Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Due to thermal, or exhaust air blower capacity limitations in cement manufacturing processes, the use of
Received 28 December 2010 alternative fuels may necessitate production volume reductions from the nominal value achieved by fos-
Received in revised form 13 March 2012 sil fuels, leading to considerable profit reductions. A novel linear algebraic model is presented herein,
Accepted 19 March 2012
which isolates combustion stoichiometry invariants from fuel feed flowrates (decision variables). It
Available online 10 April 2012
allows rigorous, though explicit modeling of the integrated kiln-soil mill-fuel mill system, based on fun-
damental mass and energy balances. It enables assessment of the impact of key operational parameters
Keywords:
and inner circuits on production level and kiln emissions, when alternative fuels (AFs) are used. Neces-
Alternative fuels
Cement manufacturing
sary conditions for balancing the integrated kiln – soil mill – fuel mill process are given in terms of a pri-
Waste recycling ori known physicochemical parameters and process operational data, both for compound and direct
Energy recovery operation. A five-step procedure for process balancing is proposed in order to reap the potential benefits
Clinker process modeling of AF use by selecting a non-inferior AF and conventional fuel mixture. It is shown and demonstrated by
an actual case-study, that the enthalpy balance is the clinker production level limiting factor (binding
constraint) while the kiln – soil mill offgas exhaust blower may be operated well below capacity.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
0016-2361/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.03.036
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 21
Nomenclature
A be the inverse of the rxr diagonal matrix of atomic r pollutant emission mass rate vector (g/s)
weights A = {diag (AW)j}1, of the chemical elements Qfg kiln flue gas volumetric flowrate (Nm3/h)
in the conventional and alternative fuels C, H, O, S,Cl, Qfm kiln/fuel mill gas volumetric flowrate (Nm3/h)
N, P Qk sm kiln/soil mill gas volumetric flowrate (Nm3/h)
ABW alternative fuel, animal byproduct waste Qksmax maximum capacity of the kiln/soil mill APCS blower
APCS air pollution control system (Nm3/h)
APW alternative fuel, agricultural plastic waste Rmxm ¼ aqT þ hðI aeT Þ ¼ hI þ M1 T
air awe M
AWP alternative fuel, automotive waste plastic R universal gas constant = 0.08206 (atm Lt)/(mol K)
a =vector giving the oxygen and nitrogen mass flows from RDF alternative fuel, refuse derived fuel
total air mass flow in the order of the flue gas vector RH alternative fuel, rice husk
constituents aT = (0, 0, 0,21, 0,79, 0,. . ..0) RS alternative fuel, refinery sludge
Bmxn matrix independent of the fuel vector B = :S A1 W + g Smxm stoichiometry matrix of fuel conversion to flue gas prod-
u1 (e1kT rT) ucts
BIS alternative fuel: biological sludge SRF alternative fuel, solid refuse fuel
BRAM alternative fuel from solid waste (Brennstoff aus Mull) SS alternative fuel, spent solvents
COI alternative fuel: cutting oils, or COI emulsions T temperature, Tkiln: kiln, Ts: ambient, Tr: heat of reaction
CPW alternative fuel, cable plastic waste reference, Tp: preheater
c vector of pollutant concentrations TDF tire derived fuel
cp vector of heat capacities of the flue gases ui ith unit vector (0, 0, 0, . . ., 1, 0, 0)
ðcp1 ¼ cpCO2 ; cp2 ¼ cpH2 O; cp3 ¼ cpO2 ; cp4 ¼ cpN2 ; cp5 ¼ cpSO2 ; Wrxn rxn matrix of net fuel weight composition, without the
cp6 ¼ cpHCl2 ; cp7 ¼ cpP2 O5 in kca/kg K slag: the ith column of W is the % weight composition
cp clinker clinker heat capacity in kca/kg K of the ith fuel in the combustible elements, multiplied
cpf fuel heat capacity vecor, in kca/kg K by the net combustible content (1 ri) of the ith fuel,
cp rm raw meal heat capacity in kca/kg K Wj = (1 ri) (%C, %H, %O, %S, %Cl, %N, %P)T
DW alternative fuel, demolition waste WO alternative fuel, waste oils
ds sulphur detainment fraction by the clinker alkaline
matrix GREEK
dCl chlorine detainment factor asm air drawn in the soil mill, kg per kg clinker
e orthodiagonal vector eT = [1, 1, . . . , 1], afm air drawn in fuel mill, kg per kg clinker
f fuel feed mass flowrate vector (fi in t/y), in Case Study: b vector bT = (b1, b2, . . ., bn) of air drawn per kg of ith the
f1: coal, f2: petcoke, f3: trial AF, f3: TDF, f4: BIS, f5: RDF fuel in the fuel mill
h air moisture, molal fraction c =260 ton CO2 eq/ton N2O greenhouse gas equivalence
I identity matrix factor, N2O to CO2 eq
INBRE alternative fuel from industrial waste (Industrial Bren- DH =enthalpy with respect to a reference level
nstoff) d Difference between alternative fuel mixture and base-
k total clinker production level, (t/y) = e1 kTf line (conventional) fuel mixture, dLHV = LHV LHVo.
