Final Draft Bridge Design Guidline LLM

LLM/GP/T5-08 (DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)
GUIDELINES
FOR
MALAYSIA TOLL EXPRESSWAY SYSTEM
- DESIGN STANDARDS
Chapter 6
BRIDGES
Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards(DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)
LLM/GP/T5-08(DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)
CHAPTER 6 DETAILED CONTENTS
6 BRIDGES ..................................................................................................................................... 6-1

6.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.1 Overview of Bridges ....................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1.2 Government Requirement .............................................................................................. 6-2
6.1.2.1 Required as in Contract Agreement ........................................................................ 6-2
6.1.2.2 Approved Suppliers of Materials and Specialist Contractors ................................. 6-2
6.2 Bridges DesignProcedure ..................................................................................................... 6-2
6.2.1 General Arrangement of Bridge .............................................................................. 6-4
6.2.1.1 River Bridges& Marine Bridges ............................................................................. 6-5
6.2.1.1.1 General.......................................................................................................... 6-6
6.2.1.1.2 River Bridges................................................................................................. 6-6
6.2.1.1.3 Marine Bridges ............................................................................................. 6-6
6.2.1.1.4 Materials ..................................................................................................... 6-10
6.2.1.2 Road Bridges& Urban Bridges ............................................................................. 6-10
6.2.1.2.1 Design Consideration ................................................................................. 6-10
6.2.1.2.2 Details of Carriageway ............................................................................... 6-12
6.2.1.2.3 National Lanes ............................................................................................ 6-12
6.2.1.2.4 Loadings ...................................................................................................... 6-12
6.2.1.2.5 Parapet ........................................................................................................ 6-12
6.2.1.2.6 Bridge Supports........................................................................................... 6-12
6.2.1.2.7 Expention Joints .......................................................................................... 6-12
6.2.1.3 Railway Overbridges (ROB) ................................................................................. 6-13
6.2.1.3.1 General Requirements................................................................................. 6-14
6.2.1.3.2 Consultation Items ...................................................................................... 6-14
6.2.1.3.3 Other Associated Items ............................................................................... 6-19
6.2.1.3.4 Sample View of Bridge ................................................................................ 6-21
6.2.2 Selection of Bridge Superstucture......................................................................... 6-22
6.2.1.1 Short to Medium Spans Bridges ........................................................................... 6-22
6.2.1.2 Short to Medium Spans Curved bridges ............................................................... 6-23
6.2.1.3 Medium Spans Bridges ......................................................................................... 6-23
6.2.1.3 Long Spans Bridges .............................................................................................. 6-25
6.3 Bridges Substructure ........................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.1 Abutments .................................................................................................................... 6-25
6.3.2 Piers.............................................................................................................................. 6-26
6.3.3 Foundations .................................................................................................................. 6-27
6.4 Bridge Accessories .............................................................................................................. 6-29
6.4.1 Expansion Joints .......................................................................................................... 6-29
6.4.1.1 General ................................................................................................................. 6-29
6.4.1.2 Types of Expansion Joints ................................................................................... 6-29
6.4.1.3 Design of Expension Joints .................................................................................. 6-31
6.4.1.4 Maintenance of Expansion Joints ........................................................................ 6-31
6.4.2 Bridge Bearings ............................................................................................................ 6-31
6.4.2.1 General ................................................................................................................. 6-31
6.4.2.2 Bearing Types ...................................................................................................... 6-31
6.4.2.3 Detailing of Bearings ........................................................................................... 6-32
6-i
Guidelines for Malaysia Toll Expressway System – Design Standards (DRAFT 6 JAN 2012)
6.4.3 Bridge Waterproofing .................................................................................................. 6-34

6.4.4 Parapets ........................................................................................................................ 6-34
6.4.4.1 Pedestrian Parapets .............................................................................................. 6-34
6.4.4.2 Restraint Systems On Motorway Bridges ............................................................ 6-34
6.4.5 Bridge Drainage ........................................................................................................... 6-36
6.5 Bridge Design ...................................................................................................................... 6-37
6.5.1 Bridge Loadings ........................................................................................................... 6-37
6.5.2.1 Dead Load ............................................................................................................ 6-38
6.5.2.2 Superimposed Dead Load .................................................................................... 6-38
6.5.2.3 Live Load ............................................................................................................. 6-38
6.5.2.4 Pedestrian Loading .............................................................................................. 6-39
6.5.2.5 Construction Loading .......................................................................................... 6-39
6.5.2.6 Wind Loading ....................................................................................................... 6-39
6.5.2.7 Temperature Loading........................................................................................... 6-39
6.5.2.8 Creep and Shrinkage............................................................................................ 6-39
6.5.2.9 Differential Settlements ........................................................................................ 6-40
6.5.2.10 Earth Pressure on Retaining Structure ................................................................ 6-40
6.5.2.11 Seismic Load ........................................................................................................ 6-40
6.5.2.12 Vehicle & Vessel Collision ................................................................................... 6-40
6.5.2 Materials ...................................................................................................................... 6-43
6.5.2.1 Concrete ............................................................................................................... 6-44
6.5.2.2 Reinforcement ...................................................................................................... 6-41
6.5.2.3 Prestressing Strand .............................................................................................. 6-41
6.5.3 Structural Analysis ....................................................................................................... 6-41
6.5.3.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations ................................................................ 6-41
6.5.3.2 Stability againt Overturning and Check on Bearing Decompressing .................. 6-44
6.5.3.3 Cover to Reinforcement ....................................................................................... 6-44
6.5.3.4 Design Crack Widths ........................................................................................... 6-43
6.5.4 Design Life and Durability .......................................................................................... 6-43
6.5.5 Bridge Deck Analysis ................................................................................................... 6-43
6.5.5.1 Grillage Method ................................................................................................... 6-43
6.5.5.2 Three Dimensional Structure ............................................................................... 6-44
6.5.5.3 Finite Element Method ......................................................................................... 6-44
6.5.6 Joint Free Construction using Precast Prestressed Concrete Beams: ........................ 6-45
6.5.6.1 General ................................................................................................................ 6-45
6.5.6.2 Narrow Insitu Integral Crosshead ....................................................................... 6-45
6.5.6.3 Continuous Separated Deck Slab ......................................................................... 6-45
6.5.7 Integral Crosshead....................................................................................................... 6-46
6.5.7.1 Integral Pier Type-1 ............................................................................................. 6-46
6.5.7.2 Integral Pier Type-2 ............................................................................................. 6-48
6.5.8 Integral Abutment ........................................................................................................ 6-49
6.5.9 Bridge Design Codes ................................................................................................... 6-51
6.5.9.1 British Codes ........................................................................................................ 6-51
6.5.9.2 Eurocodes ............................................................................................................ 6-52
6.6 Seismic Effects .................................................................................................................... 6-53
6.6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................. 6-53
6.6.2 Tectonic and Seismic Activity ...................................................................................... 6-54
6.6.3 Seismic Loading ........................................................................................................... 6-54
6-ii
6.6.3.1 Earthquake Events ............................................................................................... 6-55

6.6.3.2 Seismic Response Spectra .................................................................................... 6-56
6.6.3.3 Response Modification Factor-R ......................................................................... 6-56
6.6.3.4 Combination of Seismic Force Effects ................................................................. 6-57
6.6.3.5 Non-Linear Time History Analysis ...................................................................... 6-57
6.6.3.6 Likehood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Soil Liquefaction Phenomena........... 6-57
6.7 Bridge Aesthetics................................................................................................................. 6-57
6.8 Bridge Maintenance............................................................................................................. 6-60
6.8.1 Maintenance Bridges and Viaducts.............................................................................. 6-60
6.8.2 Inspection and Assessment of Bridge ........................................................................... 6-60
6.8.2.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 6-61
6.8.2.2 Inspection Equipment ........................................................................................... 6-61
6.8.2.3 Inspection and Assessment ................................................................................... 6-62
6.8.2.4 Reporting.............................................................................................................. 6-63
FIGURES
Figure 6-1 Type Of Bridges Bridges………………………………………………………… 6-1

Figure 6-2 Typical Design Procedure for Bridges…………………………………………… 6-3
Figure 6-3 General Arrangement of A Bridge ………………………………………………. 6-5
Figure 6-4 JPS Requirement For Bridge Design ……………………………………………. 6-7
Figure 6-5 Suggested Horizontal Clearance…………………………………………… 6-8
Figure 6-6 Protection Island ……………………………………………………………….6-9
Figure 6-7 Fender Protection …………………………………………………………………6-9
Figure 6-8 Dolphin Protection ………………………………………………………………. 6-9
Figure 6-9 Insufficient Sight Distance ………………………………………………………..6-12
Figure 6-10 Sufficient Sight Distance ....................................................................................... 6-12
Figure 6-11 Standard Structure Gauge and Kinematic Envelope from KTM Berhad…........... 6-16
Figure 6-12 Typical envelope of vertical clearance and horizontal span…………….……… 6-17
Figure 6-13 Typical ballast configuration and position of railway tracks……………………...6-18
Figure 6-14 Typical Section Of Parapet……………………………………………………….6-19
Figure 6-15 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s non- electrified railway track……………….6-21
Figure 6-16 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s electrified railway track……………………...6-21
Figure 6-17 Typical Span Range for Different Deck Types ....................................................6-22
Figure 6-18 Bridge Deck Types ...............................................................................................6-23
Figure 6-19 Precast Segmental Bridges .....................................................................................6-23
Figure 6-20 Papar Bridge – Steel Trusses .................................................................................6-24
Figure 6-21 Malaysia – Singapore 2nd Crossing – Insitu Box Girder Bridge ...........................6-24
Figure 6-22 Penang Bridge – Cable Stay ..................................................................................6-24
Figure 6-23 Clifton Suspension Bridge .....................................................................................6-25
Figure 6-24 Bank Seat Abutment ..............................................................................................6-26
Figure 6-25 Wall Abutment ......................................................................................................6-26
Figure 6-26 Typical Pier Shapes ................................................................................................6-27
Figure 6-27 Driven Pile ..............................................................................................................6-28
Figure 6-28 Asphaltic Plug Joint ................................................................................................6-29
Figure 6-29 Elastomer Reinforced Joint .....................................................................................6-30
Figure 6-30 Mechanical Joint .....................................................................................................6-30
Figure 6-31 Modular Joints …… ...............................................................................................6-30
Figure 6-32 Elastometric Bearings …………………………………………………………….6-32
Figure 6-33 Mechanical Bearings ...............................................................................................6-32
6-iii
Figure 6-34 Bearings on Steep Gradients ..................................................................................6-33

Figure 6-35 Uplifts of Bearings .................................................................................................6-33
Figure 6-36 Methods of Preventing Uplift .................................................................................6-33
Figure 6-37 Orientation of Bearings ..........................................................................................6-33
Figure 6-38 Concrete Bridge Parapets .......................................................................................6-35
Figure 6-39 Guard Rails at Bridge Approach ......................................................................... . 6-35
Figure 6-40 Typical End Treatment of Parapet .........................................................................6-35
Figure 6-41 Typical Ducting in Parapets .................................................................................. 6-36
Figure 6-42 Typical Bridge Drainage ........................................................................................6-37
Figure 6-43 Properties For Bridge Design…………………………………………………….6-41
Figure 6-44 Grillage Analysis.................................................................................................... 6-44
Figure 6-45 3-D Model ............................................................................................................. 6-44
Figure 6-46 Finite Element Method ..........................................................................................6-44
Figure 6-47 Typical pier ends embedded in narrow integral cross-head…………………..….6-45
Figure 6-48 Typical Beam Supported On Elastometric Bearings……………………..………6-46
Figure 6-49 Contuinity Beams Arrangement………………………………………………….6-47
Figure 6-50 Continuity Precast Beam Supported On A Widened Pier Cap Withou Support..…6-48
Figure 6-51 Integral Pier Type-2 ............................................................................................. 6-49
Figure 6-52 Typical Integral Abutment Bridge With A Single Span……………………..… 6-50
Figure 6-53 Integral Frame Model ……………………………………………………..…... 6-51
Figure 6-54 Load Consideration For SStructure Analysis ……………………………..…… 6-51
Figure 6-55 Eurocodes……………………………………………………………………… 6-53
Figure 6-56 Microzonation Map of Peninsular Malaysia & Sabah Sarawak ......................... 6-54
Figure 6-57 Damage Performance Level For Bridges ……..………………………………. 6-55
Figure 6-58 Response Spectra ................................................................................................ 6-56
Figure 6-59 The Forth Bridge, Scotland .................................................................................. 6-58
Figure 6-60 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco ..................................................................... 6-58
Figure 6-61 Millau Viaduct, France ......................................................................................... 6-58
Figure 6-62 Slender Deck and Deeper Upstands .................................................................... 6-59
Figure 6-63 On the Selection of Span Lengths ....................................................................... 6-59
Figure 6-64 Types Of Bridge Inspection……........................................................................ 6-61
Figure 6-65 Recording Equipment …………………………………………………………. .6-62
Figure 6-66 Measurement Equipment …………………………………………………….… 6-62
Figure 6-67 Photograph of Two Bridges With A Number Of Bridge Elements Labelled…... 6-63
Figure 6-68 Photograph of Two Bridges With A Number Of Bridge Elements Labelled…..… 6-63
REFERENCES
Reference 6-1 BA. 42/96, Design of Integral Bridges

