ) =
2 P c(t − Td )d (t − Td ) cos( wo t − woTd ) + 2 J cos( wo t + φ J )
If Tˆd = Td then c(t − Td )c(t − Tˆd ) = 1 and

)
y (t ) = r (t )c(t − Td )
)
= 2 Pd (t − Td ) cos( wo t + φ ) + 2 J c(t − Td ) cos( wo t + φJ )
14444244443 14444244443
Low data rate BPSK modulation High data rate BPSK modulation
z Power spectrum density
Sr ( f ) =
1
2
[
PTc sinc 2 ( f − f o )Tc + sinc 2 ( f + f o )Tc ]
1
+ J [δ ( f − f o ) + δ ( f + f o )]
2
1
[
S y ( f ) = PT sinc 2 ( f − f o )T + sinc 2 ( f + f o )T
2
]
1
[
+ JTc sinc 2 ( f − f o )Tc + sinc 2 ( f + f o )Tc
2
]

Sr(f)
Sy(f)
z The output jammer power at the ideal BPF is computed by

∞ f o +1 2T
2
J o = ∫ S J ( f ) H ( f ) df = 2 ∫ S J ( f ) df
−∞ f o −1 2T
1
= 2 ∫ JTc sinc 2 ( f − f o )Tc df ≈ JTc ∫ 1df
2
JT
= c
T
z The signal power at the ideal BPF output has no changed. But the jammer power is reduced
JTc
from J to . We define the processing gain of spread spectrum as
T
T
Gp =
Tc
2.4.2 Balanced QPSK

z Transmitter
s (t ) = P c1 (t ) cos( wo t + θ d (t )) − P c2 (t ) sin( wo t + θ d (t ))

π 3π
θ d (t ) ∈ {± ,± }
4 4
z Receiver
s (t − Td ) = Pc1 (t − Td )cos( wo t + θ d (t − Td ) + φ )
− Pc2 (t − Td )sin( wo t + θ d (t − Td ) + φ )
x(t ) = 1 s (t − T )c (t − Tˆ )2cos( w t + w t + φ )
2 d 1 d o IF
y (t ) = − 1 s (t − Td )c2 (t − Tˆd )2sin( wo t + wIF t + φ )

2
z If the spreading codes are correctly duplicated, Tˆd = Td , we have c1 (t − Td )c1 (t − Tˆd ) = 1 and
c (t − T )c (t − Tˆ ) = 1 . Then
2 d 2 d
x(t ) = P cos( wIF t − θ d (t − Td )) +

2
P c (t − T )c (t − Tˆ )sin( w t − θ (t − T )) + high freq. component
2 2 d 1 d IF d d
y (t ) = P cos( wIF t − θ d (t − Td )) −
2
P c (t − T )c (t − Tˆ )sin( w t − θ (t − T )) + high freq. component
2 1 d 2 d IF d d
And
z '(t ) = x(t ) + y (t ) = 2 P cos( wIF t − θ d (t − Td )) + high freq. component

2
z (t ) = 2 P cos( wIF t − θ d (t − Td ))
2.4.3 Dual-channel QPSK

z Transmitter & receiver

2.5 Frequency-hoping spread spectrum

2.5.1 Coherent FHSS
z Transmitter

∞
t
d (t ) = ∑ b p (t − iT ),
i =−∞
i 1 s p1 (t ) = ∏ (T ) s
sd (t ) = 2 Pd (t ) cos( wo t ) = 2 P cos( wo t + θ d (t ))
∞
t
hT (t ) = ∑ 2 p(t − nT ) cos(w t + φ ) , p(t ) = ∏ ( T ), where w
n =−∞
c n n
c
n is synthesized frequency
for slow FHSS , Tc > Ts