km =(e1kT rT)f = raw meal clinker production (t/y) (not e specific energy requirement per t of clinker (kcal/kg
including slag incorporation) clinker) or TJ/t clinker,
kCO formation reaction constant = 3 104 exp (67.000/RT) f f is the ww fraction of raw meal in CaO, typically f is be-
kN NOx reaction constant tween 0.4 and 0.5.
kN2 O N2O formation reaction N2 + 1/2 O2 ? NO, kN2 O ¼ 2:4 g g = f/56 (1 M1f/56)1, # kmols of CO2 produced via
exp (1027/RT) lime dissociation (reaction b) per t of clinker, km
kNO NO formation reaction 1/2 N2 + 1/2O2 ? NO kNO = 4.69 h fraction of flue gas cleaned in the kiln/soil mill
exp (21.600/RT) APCS
kNO2 NO2 formation reaction NO + 1/2 O2 ? NO2, kNO2 ¼2.5 jm annual clinker quantity originating from the raw meal
exp (13.720/RT) j, j0 scalars determined only in terms of baseline case data
LHV total heat rate from fuel combustion based on lower (Eqs. (21) and (24))
heating values = kTf j vector dependent on fuel type but independent of the
mfg vector of the mass of flue gases produced = mass flows fuel feed rate, Eq. (22)
of (CO2, H2O, O2, N2, SO2, HCl, P2O5). j0 vector dependent on fuel type but independent of the
mfg total mass of flue gases from reaction (a) fuel feed rate, Eq. (25) if the flue gas blower capacity
msm air total mass of soil mill air driven to the kiln/soil mill equals that of the baseline case
APCS k vector of lower heating values of the various fuels, 1, 2,
mfm air total mass of fuel mill air driven to the fuel mill APCS . . ., n, i.e. kT f is the total annual thermal rating of the kiln
mrm raw meal feed rate /preheater system
m fuel vector of mass feed rates q ¼ ðhI þ M1 air wMÞe that is component qi = [h + w (MWi/
Mmxm =diag {MW (CO2), MW (H2O), MW (O2), MW (N2), MW MWair)], e.g. q1 = h + w (MWCO2/MWair), etc.
(SO2), MW (HCl) MW (P2O5)} = diag {44, 18, 32, 28, 64, ri % ww of noncombustible solids (slag) contained in the it
36.5, 142) fuel,
Mair =MWair = molecular weight of air = 28.84 t specific molal flue gas volume underx P, T conditions
M1 molecular weight of CO2 = MW (CO2) = 44 = RT/P
NG natural gas w mass fraction of pseudo-air with respect to the kiln flue
P pressure gas (Pseudo-air is mixed with the flue gases after the
PC petcoke preheater)
22 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
Subscripts Superscript
T
0 refers to the baseline case with conventional fossil fuels transpose of a vector or a matrix
1 refers to CO2
be balanced against revenues form CO2 emissions trading and low- Insight into the impact of excess air upon use of AFs on the kiln
er AF cost. This renders the volume of flue gases one of the most temperatures affecting alite – belite ratio and product quality was
prominent technical/economical issues. Mixing the low heating va- gained by the modeling/simulation results presented in [22,32].
lue BIS with plastics or rubber (TDF) is a usual remedy. Substitu- Investigation of the impact of using COI emulsion on NOx, CO,
tion of pet coke (LHV = 34,000 kJ/kg) with a 17,000 kJ/kg RDF VOC emissions via kinetic modelling, [33,34], showed that emis-
leads to an increase of more than 15% in the produced flue gas [1]. sion concentrations are likely to be lower by kiln injection, leading
Besides production cuts, which, in cases of economic expansion to up to 50% reductions in NO levels, while injection of relatively
and rising demand are hardly admissible, pollutant emissions are high nitrogen content COI in the precalciner may lead, under lean
affected by the AF use, not only with regard to the maximum stack conditions, to NO level increases. The possibility for PCDD/F forma-
concentrations to which the plant must comply [9], but also, by the tion is diminished by fine atomization and sufficiently long tertiary
off gas flowrate which determines pollutant emission rates. In air ducts, while case-specific composition analysis is a necessity for
cases of higher offgas volumes, emissions rates are higher and con- metal species [35].