Reference 6-2 Prestressed Beam Integral Bridges; Hambly, E.C. and Nicholson, B.A.
Reference 6-3 Concrete Box-Girder Bridges; Jorg Schlaich & Harmut Scheef.
Reference 6-4 Manual Of Bridge Engineering; Ryall, Parke and Harding
Reference 6-5 Prestressed Concrete Bridges – Design and Construction;Nigel R.Hewson
Reference 6-6 Bridge Deck Analysis; Eugene O‟Brien & Damien Keog
Reference 6-7 Bridge Engineering – A Global Perspective; Troyano
Reference 6-8 Seismic Hazard And Risk Management of Malaysia; Dr. Azlan bin Adnan, Ir. P.N.
Selvanayagam and Others
Reference 6-9 IEM Seminar on “Use of Eurocodes for The Design Of Bridges”; Chris Hendy,
Head of Bridge Design And Technology, Atkins
Reference 6-10 Urban Drainage Design Standards and Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia, 1994
6-iv
Reference 6-11 Piglet – Pile Group Analysis Software; Dr. M F Randolph, Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Western Australia
Reference 6-12 Expressway Maintenance System – Maintenance Manual And Guideline (Civil
Works)
APPENDIX A
List of Bridge related Codes
ABBREVIATIONS
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

JKR Jabatan Kerja Raya
KTMB Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad
SIM Standards Institute of Malaysia
MHA Malaysian Highway Authority
MASMA Urban Stormwater Management Manual of Malaysia
6-v
6 BRIDGES
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Overview of Bridges
Bridges are an integral part of the road network, which serves as the lifeline of any state.
Bridges provide the continuity to the Highway when it traverses obstructions.Obstructions

can be Natural: -
 River Crossing
 Soft – Ground
 Ponds
 Expanse of Water (Straits)
 Ravine / Valleys
Or Man-made :-
 Railway Crossing
 Road Crossing
 Built-Environment
In other words, bridge is a structure for carrying the road traffic or other moving loads over
a depression or obstruction such as channel, road or railway.
The variety of forms of bridges demonstrates the combination of art and technology.Design of
bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is
constructed, the material used to make it and the funds available to build it. There are six main types
of bridges: beam bridges, arch bridges, truss bridges, suspension bridges, cantilever bridges and
cable-stayed bridges.
Figure 6-1 Type of Bridges
The major consideration for bridge type selection were sustainability, functionality, value
engineering, aesthetic, work cost, maintenance friendly, construction time, and location. Selecting an
appropriate superstructure type is a critical factor in the planning and design process.
6-1
In order to function as a Bridge, it must be:-
 Designable
 Buildable
 Cost-Effective
 Provides comfort and safety to users
The following sub-sections will deal with the above functions of the bridge and how it can be
achieved in the planning, design, construction phases and subsequent maintenance.
6.1.2 Government Requirement
Refer to JKR, JKSB and LLM requirement.
6.1.2.1 Required as in Contract Agreement
Concessions company or main contractors need to submit design brief, detail design, design
calculation and etc as in Contract Agreement.
6.1.2.2 Approved Suppliers of Materials and Specialist Contractors
Main contractors engaged on projects involving the supply of special materials or specialist
works on highway structures shall either themselves be registered as approved suppliers , or shall be
required to engage one of the approved suppliers or specialist contractors registered in the category
to supply the special materials or to carry out the specialist works on highway structures.
6.2 Bridges Design Procedure
The design of bridges is a voluminous subject to be dealt in a General Manual. Suffice to say
that each individual designer or organisations have established practices based on knowledge and
experience.
Generally the procedure to be adopted for the design of bridges can be divided into two main
sections.
(A) Planning and Preliminary Design Stage

(B) Final Design and Contract Stage
The steps in the various stages are given in Figure 6.2.
6-2
Site Investigation And

Location
EEstablish : Road Establish : Prepare : Submit :

Alignment
(1) Clients requirements ------------------- (1) Bridge Type (1) General Proposals to Clients
(2) Design criteria Preliminary Soil (2) Skew Arrangements and appropriate
(3) Appropriate Authorities Investigation (3) Length Authorities for
requirements (4) Span Lengths (2) Preliminary
approval
(5) Foundations Estimate
Preliminary
Survey
Stage 1 - Planning And Preliminary Design
Complete Superstructure
Survey design ICE Review and Certification
Prepare : Final Supervision

Substructure submission and
design Construction for construction
drawings and approval
estimates
Complete
Foundation
Investigation Preparation of
B of Q
and
Contract Documents
Stage 2 - Final Design And Contract Documents
Figure 6-2 Typical Design Procedure For Bridges
(A) Planning and Preliminary Design Stage
In this stage, the type of bridge, the span, the skew, the widths, the clearances and the
loadings to be carried have to be established and a General Arrangement (GA) drawing prepared for
submission to the appropriate Authorities and Client for approval.
At this stage generally all survey and soil investigation work should be carried out so that a
proper assessment of the bridge type and spans can be made. Investigations should also be
undertaken into the cost of various alternatives.
The purpose of the GA drawing is to indicate the intended design of the bridge, the basic
dimensions of the bridge. Guidelines for the developments of different bridge crossings are given
below.
On completion of this stage, the output would be: -
 Layout of the bridge General Arrangement

 Selection of bridge Substructure and Superstructure
6-3
(B) Final Design Stage
After approval of the proposals the preparation of the final design and working drawings can
commence.
The stage comprises the following:
 Analysis of the selected bridge type

 Design of the bridge elements and the overall bridge
 Detailing of the bridge for construction
 Supervision to ensure that the designers intent and specifications are complied with.
A list of drawings required is drawn up by the engineer responsible for the design and the
designer of the bridge is held responsible for the accuracy of the drawings and thoroughly checks all
details contained in these drawings.
ICE review and certification.

6.2.1 General Arrangement of Bridge
In deriving the General Arrangement of the Bridge the following components of bridge
need consideration:-
The bridge structure comprises of the following parts (refer to Figure 6-3):
 Substructure
This comprises piers and abutments, wing walls or returns and their foundation.
1. Piers and Abutments

These are vertical structures supporting deck/bearing provided for transmitting the
load down to the bed/earth through foundation.
2. Wing walls and Returns

These are provided as extension of the abutments to retain the earth of approach
bank which otherwise has a natural angle of repose.
3. Foundation
This is provided to transmit the load from the piers or abutments and wings or
returns to and evenly distribute the load on to the strata. This is to be provided
sufficiently deep so that it is not affected by the scour caused by the flow in the river
and does not get undermined.
 Bearings
The bearings transmit the load received from the decking on to the substructure and are
provided for distribution of the load evenly over the substructure material which may not
have sufficient bearing strength to bear the superstructure load directly.
 Superstructure or Decking
This includes slab, girder, truss, etc. This bears the load passing over it and transmits the
forces caused by the same to the substructures.
6-4
While the above mentioned are structurally operational parts, for safety hand rails or
parapets, guard rails or curbs are provided over the decking in order to prevent vehicle or
user from falling into the stream or for the separation of traffic streams.
Figure 6-3 General Arrangement of A Bridge
6-5
6.2.1.1 River Bridges & Marine Bridges
6.2.1.1.1 General
Hydrological and hydraulic studies of bridge sites are a necessary part of the preliminary
design of a bridge. Appropriate investigations shall be carried out to determine the best design. The
investigation shall include:-
a) Hydraulic and hydrology data: as required to determine the soffit levels and deck
finished levels of the bridges, river training, scour depth estimation, sedimentation,
etc.
b) Navigational requirements for navigable bridge: as required to determine soffit

levels, minimum navigational spans, protection against ship impact, navigational
lighting, etc.
c) Reference is made to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (JPS) Malaysia “Urban

Stormwater Management Manual of Malaysia” or MASMA.
d) Headwater depth (HW) at relevant return period (normally 5 years minor storm and
100 years major storm is considered) based on various bridge opening / cross
sections.
e) Backwater and mean velocities at bridge opening for various trial bridge lengths and
selected discharges;
Design of Bridges for Hydraulic action should be in accordance with BA 59/94.The reference
shall also be made to REAM guidelines.
6.2.1.1.2 River Bridges.
Hydrological and hydraulic analysis should be elaborated in accordance with the Jabatan
Pengairan dan Saliran requirements. Hydrological Procedures (refer Section 9.1.3 – Estimation of
Design Flood) and Design Standards and other local authorities requirements.
Design shall take into consideration of any sedimentation occurs during and after
construction. The sediment control shall refer to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia of
Sediment Control Guideline and Erosion Control in Malaysia. However, the designer should obtain
the approval from Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran for any bridge crossing river.
6.2.1.1.2.1 Site Data
The following data have to be taken in account as a minimum when conducting these studies
and analyses:
 topographic maps and/or aerial photographs with geomorphologic features of

surrounding land, landuse, river pattern, sand deposits, bank level and others;
 detail survey for stream bed invert levels and cross sections;
 complete data on existing bridges including dates of construction and performances
during past floods;
 The historical of flood level/record shall be considered in the design.
 The designer should review with Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) or JPS requirement
pertaining to the merge river at the surrounding area.
6-6
 The consideration on the environment shall also refer to LLM‟s guideline in Section 2
Environmental Consideration.
 available high water marks with dates of occurrence;
 information on navigation, debris and channel stability, flow pattern and constriction
of flow;
 factors affecting water stages such as high water from other streams, reservoirs, flood
control projects and tides.
6.2.1.1.2.2 Bridge Clearances
For bridge over river the freeboard shall be in accordance to Garispanduan Pembangunan
Melibatkan Sungai dan Rezab Sungai by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia such as below but
not limited to:
 The minimum vertical clearance from bridge soffit shall be 1.0m from 100yrs return
period flood level of existing river or flood plain area.
 Access for maintenance vehicle shall be provided.
 Riverbank stability shall be analyzed.
 The abutment wall shall be 2.0m away from edge of river berm.
 Pier shall be out off the deepest river bed and shall be protected from any scour.
Especially for river width more than 30m
 Pier pilecaps shall be 1.5m below river bed level.
 Detail of any proposed river protection works shall be submitted to Jabatan
Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia for approval.
The river waterway for ship/boat shall be considered in the design. However, the data of the
frequency ship/boat using waterway, speed and direction shall be obtain with relevant authorities.
Generally the Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran, Malaysia requirement as per Figure 6-4 below.
1.0m (min) above

water level Q100
Existing Protection Works at

10m Upstream and
River Profile Downstream
Design River
Profile
If Piers on
berm
Figure 6-4 JPS Requirement For Bridge Design.
6-7
6.2.1.1.3 Marine Bridges.
6.2.1.1.3.1 Navigational Waterways
There are two topography level systems used in Malaysia; the Admiralty Chart Datum (ACD)
and Land Survey Datum (LSD). Admiralty Chart Datum (ACD) is generally used for the marine and
port facilities while Land Survey Datum is used for the inland facilities. The difference between the
two systems shall be verified with the respective Marine Department
AASHTO Guide Specification and Commentary for vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges (1991) states, “Bridges with main span less than 2 or 3 times the Design vessel length are
vulnerable to vessel collision”.
The suggested horizontal clearance to be used in planning stage for important bridges crossing
open deep waters is given below:
Vessel Traffic Free Navigation Restricted navigation
One – way 3.2L 1.6L