for fast FHSS , Tc < Ts
st (t ) = sd (t )hT (t ) |high freq. part
= ∑ n
2 P cos( wo t + wn t + θ d (t ) + φn ) p(t − nTc )
z Receiver
y1(t)
sr(t)
z The image reject filter is used to reject the image signal at frequency wn − wo .
sr (t ) = st (t − Td )
∞
) )
hR (t ) = ∑ 2 cos(w t + φ
n =−∞
n n − wnTd ) p (t − nTc − Td )
If Tˆd = Td ,
y1 (t ) = st (t − Td )hR (t )
= ∑ 2P cos(w t + w t + θ (t − T ) + φ − w T
i
o i d d i o d − wiTd ) p (t − iTc − Td ) ⋅
∑ 2cos(w t + φ − w T ) p(t − nT − T )
n
n n n d c d
= ∑{2 n
2 P cos( wo t + wn t + θ d (t − Td ) + φn − woTd − wnTd ) ⋅
cos( wn t + φn − wnTd ) p(t − nTc − Td )}

y (t ) = ∑ n
2 P cos( wo t + θ d (t − Td ) − woTd ) p(t − nTc − Td )
= 2 P cos( wo t + θ d (t − Td ) − woTd )
2.5.2 Noncoherent FHSS

z Transmitter for FH / MFSK
z Receiver for FH / MFSK
z FH/MFSK combines the FH technique with Noncoherent M-ary FSK modulation
z Parameter definition
a) Ts = LT : symbol period (L bits/symbol). T : bit period
b) Tc : Chip period that frequency subband is changed.
c) Tc > Ts : slow FHSS
d) Tc < Ts : fast FHSS
z For MFSK, Δf ≈ 1 Ts . There are M = 2 L subcarriers. The bandwidth is equal to

BW = 2 L Δf = M Δf = Wd .
z For frequency synthesizer, there are k bits per chip, and 2 k frequency subbands. The
bandwidth of FH/MFSK is equal to BW = 2 k Wd = Ws

2.5.3 Noncoherent slow FH/MFSK SS
z Tc > Ts , let Tc = NTs (N times symbols/frequency-hoping), E.g.,
a) E.g., k=3, L=2. and Tc = 2Ts
ws
wd
Ts
Tc
T
wd
b) E.g., k=2, L=2. and Tc = 4Ts 使用 MFSK 的慢速 FHSS
00 11 01 10 PN序列
00 10 01 00 11 10 01 01 10 01 10 00 01 10 11 0 0二進位資料
Wd
Wd
頻率
WS
Wd
Wd
T 時間
TS
TC
z Processing gain :
Jammer with power J
J E EW
If no FH, N J = , b = b d
Wd N J J

J E EW EW
If with FH, N J' = , b' = b s = 2 k b d
Ws N J J J
So we define the processing gain here as
Eb
N J′
Gp = = 2k
Eb
NJ
2.5.4 Noncoherent fast FH/MFSK SS

z The transmitter and receiver are identical to slow FHSS.
Ts
z Tc < Ts , let Tc = (N times frequency-hoping / symbol), E.g.,
N
a) L=2 (2 bits/symbol)
b) N=2 (2 FHs/symbol, or 1 FH/bit)
c) k=3 (there have 8 different frequencies/group)
d) L=2, k=2, N=4, MFSK 的快速 FHSS

00 11 01 10 二進位資料
00 10 01 00 11 10 01 01 10 01 10 00 01 10 11 00 PN序列
Wd
頻率 Wd
WS
Wd
Wd
TC 時間
T
TS
z The output is demodulated by using Noncoherent MFSK. Besides, each symbol could be
detected by majority decision rule among the N outputs (N FH outputs/symbol).
z Processing gain is equal to G p = 2 k
2.6 Hybrid DS/FH SS

z Widely used in military spread spectrum systems
z Transmitter
z Noncoherent or differential coherent modulation is used in the Noncoherent frequency hopping.

sds (t ) = 2 P c(t ) cos( wo t + θ d (t ))
∞
hT (t ) = ∑ 2 p (t − nTc ) cos( wn t + φn )
n = −∞
st (t ) = sd (t )hT (t ) |high freq. part