stitute the decisive factor for the resulting pollutant concentrations All the above are affected by process parameters set by the
in sensitive downwind receptors, where maximum concentration operators, such as energy integration parameters and inner mass
limits must also be obeyed [16]. PCDD meaurements from actual circuits. For instance, a fraction (appropriately set by the operator)
plant using BIS showed no substantial increase of receptor concen- of the kiln/precalciner/preheater flue gas is rendering inert and
trations upon coal substitution by BIS [17–19]. In contrast, other heating up the fuel mill air, while during compound operation
measurements showed that increasing amounts of sludge or tyres (when the soil mill is on), another approrpiately set fraction is
directly fed to the kiln in an actual cement plant resulted in larger heating up the raw meal. The latter is cleaned jointly in the kiln
flue gas volumes, as well as higher stack emissions of PAHs and APCS with the soil mill air and with an auxilliary air stream (pseu-
dioxins at high thermal substitution [20]. The average emission do air) regulated by the operator. During direct operation, the flue
factor for kilns burning halogenated hazardous waste was reported gases are quenched and the pseudo air may be reduced. Since in
about 90 times greater than for kilns burning nonhazardous waste most cases, the fuel kiln/mill gases are separately treated from
[21]. Pollutant emissions are affected not only by the concentration the kiln/soil mill gases, the fuel mill may be operated well below
in a specific AF, but from the fuel/air mixture, as well as, the pres- its design capacity when AFs are used, leading to lower volume
ence of other AFs [8,22] and their content in various constituents: of gases to the respective APCS. It is clear that the interplay of
for instance high oxygen concentration in the flue gases inhibits the operational parameters with the fuel mixture, prominently af-
PCDD/PCDFs albeit favors NOx formation. Chlorine bypass is also fects production level, concentrations, rates of emissions and clin-
an inhibiting factor for dioxine formation and for heavy metal re- ker enrichment/quality, during the various phases of operation
leases, but it results in considerable energy losses. NOx releases (e.g. compound and direct) of a dry clinker process, thus being of
may be reduced by slightly lowering excess air, or combustion paramount importance. An efficient fuel inventory control on a
temperature – so as to not hamper alite formation [22] and product weekly or even day-to-day basis may be ante portas.
quality. A benefit of 0.36 kg NOx/t of burned RDF is reported [14]. This accumulated practical and theoretical experience has not
Lowering excess air may result in higher stack pollutant concentra- yet been incorporated in a coherent modeling and quantitative
tions. SOx are, in general, well retained by the alkaline micro-envi- analysis tool, which would provide quantitative insight into the
ronment and hence sulphur in the fuel is not traditionally above production capacity limits and product quality, as well as
considered a pollutant precursor. In addition, coal sulphur may economic and environmental repercussions of AF use. Such a tool
reduce PCDD/PCDF emissions [23,24]. However, substitution of could provide valuable guidance for balancing the economic and
petcoke with low sulphur AFs such as BIS, results in lower SOx environmental trade-offs upon selection of an appropriate mixture
emissions. for partial substitution of coal or petcoke. Within this framework
The % ww of coal in the fuel mixture is also important since it the present research is addressing the following needs and ques-
inhibits PCDD/PCDF emissions, albeit it may favor reactions with tions: (1) the need for an explicit and integrated process model,
different metals in raw meal and increase their release with the in terms of the fuel mixture, which would readily reveal the quan-
flue gases [24]. Biogenic AFs containing sulphur (such as coal) pre- titative impact of various AFs and would allow comparison with
vent the formation of alkaline and chlorine compounds on the fur- the baseline conventional fuel case (2) the need for easy to check
naces [25,26]. AF chlorine, e.g. from biomass such as wheat straw conditions for balancing the kiln and the integrated kiln-soil mill
and rice husks, may also increase the volatility of heavy metals – fuel mill system, (3) quantitative prediction of possible produc-
[27,28] cause slagging and corrosion in the kiln and foster the for- tion level cuts due to thermal or blower capacity limitations, (4)
mation of dioxins. impact of operational parameters such as excess air, fractions of
Most heavy metals in the fuels or raw materials are effectively the flue gases circuited to the soil mill and the fuel mill, as well