Two – way 6.7L to 8.2L 3.5L to 5L
*Where L is the length of the vessel.
Figure 6-5 Suggested Horizontal Clearance
6.2.1.1.3.2 Aviation Limit
The actual height restriction over the Main Navigation Span could be obtained from the
"Aeronautical Information Publication, Malaysia" by the Aeronautical Information Service
Department of Civil Aviation. The designer shall check with the relevant Department of Civil
Aviation for the height restriction and shall obtain the approval of the relevant Department of Civil
Aviation for any deviation or waiver.
6.2.1.1.3.3 Ship Collision Impact Load
For determining vessel collision loads, consideration should be given to Waterway geometry,
available water depth, size, type, loading condition and frequency of vessels using waterway, vessel
speed, direction and structural response of the bridge to collision.
It must be noted that in addition to above, necessary information pertaining to navigation

should be obtained from the authorities, such as Marine Department. However proper judgement,
experience and detailed analysis are required to satisfy navigational requirements.
The basic design case for ship collision impact shall consider Dead weight Tonnage (DWT)
of the vessel at certain cruising speed. Consideration shall include the distance of piers from the
navigation span as well as the depth of water in assessing the risk of ship collision.
Further Information on navigational requirements can be obtained from:

 AASHTO Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway
Bridges (1991).
 AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification.
6-8
In navigable waterways, the two basic protection options available are designing bridge
structures to resist vessel collision force and/or protecting by fenders, dolphins, berms or island.
Figure 6-6 Protection Island
Figure 6-7 Fender Protection
Figure 6-8 Dolphins Protection
6.2.1.1.3.4 Bridge Clearances
The bridge over the main navigation channel shall be to satisfy with horizontal and vertical
navigation clearances and requirements by the relevant port authority and maritime department.
The height clearance shall be measured above from the MHWS (Mean High Water Sprint),
while the required draft shall be measured below the MLWS (Mean Lowest Water Sprint ).
6-9
6.2.1.1.4 Materials.
Consideration should be given to the aggressive marine environment and the appropriate
concrete mix. The cover to reinforcement should be determined by consideration of durability under
the envisaged condition of exposure.
The design of concrete bridges on issues of durability, cover to reinforcement and crack width
requirements shall follow as per Clause 6.5 Bridge Design.
Provision of more than minimum concrete cover over the reinforcement is encouraged in
elements such as piers and pile caps located in the sea to provide a level of robustness and durability
design life in excess of the minimum.
Materials shall be durable and adequate protection shall be provided against environmental
deterioration. Minimum grade of concrete allowable is Grade 40 (C40/20). Where the bridge is
exposed to chlorides, high performance concrete or equivalent shall be used.
Anti-corrosion protective system: The steel materials used for the bridge structures shall
follow BS 5400: Part 6 and shall be protected by a comprehensive anti-corrosion protective system in
accordance with BS 5493 or equivalent. The minimum effective life of such protective system shall
be in excess of 20 years.
6.2.1.2 Road Bridges& Urban Bridges
A highway structure is a structure intended to carry highway vehicles, and/or bicycles and
pedestrians over, under or through a physical obstruction or hazard, and may be abridge (which may
be in the form of a culvert exceeding 2 meter in diameter or span), a flyover, a viaduct, and
underpass, a subway, a walkway cover, a cantilever noise barrier, a noise enclosure or a sign gantry.
Road bridges and urban bridges are those bridges carriageway highway vehicles such as private
cars, bus, lorries and motorcycles.
The difference between road bridges and urban bridges is the localities where these bridges are
constructed. Road bridges are generally located in open areas where constraints and restrictions are
much lesser. For urban bridges, due to their locations certain constraints and restrictions must be
taken into account during planning and design stages of the project.
6.2.1.2.1 Design Consideration
The design of Road Crossing Bridges must take into the consideration of the following factors.
a. Minimum Headroom Clearance – The headroom to be provided is the effective headroom

after compensation for vertical curvature and deflection. The headroom specified for new
construction includes and allowance of 100mm for subsequent resurfacing. The general
practice of 5.4 metre clearance minimum must be adopted. However, under certain
circumstances higher headroom clearance will have to be considered. Headroom shall be
measured from the lowest point of the overhead structure. The lowest point shall be taken as
the lowest lighting fixture, sign, signal or similar protrusion rather than the lowest part of the
overhead structure itself.
b. Minimum side clearance – In the absence of raised kerbs, it is the width between concrete
and/or metal parapets, less the amount of set-back required for these parapets. This set-back
measured from the traffic face of each parapet shall be taken as 0.6 meter on the off-side fast
lane. On the near-side slow lane, the set back shall be taken as 0.6 meter or the width of the
marginal strip whichever is the greater subject to a maximum set-back of 1.0 meter.
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c. Impact of pier from accidental vehicles – The overall structural integrity of the bridge shall
be maintained following an impact due to collision of heavy goods vehicles with bridge
superstructures, but local damage to a part of the bridge deck can be accepted. The nominal
loads shall be considered as acting horizontally on bridge supports. Supports shall be
capable of resisting the main and residual load components acting simultaneously. Loads
normal to the carriageway shall be considered separately from loads parallel to the
carriageway.
d. Impact of Bridge Deck from „over height‟ vehicles – Impact damage due to „over-height‟
vehicle can lead to structure collapse, reinforcement damage, girder misalignment, steel
yielding, reinforcement exposure, connection failure, concrete spalling and concrete
cracking. After a collision has occurred in which an emergency repair is required, a fast,
inexpensive, effective and easy to repair.
e. Minimum sighting distance – Sight distances are measured from a minimum driver‟s eye
height of between 1.05m and 2.0m to an object height of between 0.26m and 2.0m, both above
the road surface. A possibility therefore exists that the provision of shorter sight distances
could sometimes be justified on the grounds that motorists can see through certain types of
parapets. However, visibility through a parapet is liable to be obscured and distorted, and
thus cannot be relied upon. A parapet of any kind shall accordingly always be treated as
opaque for purposes of sight distance design.
For bridges in built-up areas (Urban Bridges), the design must take into the consideration of the
following factors other than those mentioned above.
a. Existing Services – Existing services include electric cables, telco cables, sewer lines etc. The
design and locations of bridge structures should avoid these services as much as possible so
that least disruption to these services can be avoided.
b. Land Constraints – The design of the bridge must consider the availability of the space for the
type of structure to be constructed. The new structure must ensure that all the safety aspect of
the existing roadway has been taken into consideration in the design.
c. Buildability to minimise the impact to existing traffic flow – Under no circumstances the
existing traffic flow (both vehicle and human movement) must be least disrupted during
construction. The design and the chosen construction method must be able to accommodate
these impact.
d. Existing structures, drains etc. – The effect of existing structures, drains etc must be
considered. Minimum disruption to these structures must be exercised and the design must be
able to accommodate the existence of these structures.
e. Environmental Constraints – The effect of noise, vibration etc during construction and post
construction must be considered during the design and construction of the bridges. The
chosen design and construction must avoid the discomfort to the people in the surrounding
area. Noise barrier must be considered in the design.
For bridges more than 5km in length, special consideration must be given in providing layby
in the event of emergency. The location of the layby must be away from the middle of span
and must also avoid the crest of the bridge alignment.
The type of bridges chosen must be able to blend into the surrounding structures. Skyline
clearance must be considered in the design.
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Figure 6-9 Insufficient Sight Distance
Figure 6-10 Sufficient Sight Distance
6.2.1.2.2 Details of Carriageway

Liaison with highway engineer is required to confirm the function cross section of the bridge
in order that the following details are confirmed prior to the design of bridges.
 Number of traffic lane
 Width of each traffic lane
 Presence of hard shoulder
 Presence of marginal or set back
 Any other
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6.2.1.2.3 National Lanes

Notional lanes shall be defined in accordance with BD37/01.
6.2.1.2.4 Loadings
The loadings acting on the bridge shall be generally determined in accordance with BD37/01.
Supports exposed in such a way that they may be subject to the collision by vehicle shall be
protected by metal or concrete barriers. And those supports shall be designed to resist the vehicle
collision loads.
6.2.1.2.5 Parapet
A parapet is a structural component installed along the edge of the bridges to contain
vehicles only on the bridges. The design of bridge parapet shall refer to Section 6.4.4 of this
guideline.
Loads transmitted by vehicle collision with parapet to structural elements supports parapet
shall be dealt with in accordance with Clause 6.7 of BD37/01.
Suitable level of containment shall be determined with due considerations of the following
aspects.
 Vehicle type
 Approach angle and speed
 Road conditions.
Height of parapet shall be determined with due considerations of the following aspects.
 Level of containment
 Structures or features underneath the bridges
Sight distances are measured from a minimum driver‟s eye height of between 1.05 m and 2.0
m to an object height of between 0.26 m and 2.0 m, both above the road surface. A possibility
therefore exists that the provision of shorter sight distances could sometimes be justified on the
grounds that motorists can see through certain types of parapets. However, visibility through a
parapet is liable to be obscured and distorted, and thus cannot be relied upon. A parapet of any kind
shall accordingly always be treated as opaque for purposes of sight distance design.
6.2.1.2.6 Bridge Supports

The arrangement of bridge supports including the piers, column and abutment shall take
account of the sight distance of the road under the overbridges.
6.2.1.2.7 Expansion Joints

The design of expansion joints shall refer section 6.4.1 of this guideline.
6.2.1.3 Railway Over Bridges (ROB)
The purposes of this chapter are to highlight the general requirements, guideline and
technical considerations for the new bridges and elevated structures crossing the railway tracks. In
general, the railway tracks in Malaysia are under the care of the Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM)
Berhad. Concurrently, KTM Berhad is the nodal authority representing the Government overseeing
the needs that imperative to be considered in the project involving the railway track. KTM Berhad has
set forth the criteria essential to be considered in the design and similar requirement shall be adopted
in other railway lines in the country.
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Similar reference can also be considered in proposing a bridge crossing other than KTM
Berhad‟s railway track namely the LRT, ERL, Monorail and also MRT (Similar consideration also
can be adopted to bridge crossing over high speed train railway in the future, however it requires
further comments and inputs from the relevant authority).
Due to recent development, the Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat (SPAD) has been
established by the Government to regulate and enforce all matters relating to land public transport
including the implementation process of project involving railway lines in the country. Designer shall
refer to the said agency prior to commence design works.
Salient consideration shall be taken into account amongst others, basing on the following
items;
6.2.1.3.1 General Requirements
Basic information of bridges and elevated structures crossing railway track are similar to the
road crossing, therefore the following items are required to be reviewed beforehand ;
i. About existing railway :

 Class and grade,
 Rail gauge and cross sectional profile,
 Right of way (railway reserve),
 Clearance limit,
 Electrified or conventional track.
ii. About future plan :