= c(t )∑ 2 P cos( wo t + wn t + θ d (t ) + φn ) p(t − nTc )
n

z Receiver
y1(t) y2(t) y3(t)
st(t)
z If Tˆd = Td = 0 ,
y1 (t ) = st (t )hT (t ) = c(t ) ∑
n
2 P cos( wo t + wn t + θ d (t ) + φn ) p (t − nTc ) •
∞
∑ 2 p(t − mT ) cos(w t + φ
m =−∞
c m m )
= c(t ) 2 P ∑{cos(w t + 2w t + θ
n
o n d (t ) + 2φn ) + cos( wo t + θ d (t ))}p (t − nTc )
y2 (t ) = y1 (t ) |w = c(t ) 2 P
o ∑ cos(w t + θ
n
o d (t )) p(t − nTc ) = c(t ) 2 P cos( wo t + θ d (t ))
y3 (t ) = y2 (t )c(t )2cos( wo t + wIF t + φ ) = 2 P cos( wIF t − θ d (t )) + high frequency component

y (t ) = 2 P cos( wIF t − θ d (t ))

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OUTLINE

TEXT BOOKS GRADE

Textbook:  Computer Exercise 35%

FJU-EE – YUJL - Spread Spectrum Communications– Outline - Page 5

 2nd Generation: voice and lower-rate data service (9.6Kbps)

0.1 Mobile communications 0.1 Mobile communications

 Quality of Service in old generations:

 New Services and Capabilities in new generations

0.3 3G development history 0.3 3G development history

 Seamless World-wide Access  W-CDMA:

0.3 3G development history 0.4 International Telecommunication Union

 Network Operators  IMT-2000 specification : ←→ ITU

http://www.cdg.org & http://www.umtsworld.com/umts/links.htm

 UMTS (WCDMA) ←→ ETSI  Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA

0.4 International Telecommunication Union 0.4 International Telecommunication Union

 Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA  Air Interfaces for 3G : CDMA2000

 Spectrum Allocation for 3G

0.6 Important Research Topics 0.7 Reference

1. PN sequences 1. CDMA development group, http://www.cdg.org

1. R.L. Peterson, et. al., “Introduction to spread spectrum communications,” Chapter 1

2. S. Haykin, ‘Communication Systems’, 4th Edition, 2000

1.1. Typical Digital Communications

1.2. Detection in AWGN channel

1.2.1. Coherent Modulation Scheme

z Matched filter (correlator receiver) :

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

If s1 (t ), s2 (t ) are equally probable, then the optimum k is determined by

R12 = 0 for BFSK, orthogonal signaling, Pe = Q ( z )

R12 = −1 for BPSK, antipodal signaling, Pe = Q ( 2 z )

For a rectangular pulse of period T, the spectrum is

The spectrum for the passband is

For PSK, ASK, we have

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

For FSK, f 2 − f1 = 1/ 2T (minimum frequency spacing for orthogonal signaling), we

1.2.2. Noncoherent Modulation Scheme

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

r (t ) = A cos( wct + φ ) + n(t )

⎧ A cos( wct + φ ) + n (t ) if 1 is sent

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

a) Suboptimum Rx (ref Ziemer 5th p358)

r (t ) = A cos( wct + θ i + φ ) + n(t )

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1.2.3. Performance Comparison

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1.3 Signal Detection in Geometric Representation

Using {φi (t ), i = 1" K } , the signal sn (t ) can be represented by

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

Define Φ (t ) = [φ1 (t )"φ K (t ) ] , S n = [ S1n " S Kn ] , then

1.3.2 Geometric view of signal detection

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1.3.3 M-ary PSK

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The SER of M-ary PSK is bounded by

1.3.4 M-ary FSK

The SER has the upper bound of

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

Where Ai , Bi = ± a, ±3a," ± ( L − 1)a, L = M

If Es is the average symbol energy, then

The symbol error rate is related to PAM error probability by

Then SER for QAM is

Department of Electronic Engineering, Fu Jen Catholic University

1.4 Comparison of Modulation Schemes

Textbook: Computer Exercise 35%

2nd Generation: voice and lower-rate data service (9.6Kbps)

Quality of Service in old generations:

New Services and Capabilities in new generations

Seamless World-wide Access W-CDMA:

Network Operators IMT-2000 specification : ←→ ITU

UMTS (WCDMA) ←→ ETSI Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA

Air Interfaces for 3G : WCDMA Air Interfaces for 3G : CDMA2000

Spectrum Allocation for 3G

for M-PSK, M-QAM, and Gray coding is used