incorporated into the clinker (almost 100% for As (mainly from as soil/mill air and pseudo air flows, (5) impact of raw material
conventional coal), Sb, Ba, Be, Cr, Pb, Ni, V and Zn and at about characteristics and process parameters (e.g. raw meal CaO content
97% for Ni, 93% Cr, 72–96% for Pb [29]). The volatiles mercury or fuel slag content, kiln temperature) under AF use (6) impact of
(Hg) and cadmium (Cd) are mainly found in the offgases, especially switching from compound to direct operation and the new param-
in the presence of chlorine [30,31]. Some AFs, e.g. RDF, usually have eter values balancing the kiln, (7) impact of AF use on greenhouse
higher contents of Sb, Hg, Cd, As, Pb, Cu, Cr and Zn than petcoke. gas emissions (8) a procedure for selecting an appropriate AF mix-
Coal may also present Hg, Co, Cd and Tl. Clinker enrichment by ture which results in low economic sacrifices while the process re-
the slag contained in the various fuels affects the mass and energy main balanced. With regard to (8), the problem of selection
balance of the kiln, as well as product quality. Detained metal con- optimal fossil fuel mixtures for cement kiln was addressed in
centrations should not exceed 300–400 mg/kg (ppm) [29]. [36], while in [37,38] alternative fuels were included; however
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 23
the enthalpy balance was not considered, while, in addition, the 3. Modelling of kiln reaction stoichiometry
internal mass and energy circuiting associated with compound
operation were not included in the mass balances. 3.1. Lime dissociation
The presentation is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the
process and presents the kiln stoichiomety in a systematic way Let i = 1, 2,. . ., n be the fuels of known ultimate analysis which
applicable to any mixture of alternative fuels with conventional participate in the fuel mixture to be used. The first entries may
fuels. Section 3 presents the mass and energy balance model for be reserved for conventional fuels, e.g. i = 1 for coal and i = 2 for
the integrated process, both for compound and direct operation, petcoke. Using matrix notation, with T denoting transpose let,
in terms of the flowrates of the various fuels. Section 4 gives fT = (f1, f2, . . . , fn) denote the fuel mass feed rate vector in t/year,
necessary conditions for process balancing, taking into account r= the slag rate vector, ri is the % ww of noncombustible solids
thermal capacity or exhaust air blower constraints. It also gives (=slag) contained in the it fuel,
the greenhouse gas emissions and proposes a five-step procedure k be the vector of lower heating values of the various fuels, in
for balancing the integrated kiln-soil mill-fuel mill system in terms the same order 1, 2, . . ., n,
of operator paramateres. Section 4.2 presents an actual case study. k denote the total clinker production level, t/y.
e = the specific energy requirement per tone of clinker (kcal/kg
2. Background: cement manufacturing process and flows clinker) produced, that is
Cx1 Hx2 Ox3 Sx4 Clx5 Nx6 Px7 þ ð1 þ EÞ ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5 x3 Þ O2 þ
hð1 þ EÞ ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5 x3 Þ=0:21 H2 O þ ð1 þ EÞ 79=21 ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5 x3 ÞN2
! x1 CO2 þ ð2u þ h ð1 þ EÞ ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5 x3 Þ=0:21Þ H2 O ðaÞ
þE ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5x3 Þ O2 þ ð0:5 x6 þ ð1 þ EÞ 79=21 ðx1 þ u þ x4 þ 5=4 x7 0:5 x3 ÞÞ N2 þ
X4 SO2 þ x5 HCl þ 1=2 x7 P2 O5
CaCO3 ! CaO þ CO2 ðbÞ impact of substitution on flue gas volumes and species composi-
tion. The task becomes impossible when a non-inferior combina-
where tion of fuels and feed rates is sought for economic and
environmental reasons. In the sequel a novel linear operator for-
u = 1/4 (x2 x5) if x2 > x5 mulation of combustion stoichiometry is presented, which allows
u = 0 if x2 6 x5 compact representation of the system relations and, in addition,
h = air humidity (molal fraction) isolates the invariant kernel of the stoichiometric model under fuel
E = excess air. mixture modifications. Let MW and AW denote molecular and
24 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
Flue gas
Cleaned flue
Air Pollution gas (off gas)
Clinker Clinker Control
Cement
Production Systems
Production/
Packaging
Gypsum
Cement
Air
Fuel Mill
APCS
Coal Soil
Fuel Air materials
and
Petcoke 1-θ
Mill
Suspension Water Rotary
Preheater, Quen- Kiln/
θ
Precalciner, cher Calciner
Soil Mill Rotary Kiln /Preheater
and Soil
Mill APCS
Air
Fig. 2. Clinker manufacturing: flow diagram of dry process with main recycle and thermal integration circuits and flue gas pollution control.