 Electrification plan,
 Double tracking plan,
 Elevating plan., if any.
6.2.1.3.2 Consultation Items
The following items are to be consulted with the overseeing authority of railway tracks ;
i. Bridge structural configuration
Geometric standard of the carriageway including the type & configuration of superstructures
to conform with Malaysia Highway Authority (MHA), Suruhanjaya Pengangkutan Awam Darat
(SPAD) and other recognized publications requirement
such as Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM) in tandem with Jabatan Kerja
Raya (JKR) standard girders.
ii. Bridge length and span
Geometric design of the horizontal and vertical profile of the bridges crossing railway track
shall be in accordance with the present JKR Arahan Teknik (Jalan), Malaysia Highway Authority
(MHA) or other governing authority requirement.
iii. Clearance limit
The clearance limits of railway are different depending on the type and kind of railways. The
railway in Malaysia has been developed based on the British gauge and is now in progress of
electrification. Figure in the following items no. 6.2.1.3.4.(a) and 6.2.1.3.4.(b) shown the clearance
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below the bridge crossing both the KTM Berhad‟s electrified and non- electrified railway tracks
respectively.
However, the new commuter railway system is going to be/has been constructed in the urban
areas. To cross with such new system, clearance limit should be consulted with the associated
authorities and shall then be continued by individual consultation.
a) Vertical Clearance
It is the designer‟s responsibility of obtaining latest requirement for vertical clearance limit
envelope from the KTM Berhad & other governing authorities prior to design. Approval of all
clearances below the bridge shall be obtained from the said authority.
In general, KTM Berhad guidelines specified minimum vertical clearance of 7.0m shall be
maintained over top of existing & new electrified railway track with „catenary facilities‟ to the lowest
soffit of bridge superstructure girders.
Similarly, for new bridges crossing existing & new non-electrified railway track, KTM
Berhad guidelines specified a minimum vertical clearance of 6.1m should generally be provided to the
lowest soffit of bridge superstructure girders.
b) Horizontal Clearance
It is the designer‟s responsibility of obtaining latest requirement for horizontal clearance

limit envelope from the KTM Berhad & other governing authorities prior to design. Approval of all
clearances below the bridge shall be obtained from the said authority
In general, KTM Berhad guidelines specified the horizontal clear span for the bridges shall
be minimum 25m measured perpendicular or no less than 80 degree to railway track for
accommodating future tracks. Minimum 3.5m horizontal clearance shall be maintained between edge
of pier cap/abutments and centre line of track nearest to these structures.
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Figure 6-11 Standard Structure Gauge and Kinematic Envelope from KTM Berhad
Reference to the standard structure gauge and kinematic envelope from the KTM Berhad‟s as
illustrated above is necessary prior to the design of bridge crossing railway. The above information
are generally govern the minimum vertical headroom and horizontal clearance below the lowest soffit
of bridge to the top of rail levels and from the front face of bridge supports to the center line of rails
respectively.
Also, a minimum of 3.5m from the front face of bridge‟s pier & abutment to the center line of
tracks shall be provided by the designer.
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Figure 6-12 Typical envelope of vertical clearance (from soffit of bridge) and horizontal span (from
either side of pier supports) to the non-electrified railway track.
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Figure 6-13 Typical ballast configuration and position of railway tracks. Designer shall be
responsible to liaise with the KTM Berhad and other governing authorities on the above ballast
formation requirement prior to the bridge foundation design.
iv. Location of abutments and piers
Abutment walls shall be parallel next to the railway lines after the 25.0 horizontal clearance
envelope. If the restraining walls need to be constructed in the vicinity of abutment wall, the
restraining wall shall be vertical containing the earth up to the bridge top surface level.
Restraining wall shall be of reinforced earth soil wall type or other approved equivalent wall
that aesthetically pleasing.
For the bridge requires intermediate pier supports, the location of pier caps shall be
minimum 3.5m perpendicular the to centre line of nearest track.
v. Bridge pile / foundation
Low displacement/bored piles are favorable for bridge in close proximity to the existing
railway lines. However, other type of foundations requires proper submission to the KTM Berhad &
other authorities for approval / conditional approval.
vi. Embedding depth of foundations
The whole structure shall be supported by piled foundations or spread footings depending on
the soil conditions. In general, all top of foundations and pile caps shall be placed 1.5m below the
finished ground level (i.e. below rail‟s cess level) unless otherwise constrained by site conditions.
Finished ground level at the top of pile cap location shall follow the 1:20 gradient from rail cess
levels (edge of ballast at bottom) for future earthworks.
vii. Existing rail levels
Information of existing rail levels shall be provided by the rail operator for reference prior to
the design of bridge. Under certain circumstances, additional surveys are necessary to be carried out.
viii. Impact from Collision
Designer shall confirm with KTM Berhad & other railway authorities on the requirement of
additional impact loads due to trains collision that needs to be considered for pier supports design of
the bridge.
Main primary loads to the bridge shall be referred to the present standards and codes of
practice as listed in the appendices.
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6.2.1.2.3 Other Associated Items
i. Engineering submission :
Relevant documents require proper submission to the railway authorities are as follows;
a) Application forms
b) Conceptual plans including survey data
c) Preliminary and Detailed engineering design plans
d) As built plans
ii. Material :
Utilize materials for the bridge structures that are highly resistant to aggressive agents (e.g.
climate and traffic generate harmful impacts and vibrations). Protect the more degradable materials
with suitable products which are generally customary on all metal structures, shall also be applied to
concrete structures especially on those that most exposed.
iii. Parapet :
Bridge parapet shall be of concrete structures. Two (2) types of Parapet – Type A and Type B
to be provided as per KTM Berhad‟s and JKR‟s guidelines.
Minimum 1.8m high (measured from top of walkway) Parapet Type B will be extended up to
10.0m on both side from the KTM Berhad reserve area / above 25.0m horizontal clear span / corridor
whichever is more. Designer shall ensure that the parapet meets the requirement of high containment
wall TL 5 as per Malaysia Highway Authority (MHA) specification.
Parapet Type A will be continued with sufficient distance covering the approaches /
departures to & from the bridge. The provision of the extended parapet is necessary as to avert the
skidded vehicle from dashing along and jump onto the railway traffic.
All parapets shall be designed to resist the vehicle impact load as per the codes of practice.
Figure 6-14 Typical Section Of Parapet
iv. Deck drainage :

Drainage facility for the bridge deck shall be suitably provided with UPVC pipe at designed
interval or required minimum number per sq.m. whichever is applicable, either on both side or on
lower side of deck depending upon the cross-fall of deck, except for the 25.0m stretch (envelope) over
the railway tracks, not required. Drainage facility for the bridge deck shall be provided in such a way
that the drainage collection system will be properly connected to the nearest drain/sump.
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Deck drainage shall be designed for a „n‟ year of return period and appropriate hydraulic
calculation. All pipes diameter shall be based on the basis of the slope (%) and the capacity
(litres/second) where UPVC pipes are used. In any case the pipe diameters cannot be less than
150mm.
Devices, consists of gullies and collector pipes, shall be provided for collection and disposal
of rainwater and surface run-off. Similarly, the maintenance of the drainage facilities & systems shall
be executed by the relevant authority.
v. Deck Waterproofing :
All top deck slabs are to be waterproofed. Surface run-off from top deck slab will be
discharged through the outlets drained out to the nearest sump outside the KTM Berhad‟s and other
governing authorities‟ R.O.W. The provision of waterproofing shall only applicable for bridge
crossing railway line.
Resurfacing of waterproofing shall be included in the standard operation procedures (SOP)

acceptable to the governing authorities.
vi. Expansion Joint :

In the event of the need of expansion centers at deck level at mid pier (i.e. pier support that
closes to electrified railway track), the designers are advised to adopt expansion joint composed of
two parts that (i) the upper layer able to maintain the continuity of the road surface and (ii) the
second lower part designed to prevent infiltration of water into the underlying structures.
vii. Bracket for utility services :

In principle, there will be no bracket allowed to be attached to the outer side of bridge
parapet / edge of deck for utility and power cables including water mains, sewer line etc. All utility
ducting shall be embedded into the concrete parapet or deck depending on the
design requirement. Proper consultations for these items are necessary with the relevant
authorities.
viii. Frontage & service road :

Provision of frontage road shall be outside of the railway line R.O.W. No encroachment of
access roads shall be permitted into the track right of way.
ix. Street light

The light pole shall be mounted at median of the bridge. No lighting pole to be erected at the
edge of bridge within/above the KTM Berhad‟s R.O.W. and other governing authorities.
x. Signage
No pedestal for the signage board shall be provided at the outer edge & top surface of
parapet wall as to avoid falling onto the railway tracks.
ix. Construction requirements (including relocation and protection of existing railway

facilities) :
All launching of superstructure girders shall obtain approval from the authority. All proper
method statement (with Professional Engineer endorsement) for launching procedures including
temporary bracing between installed girders, etc. shall be submitted to the KTM Berhad and other
governing authorities for approval. Time block to be given by the rail authority basing on the method
of girder launching submitted by the Contractor.
Limit of construction can be highlighted in the design document/drawing as to ensure the

safety aspect has been taken into account and protection of existing railway facilities/assets and
services are necessary to be considered prior to the construction like providing the sheet piling, safety
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net, etc. A minimum distance of 10.0m, or, subject to the present requirement, from the railway centre
line shall be provided for the construction equipment.
A minimum acceptable height and approximately 50m long temporary hording shall be
provided before and after the proposed bridge location during the construction period.
x. Permits to enter railway line :

All permits shall be applied timely to the relevant authorities before entering the railway
track vicinity (R.O.W.).
6.2.1.3.4 Sample View of Bridge
Figure 6-15 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s non-

electrified railway track
Figure 6-16 Bridge crossing the KTM Berhad‟s

electrified railway track
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6.2.2 Selection of Bridge Superstructure
The selection of the Bridges Superstructure (Deck) depends on:-
 Curvature / Skew / Span / Width / Depth constraints

 Materials availability / suitability eg masonary / concrete / steel composites
 Construction constraints eg Heavily trafficked / ravine / waterways
6.2.2.1 Short to Medium Spans Bridges
 The deck system available for short to medium span bridges are :-
 Cast-insitu concrete
 Precast Beams plus in-situ concrete deck
 Steel Beam plus in-situ concrete deck
CABLE STAYED BRIDGES
INSTU SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (VARIABLE DEPTH)
PRECAST SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (VARIABLE DEPTH)
INSITU OR PRECAST SEGMENTAL BOX GIRDER (CONSTANT DEPTH)
PRECAST CONCRETE BEAMS
INSITU CONCRETE SLAB
20 40 60 80 100 200 1000

SPAN LENGTH / METRE
Figure 6-17 Typical Span Range for Different Deck Types
Min Radius
No Type Max Span (meters)
(meters)
1. Pre-Tensioned 30 200
Precast U-Beams
2. Post-Tensioned 30 200
Precast I-Beams
3. Post-Tensioned 40 300
T-Beams
4. Insitu Voided Slab 25 (Reinforced) 80

30 (Prestressed)
5. Insitu Box 30 (Reinforced) 80
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6. Precast Segmental 50 (No Haunch) 100

70 (Haunch)
7. Steel Beams 30 (Standard 200

Beams)
50 (Plate Girders)
8. Steel U-Beams 70 100
Figure 6-18 Bridge Deck Types
6.2.2.2 Short to Medium Spans Curved Bridges
For curved bridges, particularly in urban areas the options available are :-
On gentle curves, straight beams can be used provided the spans are kept short. Curved in-
situ voided slab box bridges if the curvature of the road is less 100 metre
For longer spans, bridge over, heavy traffic precast segmental bridges can be used using the
balanced cantilever method. This type can extend to spans of 70 metres
Figure 6-19 Precast Segmental Bridges
6.2.2.3 Medium Spans Bridges
The bridge deck system available for Medium span bridges:-
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Figure 6-20 Papar Bridge – Steel Trusses
Figure 6-21 Malaysia – Singapore 2nd Crossing – Insitu Box Girder Bridge
Figure 6-22 Penang Bridge – Cable Stay
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6.2.2.4 Long Spans Bridges
Long span bridges are generally cable stayed bridges or suspension bridges.
Figure 6-23 Clifton Suspension Bridge
There are however hybrid suspension cable stay bridges that can span even longer then
suspension bridges.
6.3 Bridges Substructure
Bridge Substructure comprises of:-
Abutments - End Supports.