atomic weight. Consider the stoichiometric combustion of the and M, A are augmented to 4 4 matrices to include oxygen and
hydrocarbon, CxHy, at a mass flowrate f, nitrogen, that is M33 = MWO2, M44 = MWN2, A33 = AWO2, A44 = AWN2,
W remains the same, while S becomes the 4 2 matrix:
Cx Hy þ ðx þ y=4Þ O2 ! x CO2 þ y=2 H2 O ðcÞ
0 1
The flue gas mass flowrates are given by mCO2 ¼MWCO2 (1/AWC) 1 0
B 0 1=2 C
(mass fration of C in the hydrocarbon molecule) or mCO2 ¼MWCO2 B C
S¼B C
1 (1/AWC) (12x/(12x + y)) f and mH2 O ¼MWH2 O (1/2) (1/AWH2) (mass @ E E=4 A
fration of H2 in the hydrocarbon molecule) f or mH2 O ¼ MWH2O (1/2) 79=21ð1 þ EÞ 79=21ð1 þ EÞ=4
(1/AWH2) y/(12x + y) f, e.g. for methane x = 1, y = 4. These expres-
sions may be written in vector notation as: in which the upper 2 2 part remains the same as before and the
flue gas flowrates are again given by mfg = MSA1Wf. Clearly, M
mCO2 MWCO2 0 1 0 1=AWC 0 12x=ð12x þ yÞ and A do not depend on the fuel. In addition, S is independent
¼ f
mH2 O 0 MWH2 O 0 1=2 0 1=AWH2 y=ð12x þ yÞ of the fuel, and in particular of its composition, i.e. of x and y.
M S A1 W Thus, in a mixture of two hydrocarbons, fed at mass rates f1
and f2, MSA1 remains the same, while W is augmented by a sec-
where M, S, A are 2 2 matrices and W is a 2 1 matrix (see be- ond column:
low). S is a key invariant matrix defined as follows: The number
of rows of S equals the number of flue gas species. The number of f1 12x=ð12x þ yÞ 12x=ð12x þ yÞ f1
Wf ¼ W ¼
columns of S equals thenumber of elements in the fuel. The element f2 y=ð12x þ yÞ y=ð12x þ yÞ f2
S11 of the matrix S is the factor multiplying x in the stoichiometric
coefficient of the first product, CO2, in reaction (c) above (=1), S12 is (The columns of W are equal because both fuels are hydrocabons).
the factor multiplying y in the stoichiometric coefficient of the first Moreover, under any variation of the feed rates f1 and f2, of the
product, CO2, in reaction (c) above (=0), S21 is the factor multiplying two hydrocarbons, not only does the kernel MSA1 remain the same
x in the stoichiometric coefficient of product H2O in reaction (c) (=0) but the product MSA1 W will remain invariant, (i.e. W enters the
and S22 is the factor multiplying y in the stoichiometric coefficient kernel). If an alcohol Cx1 Hx2 Ox3 is added to the fuel mixture at a mass
of product H2O in reaction (c) (=1/2). If excess air is used then: flowrate, f3, then the flue gas species remain four, as before and the
clemical elements become 3. Thus M, A remain the same, while S is
Cx Hy þ ð1 þ EÞ ðx þ y=4Þ O2 þ ð1 þ EÞ ðx þ y=4Þ 79=21N2 augmented by a third column consisting of the factors of oxygen
! x CO2 þ y=2 H2 O þ Eðx þ y=4Þ O2 þ ðx þ y=4Þ 79=21 ð1 coefficient (x3) in the flue gas species according to reaction (a):
assuming air humidity, h, equal to zero for simplicity, the matrix
þ EÞ N2 ðdÞ S is given by the same exact procedure, as:
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 25
0 1
1 0 0 has nonzero first row equal to g (e1kT rT), and all other rows
B 0 1=2 0 C equal to zero; from Eq. (2) if multiplied by f it gives the annual mo-
S¼B
@
C
A
E E=4 0:5E lal rate of CO2 due to lime dissociation.
79=21ð1 þ EÞ 79=21ð1 þ EÞ=4 ð0:5Þ79=21ð1 þ EÞ
Proof. See Appendix A. h
e.g. in the last row S43 is the factor multiplying x3 in the stoichiom-
etric coefficient of the fourth fluegas product, N2, in reaction (a)
Eq. (5) gives the individual flowrates of the total kiln/preheater/
(=(0.5)79/21(1 + E), if h = 0). It is evident that the matrix S above
precalciner fluegas constituents and allows all manipulations to be
suits any fuel containing carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In a fuel
performed in the fuel vector, f, on which the linear operator
mixture of n fuels a common matrix S for all fuels, may be utilized,
M(SA1W + u1g (e1kT rT)) (fuel and lime stoichiometry) acts
in which the dimensions correspond to the largest values of m
independently. As a direct consequence the m-vector of kiln flue
(number of flue gas species) and r dictated by the fuel with the
gas partial volumetric flowrates is given by Qfg = t M1B f or
highest number of elements (r). Then S will remain the same mxr
matrix for all n combustion reactions (a). In addition, since the col- Q fg ¼ t Bf ð6Þ
umns of W are the ww elemental fuel compositions, if it corre-
where RT/P = t is the specific molar volume (=22.4 L under normal
sponds to the maximum number of fuels under investigation, it
conditions). From Eqs. (5) and (6) the total mass and volumetric
applies to all candidate fuel mixtures arising by leaving out some
flowrates are obtained by adding the individual components of
of the individual fuels (the respective feed rates, fi, are zero) and
the vectors mfg and Qfg, or, as the inner product of mfg and Qfg with
the kernel MSA1W remains invariant under any variation of the
the vector e,
feed rates f1, f2, . . ., fn. In practical applcations and according to reac-
tion (a) the dimensions of S reach m = 7, r = 7. For instance, in a mix- mfg ¼ eT mfg ¼ eT M Bf ð7Þ
ture of 20 fuels represented by Cx1 Hx2 Ox3 Sx4 Clx5 Nx6 Px7 for differing T T
Q fg ¼ e Q fg ¼ te Bf ð8Þ
values of the xi, it follows that m = 7, r = 7, and MSA1W remains
invariant under any combination of f1, f2, . . ., f20; the fuel feed rate
vector f (decision variable) has been isolated from the combustion 3.3. Kiln and soil mill balance: inner/outer circuit & compound/direct
stoichiometry kernel, MSA1W. Evidently, under variations in the operation and bypasses
ultimate analysis of any fuel (say the jth fuel) only the respective
column of W changes (say the column Wj changes by dWj) and 3.3.1. Compound operation
the marginal change of the flue gas flowrates is equal to MSA1dWjf. The vector formulation described above is employed in the se-
We proceed to the formal presentation. Let: quel for representation of the actual cement process, featuring flue
W be the rxn fuel composition matrix, i.e. the jth column of W is gas cirquiting and heat integration. In the inner circuit, consisting
the % weight combustibles’ composition of the jth fuel, of kiln/cyclone/preheater, volatile compounds (e.g. Hg, Cd) are car-
Wj = (1 rj) (%C, %H, %O, %S, %Cl, %N, %P)T ried with the gas flow from the kiln to the cyclone preheater,
A1 be the inverse of the rxr diagonal matrix of atomic weights where they condense and are transported by the raw meal to the
Arxr = {diag (AW)j}1, in the order C, H, O, Cl, S, N, P. kiln. During normal compound operation the outer circuit kiln/cy-
e be the orthodiagonal vector eT = [1, 1, . . ., 1], clone/preheater/soil mill APCS is active and the dust containing
ui= the unit vector in the ith direction, e.g. uT1 ¼[1, 0, . . . , 0], etc. offgas from the cyclone preheater is used for drying and transport-
Mmxm be the mxm products’ molecular weight diagonal matrix: ing the raw meal from the soil mill. There is no quenching of the
flue gas and the dust from the kiln/soil mill APCS is passed onto
M ¼ diag fMWðCO2 Þ; MWðH2 OÞ; MWðO2 Þ; MWðN2 Þ; MWðSO2 Þ;
the raw meal silo, or the dust bypass leading to the cement mill.