Piers - Intermediate Supports
6.3.1 Abutments
The selection of Abutments depends on: -
 Embankment Height
 Foundation Condition
There are as number of Abutment Types
The most common are: -
 Bank Seat - Resting on top of embankment slope

 Wall Abutments - Resting at the bottom of slope
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Figure 6-24 Bank Seat Abutment
Figure 6-25 Wall Abutment
The selection of abutment depends on the availability of space under the bridge and soil
condition.
In weak soil conditions, bank seat abutments are not to be used, as it is unstable due to
embankment movements. Wall abutments with retained sidewalls on a piled base are preferred.
If the ground cannot support the embankment, a piled raft to support the embankment
adjacent to the bridge is required.
6.3.2 Piers
There are a variety of Pier Types depending on:-
 Support points required for the bridge

 Heights of bridge
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Figure 6-26 Typical Pier Shapes
Piers tend to add elegance to the bridge and a variety of Pier shapes are available.
6.3.3 Foundations
The foundation of bridges will depend on ground conditions.
Foundation must be able to support the loads coming from the superstructure and
substructure viz. Direct vertical loads, horizontal loads and moments. Considerations must also be
given to loads due to seismic activities and ship impact forces where applicable.
Where the grounds can sustain the applied loading (i.e. sand, gravel, rock) within an
acceptable tolerance, then pad footings can be considered provided all the loads mentioned above
have been designed for.
Where the ground is weak, pile foundations are required. The design of pile foundation must
take into consideration of all the possible loading conditions as mentioned above.
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Generally, pile foundation can be divided into driven piles, jack-in piles and cast-in-place
piles. Driven piles can be of H-steel pile, prestressed spun pile, reinforced concrete square piles.
Driven piles shall not be considered in built-up area due to noise pollution. Jack-in pile shall be
considered as an alternative to driven pile in built-up area.
Cast-in pile can be in the form of micro piles or bored piles. In area where space constraint is
a concern, hand-dug caisson could be an option. However, caisson shall have the minimum diameter
of 1.2m due to safety consideration.
Figure 6-27 Driven Pile
Pile Group Analysis using „Piglet‟ or similar software has to be carried out to determine the
loads on individual piles. The structural and soil carrying capacity of the pile must be checked against
the maximum loaded pile in the group.
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6.4 Bridge Accessories
6.4.1 Expansion Joints
6.4.1.1 General
Expansion joints are provided to seal the gap between two parts of the bridge deck, which is
subject to movement due to temperature, creep, shrinkage and other forces.
Expansion joints, by virtue of their function, are usually a weak part of the bridge, thus
requiring frequent repair and disruption to traffic.
In view of the above, there is currently or tendency to design bridges without expansion joints
where feasible. This may be achieved by providing:
 Deck Continuity
 Integral Bridges
Reference is to be made to UK Highway Agency BA 42/96-The Design of Integral Bridges

(Incorporating Amendment No. 1 dated May 2003).
Deck continuity involves design of the superstructure as continuous for superimposed dead
load and live loads. This will enable joint free deck for as much as 200 metres for a multi-span
bridge. Apart from doing away with joints, this improves the riding quality of the bridge deck.
It is now a JKR and MHA requirement for bridge less than 60m and skew less than 30º to be
designed as an integral bridge i.e. the abutment is cast-in with the deck. The design of an Integral
Bridge involves considering the forces due to the whole bridge as a single structure usually a portal
with soil springs representing the soil / structure interaction.
6.4.1.2 Types of Expansion Joints
There are a variety of expansion joints in the market based on the expansion gap to be sealed.
Types of expansion joints are:-
i) Asphaltic plug joints - Asphaltic plug joints are suitable for movements up to +
20mm
Figure 6-28 Asphaltic Plug Joint
This type of joint is not suitable where standing traffic is common due to the possibility of
diesel leakage from vehicles which then attacks the hydrocarbon compounds within the joint.
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Designer should also consider another situation where the longitudinal gradient of the carriageway is
steep and the diesel leakage flows back towards joint during thunderstorm.
ii) TransflexElastomeric Joints - An elastomer reinforced with metal plates fixed on

both sides of the gap suitable for expansions up to +100m
Figure 6-29 Elastomer Reinforced Joint
iii) Mechanical Joints - A prefabricated joint with metal comb or tooth with plates that slide
back and forth between each other suitable for movements as much as + 300mm. . This type of joint is
also called cantilever type joint because of the metal comb or tooth plates‟ cantilever action in
bridging the gap.
Figure 6-30 Mechanical Joint
iv) Modular Joints - Also called elastomeric in metal runners (as defined in BD 33/94) or
lamella joints this type of joint can accommodate large movements in all
three directions and rotations about all three axes.
Figure 6-31 Modular Joint

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v) Seismic Joints - Modified modular joints to accommodate large longitudinal, transverse

and vertical displacements, as well as vertical rotations. These joints will
be required where seismic isolation bearings are used.
6.4.1.3 Design Of Expansion Joints
Design of expansion joints shall be carried out as per BD 33/94 and BD 26/94 (UK Highway
Agency). The expansion joints must be capable of sustaining loads and movements. It might be
prudent in the design of all joints (to be judged by the designer) to increase the point load or axle
load as specified in BD 33/94 where there could be cases of overloading by lorries or trucks.
Movements of the structure can be longitudinal (predominant), transverse, vertical and rotational.
Designer must take into consideration the bridge geometric layout (curve and skew) on all possible
movements and rotation. Another consideration is the rotation of the superstructure and the
inclination of the carriageway.
6.4.1.4 Maintenance of Expansion Joints
The Concessionaire Company must ensure there is no build-up of grit and other non-
compressible matter, vegetation growth near the parapet.
6.4.2 Bridge Bearings
Bridge bearings provide the necessary articulation of the bridge due to applied loads and
movements.
Bridge bearings have similar maintenance problems as for joints. Therefore, there is a general
trend to avoid bearings, the problem of dealing with movements is real and has to be dealt with in the
total structural solution rather than treating the superstructure separate from the substructure.
6.4.2.1 General
Bridge bearings usually allow free rotation but may or may not allow horizontal translation.
Bearings can be categorized as follows:-
 Fixed - no horizontal translation allowed
 Free sliding - fully free to move horizontally
 Guided sliding - free to move horizontally in one direction only
In many bridges, a combination of the three types of bearings is provided.
6.4.2.2 Bearing Types

There are many type of bearings and the choice of which type to use depends on the forces
and movements to be accommodated. Only the more commonly used bearings are described below: -
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 Elastomeric Bearings - Suitable where loads and rotations are low eg. Precast beam or
steel beams of composite construction where a bearing is
placed under each beam. They are made from rubber and can
be in single layer (plain) or multiple layer separated by steel
plates (laminated). Elastomeric bearings accommodate
rotation (by deflecting more on one side than the other) and
translation by shearing action.
Figure 6.32 Elastomeric Bearings
Elastomeric bearings are also suitable as seismic isolation

bearings. Designers must endeavour to use products that
utilised our country‟s natural resources as much as possible.
 Mechanical Bearings - Mechanical bearings are either pot bearings or cylindrical

bearings designed to accommodate a specific function i.e. fixed, free or guided. Pot bearings
contain elastomers to which a force is applied by means of a metal piston. The elastomer
effectively acts as a retained fluid and facilitates some rotation whilst preventing translation.
They are also used in combination with plane sliding surfaces to provide free sliding bearings.
Figure 6.33 Mechanical Bearings

6.4.2.3 Detailing Of Bearings
Bearings provide the articulation for a bridge. Therefore in the design and installation of the bearings,
care hasto be taken so that the intended function is achieved. Some of the important aspects are: -
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 Bearings on bridges with steep gradients to be placed so that the contact surfaces are
horizontal. Failure to do this may result in „walking‟ bearings.
Plinth, to keep bearing horizontal
Figure 6.34 – Bearings On Steep Gradients
 Ensure that there is no uplift on the bearings especially in skew and curved bridges.
Pier Pier
Abutment Abutment
Figure 6.35 - Uplifts Of Bearings
Tied
Down
Wider
Spacing
Figure 6.36 Methods Of Preventing Uplift
 On curved bridges the direction for movement of sliding bearings to be outwards from the
fixed bearing.
Principal Direction of
Movement
Figure 6.37 Orientation Of Bearings
 The life of bearings is never as long as the bridge structure with an intended design life of 100
years. Provision shall be provided for the replacement of bearings. This may involve
providing jacking points on the supporting sub-structure near the bearings to allow for easy
removal and replacement. The superstructure shall also be checked for the effects of this
jacking force especially the effects due to forced upward movement. These jacking points
together with the proposed jack up force must be indicated in the drawings and attached
together with the O & M manual.
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 When designing widening of existing bridges care must be taken so that most of the creep and
shrinkage have occurred before stitching the old and new superstructures.
Bridge bearings should be designed in accordance with British Standard BS 5400: Part 9:
1983 and BD 20/92 (UK Highway Agency).
6.4.3 Bridge Waterproofing

Waterproofing of bridges are generally of two types:-
 Waterproofing of the deck by the application of a bituminous coating
 Waterproofing of abutment faces in contact with earth. This also done by an approved
waterproofing coating.
BD 47/99 and BA 47/99 should be referred for Bridge waterproofing.
Designers shall refer to section on durability for more extensive treatment on elements of bridges
(example pile caps and/or columns for piers) in continuous or periodic contact with water (whether
fresh or saline) or in aggressive soil conditions.
6.4.4 Parapets
Bridge parapets and safety barriers must comply with BS6779 or DMRB TD 19/06 issued by UK
Highways Agency.
6.4.4.1 Pedestrian Parapets

Pedestrians must be protected by parapets not less than 1.0 metre in height.
These should not possess footholds or projections to permit climbing over them.
The motorway should be protected from all falling or thrown objects by means of screen.
6.4.4.2 Restraint Systems On Motorway Bridges

The safety barrier shall cover the length of the motorway bridge and the approach zones.
As mentioned previously wherever the motorway passes over a railway or high risk situation,
containment concrete parapets should be provided.
The safety barrier shall comply to minimum Test Level 4 as per AASHTO or high containment level
(H2) as per TD19/06.
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Figure 6.38 Concrete Bridge Parapets Figure 6.39 Guard Rails At Bridge Approach
Anti-glare screens shall be provided if so required by Road Safety Auditor.
Figure 6.40 Typical End Treatment Of Parapet
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Bridge parapets should have ducting provisions for services and supporting arrangements for lighting
poles, signages and signals, CCTV masts etc.,
Figure 6.41 Typical Ducting In Parapets
The following Design manuals shall be referred for Design of services:

 BD26/04 (Part 1) - Design of Lighting Columns,
 BD 83/01 (Part11) – Design of CCTV Masts,
 BD 88/03 (Part 13) – Design of Cantilever Masts for Traffic Signals and/or Speed
Cameras
6.4.3 Bridge Drainage
Devices have to be provided for collection and disposal of rainwater. These devices may
consist of gullies, main and secondary pipes and troughs. The number, size and location of the
gullies, troughs and the diameters of pipes shall be determined on the basis of appropriate hydraulic
calculations. (Refer to Section 9.3 - Surface Drain Design Philosophy and Parameters). ). All pipe
runs shall be capable of being rodded. An accessible rodding eye must be provided at each turning
point in the drain pipe run.
In all cases, pipe diameters cannot be less than 150mm in order to facilitate maintenance.
Secondary pipes connect the gullies to the main pipes, which in turn conduct and discharge
water to discharge points located at the ends of bridges.
In case of very long structures, it is desirable to provide intermediate discharge points through
the piers. However detailing must be such that maintenance of discharge pipes can be easily
maintained (refer Figure 6.42).
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Figure 6-42 Typical Bridge Drainage
Cleaning and maintenance of water disposal systems are of great importance in guaranteeing
both traffic safety and the protection of the surrounding soil from possible erosion.
For the cleaning operations it is possible to make provision for appropriate flushing wells
connected to the main pipes by means of suitably sized ducts.
6.5 Bridge Design
6.5.1 Bridge Loadings
Bridges are subjects to loading from:-

1) Dead Load
2) Superimposed Dead Load
3) Live Load
4) Pedestrian Load
5) Construction/Erection Load
6) Wind Load
7) Temperature Load
8) Creep & Shrinkage
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9) Differential Settlement
10) Earth Pressure on retaining Structures
11) Seismic Load
12) Vehicle & Vessel Collision
13) Debris and timber log Collision
6.5.1.1 Dead Load

The weight of the materials and parts of the structure that are structural elements but
excluding superimposed materials.
Reinforced concrete : 24.5 kN/m3
Reinforced concrete with : 25.0 kN/m3
GGBS/ PFA or Silica Fume
Steel : 78.5 kN/m3