MWðHClÞ; MWðP2 O5 Þg: Assuming, for the moment, no chlorine or sulphate bypass of the
Then the mass flowrate vector of fluegas produced in the kiln/pre- fluegases directly to the APCS, the total flue gas flowrate is ob-
calciner/preheater system, mTfg ¼ mfCO2 ; H2 O; O2 ; N2 ; SO2 ; HCl; tained via a mass balance around the rotary kiln/cyclone/pre-
P2 O5 g resulting from reactions (a) and (b) is given by: heater/soil mill system (Fig. 3).
Let mk sm denote the total mass rate of the gas mixture before
mfg ¼ M B f ð5Þ passed through the kiln APCS. It consists of part of the flue gases,
where dusty air from the soil mill, and in addition, the pseudo air mass
B = SA1 W + u1g (e1kT rT), a mxn matrix, invariant if the n inflowrate, which is set by the operator as a fraction, w, of the total
fuel types remain the same, Smxr is a mxr constant matrix indepen- flue gas mass flowrate. The dusty air from the soil mill, msm air, is
dent of the fuel (Appendix B). The element Sij is the factor multiply- proportional to raw material crushed in the soil mill, i.e. to the
ing xj in the stoichiometric coefficient of fluegas species i. Under raw meal as given by Eq. (3). Let the proportionality constant be
constant excess air, E, and air humidity, h, the matrix S remains denoted by asm:
constant independently of the fuel type or feedrates. Then, the msm air ¼ ½asm ð1 þ M1 gÞ ðe1 kT rT Þ f ð9Þ
mxr matrix M S A1 is the combustion process stoichiometric
invariant and does not depend on the fuel, i.e. it is universal for The pseudo-air mass flow rate is proportional to the kiln mass flow-
constant excess air. The jth column of the rxn matrix W consists rate of flue gases, mp = w mfg, or from Eq. (6)
of the % ww elemental composition of the jth fuel. It is fixed once mp ¼ w eT MB f ð10Þ
the type of fuel mixture is chosen and does not depend on the rel-
ative feed rates of the fuel constituents, conventional or alterna- where the constants asm, w, are independent of the fuel mixture. If
tive. Similarly r remains the same once the types of fuels are the pseudo-air duct is closed, then w = 0. During direct operation
given. For instance, any mixture of (coal, petcoke, TDF BIS, RDF) asm = 0. Let also (1 h) be the flue gas mass fraction which is fed
has the same W and r, while if APW is used instead of RDF, then to the fuel mill in order to create an inert atmosphere and to heat
the 5th column of W corresponds to the % ww elemental compos- up the fuel, which will be dedusted in the fuel mill APCS. Then h
tion of APW instead of RDF and the fifth element of r corresponds is the mass fraction of kiln flue gases which, without quenching,
to APW instead of RDF. In both cases MSA1 is the same. The mxn is dedusted in the kiln/soil mill APCS and of which, a part (usually
matrix u1g(e1 kT rT) is independent of the fuel rates as well; it close to 100%) is used to heat up the raw materials when the mill
26 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
θ Kiln/Soil Mill
Water APCS stack
Quen-
cher
1-θ
Air Raw meal
Milled
Fuel
Suspension Fuel
Preheater,
Precalciner, Air
Rotary Kiln
kiln
Clinker clinker
Tertiary air Secondary
Cooler
air
is on (compound operation), that is, it is mixed with soil mill air, to asm = 0. During direct operation, albeit dust emissions in the kiln/
be jointly dedusted. Denoting the air molecular weight (=28.84) by cyclone/preheater/soil mill/APCS off gas may be lower, w may have
Ma and using the definition of the vector q (see notation) the flue to be increased in order to comply with limits of sulphur or tem-
gas mass and volumetric flowrate vectors become (see Appendix A): perature dependent emissions, e.g. volatile heavy metals, espe-
cially mercury, since the off-gas temperature is higher during
mk sm ¼ fR B þ M 1
air a asm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðe
1 T
k rT Þg f ð11Þ direct operation. Alternatively, a different fuel mixture (e.g. con-
Qk sm ¼ t fR B þ M 1
air a asm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðe 1 T T
k r Þg f ð12Þ taining lower RDF quantities) may be selected during direct oper-
ation. The collected dust is partly added to the raw meal, thus
where establishing inner loops of trace elements and partly to the cement
mill, the ratio regulating the accumulation of trace elements in the
Rmxm ¼ aqT þ h ðI a eT Þ ¼ hI þ M 1 T
air a w e M ð13Þ
kiln/cyclone/preheater/soil mill/APCS circuit (Fig. 3). If a dust by-
is a constant matrix determined only in terms of the operational pass is present, the outer circuit is interrupted relieving the cycle
parameters h and w. The total gas volumetric flowrate is given by: from trace elements. The bypassed dust enters the cement as an
interground additive [31]. Eqs. (5)–(14) are valid in case of chlorine
Qk sm ¼ t fqT S A1 W þ ½q1 g þ M 1
air asm or sulphate bypass since the quantity of the flue gas to be treated
ð1 þ M1 gÞ ðe1 kT rT Þg f ð14Þ by the APCS is not changed. Similarly, to the same end, it may be
assumed that hot meal bypass (discharging part of the hot raw
where the first term t{qTS A1 W} f includes fluegas volumetric meal at the lowest cyclone), albeit with lower efficiency compared
flowrate from the kiln/precalciner/preheater process and the second to flue gas bypass, or dust bypass, does not affect flue gas flows.