6.5.1.2 Superimposed Dead Load
Weight of materials that are not structural elements shall be considered in the design
a) Asphalt wearing course
b) Nominal thickness of regulating course
c) Parapet / Handrail
d) Noise Barrier, billboard signboard gantry mounted on the parapet
e) Utilities services
6.5.1.3 Live Load

Normal highway loading shall be HA type loading in accordance with BD 37/01. Abnormal
highway loading shall be 45 units of HB type loading in accordance with BD 37/01. Load
combinations for live loading shall be applied in accordance with BD37/01, as modified by
BS5400 : Part 4 : 1990 and BD24/92 as follows:
- SLS Load combination 1 : Type HA loadings only

- SLS Load combination 2 to 5 : Type HA in combination with HB45
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- ULS Load combination 1 to 5 : Type HA; or Type HA in combination with HB45;
For transverse analysis, as stated in BS 5400: Part 4 : 1990 clause 4.2.2 and amended by
BD24/92, only 30 units of HB in combination with another 30 units of HB shall be considered
at the serviceability limit state.
6.5.1.4 Pedestrian Loading

Pedestrian loading shall be required whenever there are raised verges or dedicated walkways
in addition to Highway loadings. Pedestrian loading shall be in accordance with BD37/01.
6.5.1.5 Construction Loading
Temporary construction loads during construction shall be allowed in the design of bridge.
Assumption of temporary construction load in the design shall be shown in the drawings.
6.5.1.6 Wind Loading
Wind load shall be in accordance with BD 37/01. Basic hourly wind speed, Vb shall refer to
xxxx.
Noise barrier or billboard mounted on the parapet shall be taken account to solid area in
normal projected elevation, A1 for wind load calculation.
6.5.1.7 Temperature Loading
Forces and movements due to temperature shall be determined from the following:-
Temperature Range = 20oC - 40oC
Mean Temperature = 30oC
Assumed temperature range at = 28oC - 32oC
time of deck erection

Differential temperature calculations shall be in accordance with BD37/01.
6.5.1.8 Creep and Shrinkage
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The design shall make suitable allowance for the effects of creep, shrinkage including
differential creep and shrinkage in accordance with the provisions of BS5400: Part 4:
1990.
The design of all approach viaduct modules shall allow for the vertical profile of the bridge,
after 30-years of creep and shrinkage, to match the design profile. The calculated maximum
vertical deflection of the bridge superstructure, due to the effects of creep and shrinkage
alone, shall not exceed span/1000.
Shrinkage deformation, cs shall be in accordance with BS5400: Part 4: 1990, Appendix
C.3 The value of cs calculated shall be multiplied by 2.0 for design purpose due to different
of Malaysia and UK environment factors.
The relative humidity for Malaysia shall be in range of 70% to 90%.
6.5.1.9 Differential Settlements
The maximum allowable long term differential settlement between two successive piers
shall be 15mm.
The differential settlement shall be imposed on the deck at each pier location in turn as a
separate load case. The envelope of the most severe combination of these load cases shall
be derived and used in design. As differential settlement occurs over a relatively long
period the long term Young’s Modulus will be used in the analysis.
6.5.1.10 Earth Pressure on Retaining Structure
Earth Pressure on retaining structure shall be inaccordance with BD37/01: Clause 5.8
6.5.1.11 Seismic Load
For Seismic Effect to bridge and design, Clause 6.6 shall be referred.
6.5.1.12 Vehicle & Vessel Collision
Vehicle collision load on bridge support shall be designed to BD 60/94. Vehicle collision
load for parapet design shall be in accordance with BS 6779, BD 52/93 and TD 19/06.
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Vessel collision load shall refer to AASHTO’s Guide Specification and Commentary for
Vessel Collision Design for Highway Bridges.
6.5.2 MATERIALS
6.5.2.1 Concrete
The concrete strength shall be determined by the designer considering capacity of structure
and durability required for the structure. The minimum concrete properties for bridge design
shall be as shown below.
Element Minimum Maximum

Strength Aggregate Size
(N/mm2)
(mm)
Pilecap / Abutment 40 20
Pier 40 20
Precast Pre-tensioned/ Post-Tensioned Beam/ 40 20
Segmental Girder
Cast In-Situ Slab / R.C. Beam 40 20
Parapet 40 20
Figure 6-43 Properties for Bridge Design
6.5.2.2 Reinforcement
The following type of reinforcement shall be adopted,
High Yield Steel Type 2 Deformed to BS 4449 or BS 4461 fy = 460 N/mm2
Mild Stee to BS 4449 or BS 4461 fy = 250 N/mm2
6.5.2.3 Prestressing Strand
Design shall be based on seven wire stress relieved, low relaxation strand to BS 5896 or
ASTM A416-90 in accordance with the supplier.
The wedge draw-in, coefficient of friction and wobble factor shall be confirmed and agreed
with the prestressing specialist and shown in the drawings.
6.5.3 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
6.5.3.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations
Load factors and load combinations shall be in accordance with BS 5400: Part 2 as
implemented by BD 37/01.
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6.5.3.2 Stability against Overturning and Check on Bearing Decompression
The stability of the superstructure against overturning shall be considered in accordance

with BD37/01: Clause 4.6.
Adverse effect of Noise barrier, billboard mounted on the parapet shall be considered in the
stability calculation.
Reactions on the bearings under all permanent load combinations shall be positive.
6.5.3.3 Cover to Reinforcement
Cover to reinforcement shall be determined in accordance with BS 8500-1: 2006 for

durability. Concrete cover shall be determined by considering exposure class and grade of
concrete in Table A.5 BS 8500-1: 2006.
Allowance in design for deviation, c shall be 5mm for precast elements and 10mm for
the cast in-situ elements.
For precast segmental girder, with criteria below
a) Concrete grade = C40/50
b) Exposure class (Corrosion Induced by carbonation) = XC3 (moderate humidity

and cyclic wet and dry)
c) Exposure Class (Corrosion Induced by Chlorides other than from sea water) =
XD1 (Concrete surface exposed to airborne chlorides)
d) c = 5mm (Precast)
Nominal concrete cover to reinforcement shall be 40mm (i.e. larger value of 35mm + c
and 30mm + c)
For piers with criteria below
a) Concrete grade = C28/35
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b) Exposure class (Corrosion Induced by carbonation) = XC3 (moderate humidity

and cyclic wet and dry)
c) Exposure Class (Corrosion Induced by Chlorides other than from sea water)
= XD1 (Concrete surface exposed to airborne chlorides)
d) c = 10mm (cast in-situ)
Nominal concrete cover to reinforcement shall be 60mm (i.e. 50mm + c)

6.5.3.4 Design Crack Widths
Design crack width shall be in accordance with BS 5400: Part 4: 1990: Table 1. The design
crack width for bridge element shall be 0.25mm.
6.5.4 DESIGN LIFE AND DURABILITY
The design life for the bridge shall be 120 years, which is in accordance with the basic
principles of BS 5400. The durability of concrete structures shall be based on BS 5400 as
amended by BD57/01 and BA 57/01 and Concrete Society, Technical Report No 47
“Durable Post-Tensioned Concrete Bridge”.
BD 57/01: Clause 2.10 and BA57/01: Clause 4.8 which states “For the time being
segmental post-tensioned concrete bridges with an internal grouted system shall not be
used.” shall be ignored. This type of segment construction is prohibited in UK due to
seepage of de-icing salts to tendons through segment joints.
BD 57/01: Clause 3.3 and BA57/01: Clause 5.12 which states “Downpipes cast into piers
shall not be used” shall be ignored. The pier with cast-in downpipe is prohibited in UK due
to water with de-icing salts may cause corrosion of reinforcement in substructure.
Since de-icing salt is not used in Malaysia, construction of segmental post-tensioned bridge
with internal grouted system and piers with cast-in downpipe are allowed in the design.
For dry-joint segmental post-tensioned concrete bridge, segment joints at top slab shall be
detailed with recess for epoxy sealing to prevent water seepage into segments.
6.5.5 Bridge Deck Analysis
There are number of methods analysis for bridge deck design: -
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6.5.5.1 Grillage Method
Most common method of bridge deck analysis is the Grillage method. The deck is idealised to
a grillage of longitudinal and transverse beams.
The grillage method can be used for single span, multi-span, skew and even curved bridges. It
is especially popular for bridge deck made of a slab and beam.
Figure 6-44 Grillage Analysis
6.5.5.2 Three Dimensional Structure
The 3-dimensional frame analysis is most use for structure where the bridges are integral with
the Piers / Abutments.
Figure 6-45 3-D Model
6.5.5.3 Finite Element Method
Finite Element method is more suited for box-type structure especially when detail
knowledge of the bridge behavior is required.
6-44
Figure 6-46 Finite Element Method
Line beam can be used to analyse the global longitudinal behaviour of bridge deck in particular the
box girder
6.5.6 Joint Free Construction using Precast Prestressed Concrete Beams:
6.5.6.1 General
A primary reason for using continuity with precast, prestressed beams is the elimination of
maintenance costs associated with bridge deck joints and deck drainage onto the substructure.
Continuity also improves the appearance and riding qualities of this type of bridge. Due to structural
economy of continuous design and the elimination of deck joints, some initial economic advantage
may also be obtained. Continuous highway bridges with precast, prestressed concrete beams have
been built all over Malaysia over the past few years. The types of deck continuity that have been used
commonly can be categorized as follows:
 Integral in-situ crosshead

 Continuous separated deck slab
 Integral pier
6.5.6.2 Narrow Insitu Integral Crosshead
In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on twin rows of
permanent elastomeric bearings seated on the pier / pier cap and their ends are embedded in a narrow
integral cross-head.
Figure 6.47 : Typical pier ends embedded in narrow integral cross-head
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A Brief Design Philosophy:
 The precast beam is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for dead load
of beam and deck slab
 The composite section is analysed / designed as a continuous structure for
superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into picture after deck
continuity
 Shrinkage of concrete and creep effect on concrete and prestress (secondary effect)
are also taken into account in the design
6.5.6.3 Continuous Separated Deck Slab
In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on twin rows of
permanent elastomeric bearings seated on the nibs of the portal crossbeam and their ends are
embedded into two separate end diaphragms. The superstructure is made continuous by deck slab
with no reinforcement continuity.
Galvanised steel wrapped with debonding tape 400mm wide
Figure 6.48 : Typical beam supported on elastomeric bearings
Design Philosophy:
of beam and deck slab.
 The composite section is analysed / designed as a simply supported structure for
superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into picture after the
completion of deck construction
 Creep and Shrinkage of concrete is also taken into account in the simply supported
structure design. No secondary effect due to creep on concrete and prestress
6.5.7 Integral Crosshead
6.5.7.1 Integral Pier Type-1
In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on two sets of temporary
supports. Then the diaphragm and deck cast integrally with the pier top.
6-46
Figure 6-49 Continuity beams arrangement
6-47
Integral Pier Type-2
In this type of continuity the precast beams are generally supported on a widened Pier cap
without any temporary support. Then the diaphragm and deck cast integrally with the pier cap top.
For this kind of monolithic connection, temperature effect must be taken into consideration because
the bridge deck is restrained by the piers. It means that internal forces will be induced in the deck
when there is temperature variation.
Figure 6-50 Continuity precast beam supported on a widened Pier cap without support
6-48
Figure 6-51 Integral Pier Type-2
of beam and deck slab.
 The composite section monolithic to pier is analysed / designed as a continuous frame
structure for superimposed dead load, Live load and other loads which come into
picture after deck continuity
 Shrinkage of concrete and creep effect on concrete and prestress (secondary effect)
are also taken into account in the design.
6.5.8 Integral Abutment
The type of continuity described earlier is at the piers only. However, a variety of continuity
can be achieved at the abutments, thus making it a joint less bridge. Recently, in a number of projects,
integral abutment bridges have been proposed by JKR.
6-49
Figure 6.52 Typical Integral abutment bridge with a single span
Superstructure
The analysis is in 3 stages.
Stage-1
The structure is analysed as a simply supported structure. Sectional properties of the precast
beams are only considered in the analysis.
 Loads Considered:
 Self weight of PSC beam
 Weight of deck slab
 Continuity / integral diaphragm
Stage-2
The structure is analysed as a grillage model with simply supported condition at abutments.
The composite action of precast beam+deck slab is considered in the analysis.
Loads Considered:
 Wearing Coat
 Parapet
 Live Load
6-50
Stage-3
Figure 6-53 Integral Frame Model
Structure analysed as a rigid frame comprising of :
1. Deck as composite member for the full width of deck.

2. Abutment as rectangular member for full width.
3. Piles as circular members. Point of fixity of pile at the depth Lf .
4. Springs to represent soil. Spring stiffness obtained from horizontal sub-grade reaction ks
(for compacted granular backfill.)
Loads Considered for the Analysis:
 SIDL
 Live Load
 Temperature change
 Earth Pressure
 Differential Settlement
 Braking
Figure 6-54 Load consideration for structure analysis
The Abutment-Deck Junction and Piling system are analyzed and designed based on the load
combinations and appropriate factors in accordance with BA.42/96.
6.5.9 Bridge Design Codes
6.5.9.1 British Codes
Generally the design of Bridges must comply to BS 5400 as follows :-
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Part 1 General Statement

Part 2 Specification for Loads as amended by Ministry of Transport, UK
BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges
Part 3 Codes of Practice for Design of Steel Bridges
Part 4 Codes of Practice for Design of Concrete Bridges
Part 5 Codes of Practice for Design of Composite Bridges
Part 6 Specifications for Materials and Workmanship, Steel
Part 7 Specifications for Materials and Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And
Prestressing Tendons
Part 8 Recommendations for Materials and Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement and
Prestressing Tendons
Part 9 Codes of Practice for Bearings
Part 10 Codes of Practice for Fatigue
6.5.9.2 Eurocodes
By 2010, the British Codes will be withdrawn and be replaced by Eurocodes for the design of
buildings and civil engineering structures (bridges) in the UK.
Malaysia, being a current user of British Codes, will have to follow suit by converting
gradually to Eurocodes.
EQUIVALENT
EUROCODE
BS 5400
EN 1990 Basis of structural design BS5400 Part 1 and 2

ACTIONS
EN 1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads

EN 1991-1-2 Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3 Snow loads
EN 1991-1-4 Wind loads
BS5400 Part 2
EN 1991-1-5 Thermal loads
EN 1991-1-6 Actions during execution
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental action
EN 1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges
CONCRETE
EN 1992-1-1 General rules and rules for buildings

BS 5400 Part 4
EN 1992-2 Bridges
6-52
EUROCODE EQUIVALENT BS5400
STEEL
EN 1993-1-5 Plated Structural Elements
EN 1993-1-8 Design of Joints
EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
BS 5400 : Part 3
EN 1993-1-10 Brittle fracture
EN 1993-2 Bridges
STEEL–
CONCRETE COMPOSITE
EN 1994-2 General rules and rules for bridges BS 5400 : Part 5
Figure 6-55 Eurocodes
National Annex
Eurocodes part will be read in conjunction with a National Annex (by SIM).
National Annex gives Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) e.g. material factors,
temperature, loadings, etc.
6.6 Seismic Effects
6.6.1 Introduction
Peninsular Malaysia is not considered an earthquake prone area but it is some 350 km away
from the active fault lines in Sumatra as well as the plate subduction zone off west Sumatra. Tremors
due to the Sumatras earthquakes have been felt in Peninsular Malaysia resulting in high-rise buildings
shaking in Penang, Perak, Selangor and Johore. This has caused panic among occupants and even
minor cracks were reported.
Sabah is classified as moderately active in seismicity. The area has experienced earthquakes
of up to 5.8 on the Richter Scale. Besides experiencing earthquakes of local origin, Sabah is also
affected by the neighbouring earthquake zones in the Phillippines.
The frequency and intensity of tremors felt in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah is on
the increase. This is a cause of concern for the safety of existing and future structures.
In response, in 2005, the Ministry of Works (Jabatan Kerja Raya and IKRAM Bhd) had
undertaken a seismic vulnerability assessment of selected public buildings in the country. In late
2005, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation appointed the Academy of Sciences
6-53
Malaysia to lead, manage and coordinate the “Seismic and Tsunami Hazards and Risk Study in
Malaysia”.
The JKR/CIDB Study had come out with Seismic Macrozonation Maps for Peninsular
Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah. Draft Guildelines for Seismic Design for Concrete Buildings in
Malaysia was also produced The ASM Study will, among other deliverables, also come out with
updated editions of the Macrozonation Maps for Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah as well as
Microzonation Maps of a number of cities and towns in Malaysia.
Figure 6-56 Microzonation Map of Peninsular Malaysia & Sabah Sarawak
6.6.2 Tectonic and Seismic Activity
The tectonic and seismic activity of the Project site shall be based on the
interpretative report. The report should review and endorsed by Malaysian
Meteorological Department.
In generally, the tectonic and seismic activity event in Malaysia can be summarized as
follows:
i) At present the whole of peninsular Malaysia is tectonically stable;
ii) There are no active volcanoes on peninsular Malaysia and no active

fault movements have been recorded since the Cretaceous period;
iii) Peninsular Malaysia is in a seismically stable region; however

secondary effects can be felt from neighbouring seismic regions;
iv) Sabah is classified as moderately active in seismicity.
v) The low permeability of marine clays is likely to inhibit the

development of liquefaction during an earthquake.
6-54
Notwithstanding the above, site seismic hazard appraisal and seismic design criteria assessment shall
be carried out for the detailed design of the new bridge. These shall be adopted for design unless
agreed otherwise by the Employer.
6.6.3 Seismic Loadings
A study with due consideration of the dynamic behavior of the bridge and evaluation
of recent seismic activity in particular project should be conducted.
The design requirement shall referred to Eurocode 8 or AASHTO LRFD Bridge

Design Specifications, 3rd Edition 2004 with 2005 and 2006 Interims, could be used to
determine the necessary design forces due to seismic activity.
6.6.3.1 Earthquake Events
Two events of earthquake shall be considered with the following performance criteria
which set out in Table 6-41 below.
Damage Performance Level

Bridge Name 475 years return period 2500 years return period
(Serviceability Limit State) (Ultimate Limit State)
Bridge
Minimal or Repairable
Structures No Collapse
Damage
Figure 6-57 Damage Performance Level for Bridges
The damage performance levels are defined as follow:
Minimal Damage: Essentially elastic performance. Minor inelastic response may

occur and post-earthquake damage is limited to cracking of
concrete and minor yielding of steel components. Permanent
offsets associated with plastic hinging or with non-linear
foundation behavior are not apparent. Full access to normal traffic
is available almost immediately following the earthquake.
Repairable Damage: Damage that can be repaired without compromising the

required service level. Inelastic response is acceptable, including
concrete cracking, reinforcement yielding, local minor spalling of
cover concrete. The extent of damage is to be sufficiently limited
such the structure can be restored essentially to its pre-earthquake
condition without replacement of reinforcing bars of primary
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structural members. Repairs will not require structure closure to

traffic.
No Collapse : Damage that does not cause collapse of any span or part of the
structure, non lead to the loss of the ability of primary support
members to sustain gravity loads. Permanent offsets may occur and
damage consisting of cracking, reinforcement yielding and major
spalling of concrete may require bridge closure. Reinstatement of
the structure may require extensive repairs and potentially the
reconstruction of bridge.
6.6.3.2 Seismic Response Spectra
i. The site-specific ground response spectra of ground surface acceleration shall

be analyzed in the bridge structure for 475 and 2500 years return period
(Figure 6-41).
Figure 6-58 Response Spectra
ii. The Seismic Hazard Assessment shall be carried out to determine the peak
bedrock accelerations (PBA) of design earthquake. However the zone of
earthquake shall be referring to the AASHTO guideline.
iii. Spectral Analysis
Design earthquake: the multimode elastic method shall be adopted for seismic
force effects to the bridge structure.
Maximum Credible Earthquake (No Collapse): Multimode spectral analysis is

used to identify if the components are in elastic range. If yes, no further
analysis is required: if no, the linear time history analysis is required.
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A modal damping ration for spectral analysis should be considered in the

analysis by incorporating in the absolute acceleration spectra. The spectra for
vertical accelerations shall be taken as the horizontal spectra multiplied by a
factor of 2/3.
6.6.3.3 Response Modification Factor-R
The response modification factor, R, shall be taken with references to table 3.10.7.1-1
and 3.10.7.1-2 of AASTO LRFD depends on the Damage Performance Level for
Bridges. The design seismic forces of substructure and connections shall be obtained
by dividing the force outcomes of spectral analysis by R.
6.6.3.4 Combination of Seismic Force Effects
For spectral analysis, SRSS method shall be adopted for the combination of
Earthquake force effects in different directions.
6.6.3.5 Nonlinear Time History Analysis
The Study of Time History shall be carried out to determine the Artificial
Accelerograms. This report should review and endorsed by government.
6.6.3.6 Likelihood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Soil Liquefaction Phenomena
The soil liquefaction and the effects of tsunami shall be taken in the design.
The study of likelihood of Tsunami Event and Resulting Liquefaction Phenomena

shall be carried out if necessary.
6.7 Bridge Aesthetics
Bridge aesthetics shall be referred to guideline of Road Engineering Association of Malaysia,

REAM – GL1/1999 – “Guidelines on Bridge Aesthetics” and BA 41/98
A bridge is aesthetic when the structural form it takes reflects the flow of forces, harmonises
with the environment, suitable for the function it serves, is made of the right material and has a sense
of proportions.
Examples of bridges that have received accolades for excellence and have stood the test of
time include Sydney Harbour Bridge, The Forth Bridge, Scotland , Golden Gate Bridge, San
Francisco (ref. Figure 6.60) , Salgina Gorge Bridge and many more. Recently the tallest bridge –
MillauViaduct is an effort between an Architect – Sir Norman Foster and a leading team of French
Engineers. Another bridge, which is a combined effort between Architects and Engineers, is the
Gateshead Bridge.
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Figure 6-59 The Forth Bridge, Scotland
Figure 6-60 Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco
Figure 6-61 Millau Viaduct, France
6-58
Aesthetics can be achieved in the simplest of the bridges by discreet choice of proportions.
Examples are in a single span bridge, the bridge can be made with a slender deck and deeper
upstands. (Figure 6.62)
Figure 6-62 Slender Deck and Deeper Upstands
In multi span bridges, an odd number of spans which decrease in length in the direction of the
abutments are found to be pleasing (a, e and f). Very irregular span lengths produce a feeling of
uneasiness (b). Many spans of equal length produce a boring effect, and the valley appears to be
walled in (c and d), although a design in the form of (d) with very slender individual piers can be a
viable solution.
Figure 6-63 On the Selection of Span Lengths
An effort to detail bridge parapets, piers and abutments, pleasing bridges can be created.
We must not forget that a bridge will last for almost a century at least, and therefore it is the
duty of engineers that it remains attractive for generations to come.
Further, BA 41/98 shall be referred for Design and appearance of Bridges.
6-59
6.8 Bridge Maintenance
6.8.1 Maintenance Bridges and Viaducts
The maintenance of bridges often has been a reactive activity, initiated only when
deterioration threatens the safety or tolerance of the public. Now, influenced by BMSs, cost-
effective proactive strategies are need to plan from the start, when the bridge is new. One
future focus will be preventive maintenance.
In order to preserve bridges over time, a programme of inspections is required.
For this to yield significant and positive results, and to allow inspection to be conducted
regularly and without disruption to traffic, it is essential to facilitate easy access to the critical points
of bridges (expansion joints, insides of box girders, water disposal devices, cable anchors, bearings,
etc.)
This requirement must be kept in mind right from the design stage.
Typical plan for bridges and viaducts maintenance are:
Overall To maintain bridges, viaducts and other highway structures generally

in accordance with the new Bridge Management Code of Practice.
Quality Assurance All bridge maintenance activities are covered by a registered QA

scheme and are regularly audited both internally and externally
Documentation Hold summary information including photographs of all structures on

a dedicated documentation. This documentation must be easily
traceable in order to analyse bridge/viaduct related information
including repair history, assessments and condition indicators.
Inspections Inspect all structures by history, to detect any abnormal deterioration.

Further and more detailed inspections are carried out as required.
Assessments The majority of structures have now been formally assessed for their
suitability to carry current highway loading. Assessments are to be
reviewed for those structures found to be weak in some respect and
take the appropriate action, which may include strengthening, closure,
re-building, further testing or monitoring.
Instrumentation Continue consideration (monitoring)
A separate Guideline for Expressway Maintenance System is provided in Reference 6-12
6.8.2 Inspection and Assessment of Bridge
6-60
6.8.2.1 Introduction
Bridge Inspection and Assessment is to conduct a field investigation, getting findings and
prepare a report. Sketches and photographs attached will make the report more effective. In advance,
prioritized repair works bridges can be suggested.
Based on overseas Economic Congress Development (OECD) Bridge Inspection by REAM,

three types of bridge inspection have been identified;
Type Of Inspection Description

Would be carried out as opportunity arises by
highway maintenance personnel who have a good
Superficial Inspection
practical knowledge of road structures, but not
necessarily trained in bridge inspection.
Will usually be made by trained inspectors at

Principal Inspection
regular intervals.
Will usually be made by experts in connection

with unusual circumstance, such as exceptional
Special Inspection loading, with occurrence, such as exceptional
loading, with reassessment of the structure
against revised specifications and regulations.
Figure 6-64 Types of Bridge Inspection
The inspecting Engineer should familiarise himself with the details of the structure and as to
how it is intended to function. The earlier inspection and assessment reports should be studied so that
the condition of the defects earlier noticed could be checked. If any previously noted defects have
been rectified the same should be noted and recorded.
The activities scheduled during the inspections and assessment of the bridge should be
planned in detail including sequence of inspection. Advantage should be taken of any situation which
will facilitate inspection such as erection of scaffolding for repair work, closure of traffic lanes of
road works etc.
Where mobile bridge inspection unit is decided to be used the inspection should be carefully
planned before hand so as to minimise the period of use of such equipment as the hourly cost of use of
mobile inspection unit is quite high, and it obstructs one lane of traffic on the bridge. A preliminary
visit to the bridge site to locate the positions of bridge inspection unit is desirable.
6.2.9.2 Inspection Equipment
In order to carry out the inspection/assessment properly, Bridge Inspectors must be properly
equipped with inspection equipment. This equipment is needed for measurement, recording, safety
and access. A set of recommended list of equipment is given below:
6-61
No. Equipment Purposes

1 Camera To take photographs of defects or damages to the structures, and for bridge
identification
2 Blackboard To record bridge number/name while taking photographs for bridge
identification; should be supplied with chalks and duster
3 Clipboard As a hard surface to write on when filling forms
4 Writing paper For drawing sketches
5 Markers, pens For marking and writing
and pencils
Figure 6-65 Recording Equipment
No. Equipment Purposes

1 5m measuring tapes For measuring short dimensions
2 50m measuring tapes For measuring span length, width and other longer dimension
3 Plumbob For measuring degree of tilting at pier
4 Vernier calipers For measuring steel thickness
5 Cracks scale For measuringcrack width
6 Deep sounding apparatus For measuring river depth and to check scoured depth
7 Spirit levels For measuring perpendicular distance to any structural
member and titling of pier
8 Ranging roads For probing measuring scour under culvert, piers and
abutments
Figure 6-66 Measurement Equipment
6.8.2.3 Inspection and Assessment
The inspection and assessment should follow a pre-determined pattern to ensure that no
component is overlooked. A typical pattern of inspection may be on the following basis:
a) Foundations
b) Abutments
c) Wing walls
d) Piers (pier cap, pier shaft)
e) Column and bearings
f) Soffits of the deck including beams
g) Details under the deck
h) Condition of road (wearing surface), drainage, parapet/barrier
i) Expansion joints
j) Condition of approaches
k) Condition of protective works
6-62
Figure 6-67 and 6-68 : Photograph of two bridges with a number of bridge elements labelled
For underwater inspection, visual examination of the surface maybe done by minimum
cleaning to remove marine growth like coral deposits, algae, etc. Detailed inspection for obtaining
more information of deteriorated areas should be done, after clearing the surface growth, so as to
enable closer inspection. Where underwater damages are reported or are expected, special
inspection shall be carried out which shall utilise selected non-destructive testing methods or even
destructive sampling procedures. The purpose of this inspection should be to detect hidden damages
or loss of cross section area and to assess the integrity of the material.
Underwater inspection is a highly specialised activity and as such should be entrusted only to
competent agencies experienced in underwater inspection. Such agencies should be fully briefed on
the components to be inspected and the nature of defects to be inspected. Close circuit television may
be used where the water is reasonably clear.
Where visibility is poor, portable echo sounding equipment can be used to provide a
reasonably accurate profile.
6.8.2.4 Reporting
The results of an inspection/assessment must be reported so that the necessary action can be
decided and taken. The format of reporting depends on the types of inspection and largely the
qualification of the inspectors. Very often checklists and standards forms are used. Format of the
report to be adopted depend more on the intended readers of the report.
There are a few basic information which must be included in the report:
a) Name of inspectors
b) Date of inspection
c) Objectives of inspection
d) Observations & photographs
e) Recommendations
6-63
Please refer REAM – GL 5/2004, “A Guide For Bridge Inspection” for detail guideline of Bridge
Inspection.
Proper maintenance on the bridge structure can ensure the design life of the structure
can be achieved
For this to yield significant and positive results, and to allow inspection to be conducted
regularly and without disruption to traffic, it is essential to facilitate easy access to the critical points
of bridges (expansion joints, insides of box girders, water disposal devices, cable anchors, bearings,
etc.)
This requirement must be kept in mind right from the design stage.
A Guide For Expressway Maintenance System is provided in Reference 6-12
6-64
APPENDIX A
List of Codes:
British Standards on Bridges:
BS 5400:
Part 1 Steel, Concrete And Composite Bridges.
Part 2 Specification For Loads.
Part 3 Code Of Practice For Design Of Steel Bridges.
Part 4 Code Of Practice For Design Of Concrete Bridges.
Part 5 Code Of Practice For Design Of Composite Bridges.
Part 6 Specification For Materials And Workmanship, Steel.
Part 7 Specification For Materials And Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And
Prestressing Tendons.
Part 8 Recommendations For Materials And Workmanship, Concrete, Reinforcement And
Prestressing Tendons.
Part 9 Bridge Bearings
Section 9.1 Code Of Practice For Design Of Bridge Bearings.
Section 9.2 Specification For Materials, Manufacture And Installation Of Bridge
Bearings.
Part 10 Code Of Practice For Fatigue.
UK HIGHWAY AGENCY – DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES:

BD 15/92 General Principles for the Design and Construction of Bridges: Use of BS 5400 : Pt 1
: 1988
BD 28/87 Early Thermal Cracking of Concrete [and amendment No. 1 (1989)]
BD 30/87 Backfilled Retaining Walls and Bridge Abutments
BD 37/01 Loads for Highway Bridges
BD 20/92 Bridge Bearings. Use of BS 5400: Part 9:1983
BD 33/94 Expansion Joints for Use in Highway Bridge Decks
BD 24/92 The Design of Concrete Highway Bridges and Structures
BD 47/99 Waterproofing and Surfacing of Concrete Bridge Decks
BD 52/93 The Design of Highway Bridge Parapets
BD 57/01 Design for Durability
BD 58/94 The Design of Bridges and Concrete Structures with External and Unbonded
Prestressing
BD 60/04 Design of Highway Bridges for Vehicle Collision Loads
BD 74/00 Foundations
TD 19/06 Requirements for Road Restraint Systems
The recommendations given in the following Advice Notes shall also be considered:
BA 24/87 Early Thermal Cracking

BA 26/94 Expansion Joints for Use in Highway Bridge Decks
BA 41/98 The Design and Appearance of Bridges
BA 42/96 The Design of Integral Bridges
6-65
BA 47/99 Waterproofing and Surfacing Concrete Bridge Decks

BA 57/01 Design for Durability
BA 58/94 The Design of Bridges and Concrete Structures with External and Unbonded
Prestressing
BA 59/94 Design of Highway Bridges for Hydraulic Action
BA 82/00 Formation of Continuity Joints in Bridge Decks
EUROCODES:
ACTIONS:
EN 1990 Basis of Structural Design
EN 1991-1-1 Densities, self-weight and imposed load
EN 1991-1-2 Actions on structures exposed to fire
EN 1991-1-3 Snow Loads
EN 1991-1-4 Wind Loads
EN 1991-1-5 Thermal Loads
EN 1991-1-7 Accidental action
EN 1991-2 Traffic loads on Bridges
CONCRETE:
EN 1992-2 Bridges
STEEL
EN 1993-1-5 Plated Structural Elements
EN 1993-1-8 Design of Joints
EN 1993-1-9 Fatigue
EN 1993-1-10 Brittle fracture
EN 1993-2 Bridges
STELL – CONCRETE COMPOSITE

EN 1994-2 General rules and rules for bridges
SEISMIC
Eurocode 8 Design of structures for earthquake resistance –
Part 1: General rules, seismic actions and rules for buildings
Part 2: Bridges
AMERICAN STANDARDS:
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification
AASHTO Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges
(1991)
6-66

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LLM/GP/T5-08 (DRAFT 27 JAN 2012)

CHAPTER 6 DETAILED CONTENTS

6 BRIDGES ..................................................................................................................................... 6-1

6.4.3 Bridge Waterproofing .................................................................................................. 6-34

6.6.3.1 Earthquake Events ............................................................................................... 6-55

Figure 6-1 Type Of Bridges Bridges………………………………………………………… 6-1

Figure 6-34 Bearings on Steep Gradients ..................................................................................6-33

Reference 6-1 BA. 42/96, Design of Integral Bridges

List of Bridge related Codes

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

6.1.1 Overview of Bridges

Bridges provide the continuity to the Highway when it traverses obstructions.Obstructions

Figure 6-1 Type of Bridges

In order to function as a Bridge, it must be:-

6.1.2 Government Requirement

Refer to JKR, JKSB and LLM requirement.

6.1.2.1 Required as in Contract Agreement

6.1.2.2 Approved Suppliers of Materials and Specialist Contractors

6.2 Bridges Design Procedure

(A) Planning and Preliminary Design Stage

The steps in the various stages are given in Figure 6.2.

Site Investigation And

EEstablish : Road Establish : Prepare : Submit :

Stage 1 - Planning And Preliminary Design

Prepare : Final Supervision

Stage 2 - Final Design And Contract Documents

Figure 6-2 Typical Design Procedure For Bridges

(A) Planning and Preliminary Design Stage

On completion of this stage, the output would be: -

 Layout of the bridge General Arrangement

(B) Final Design Stage

The stage comprises the following:

 Analysis of the selected bridge type

ICE review and certification.

1. Piers and Abutments

2. Wing walls and Returns

Figure 6-3 General Arrangement of A Bridge

6.2.1.1 River Bridges & Marine Bridges

b) Navigational requirements for navigable bridge: as required to determine soffit

c) Reference is made to Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran (JPS) Malaysia “Urban

6.2.1.1.2 River Bridges.

6.2.1.1.2.1 Site Data

 topographic maps and/or aerial photographs with geomorphologic features of

6.2.1.1.2.2 Bridge Clearances

1.0m (min) above

Existing Protection Works at

Figure 6-4 JPS Requirement For Bridge Design.

6.2.1.1.3 Marine Bridges.

6.2.1.1.3.1 Navigational Waterways

Vessel Traffic Free Navigation Restricted navigation

One – way 3.2L 1.6L

*Where L is the length of the vessel.

Figure 6-5 Suggested Horizontal Clearance

6.2.1.1.3.2 Aviation Limit

6.2.1.1.3.3 Ship Collision Impact Load

It must be noted that in addition to above, necessary information pertaining to navigation

Further Information on navigational requirements can be obtained from:

Figure 6-6 Protection Island

Figure 6-7 Fender Protection

Figure 6-8 Dolphins Protection

6.2.1.1.3.4 Bridge Clearances

6.2.1.2 Road Bridges& Urban Bridges

6.2.1.2.1 Design Consideration

a. Minimum Headroom Clearance – The headroom to be provided is the effective headroom