1 T
term t [q1 g + (1 + M1 g) M1
a asm ] (e k rT)} f includes CO2 from
lime dissociation, pseudo air and soil mill air (Fig. 4). 3.4. Fuel mill fluegas
3.3.2. Direct operation The air mass drawn from the coal/petcoke mill and dedusted by
During direct operation (Fig. 3) the raw meal is fed to the kiln the air pollution control system of the fuel mill, denoted by mfm air,
via the silo and the soil mill is off-line. The fraction h of the kiln/ is proportional to the quantity of the fuel crushed mfm air = bT f,
precalciner/preheater flue gases is water quenched and then dedu- where the n-vector bT = (b1, b2, . . . , bn). For instance, if coal and pet-
sted. There is no soil mill air to be commonly dedusted with this coke are the fuels ground in the fuel mill, then mfm air = b1f1 + b2f2.
fraction of flue gases. Eqs. (9)–(14) may account for this by setting The constants bi represent the specific air mass drawn from the
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 27
4
11 18
12 23
15
7
Soil Mill Water
Rotary Kiln 22
5 6 6 Quen-
Coal and ching
/Soil Mill
19
Petcoke 17 APCS
Mill 10
Suspension
Preheater 4
14
3 Rotary Kiln
13
2
Precalciner
1
9
Fuel
Mill 20
APCS 8 Clinker Cooler
16
21
24
Fig. 4. Clinker manufacturing: dry process flowdiagram. 1: Primary air. 8: Secondary air. 20: Tertiary air. 17: Pseudo air. Direct operation: Flow of stream 5 = 0. Compound
operation: Flow of stream 5 > 0.
fuel mill per unit fuel mass and are independent of the quantities into account by an overall enthalpy balance: DHtotal = DHreactants +
of the conventional or alternative fuels, which will partially DHflue gas + DHclinker + Heat Loss. With the kiln temperature and
substitute coal or petcoke, i.e. they are independent of f. In case thermal conduction characteristics being the same as in the base-
an alternative fuel is not ground then the corresponding bi is zero. line case, it follows that the heat loss is the same. It is noted that,
Therefore, the total gas flow dedusted in the fuel mill APCS is upon partial substitution, DHreactants will not be much different and
given by the sum of the kiln preheater/precalciner fluegas directed is at least one order of magnitude less than the other terms. Intu-
to the fuel mill and the fuel mill air, i.e. itively this implies that if, upon use of AFs, the sensible heat leav-
ing with the flue gases is larger, then the clinker sensible heat must
mf m ¼ M fð1 hÞ B þ M1 T
air a b g f ð15Þ
decrease so that the enthalpy balance be satisfied. This will be
Q f m ¼ t fð1 hÞ B þ M 1 T
air a b g f ð16Þ established rigorously in the sequel. From the overall balance,
Q f m ¼ tfð1 hÞ eT S A1 W þ ð1 hÞ gðe1 kT rT Þ þ M1 T
air b g f ð17Þ the additional energy needs, d(LHV), supplied by the heat of reac-
tion (a) with respect to the baseline case (use of conventional
Eqs. (2)–(17) give the main gas flows which are affected by the use fuels), is equal to the sum of (i) the difference in the heat required
of AFs, explicitly in terms of the fuel vector f. Note that eTS A1 is the to raise the reactants to the reaction temperature (=the
row vector resulting from adding the columns of S A1 (given in temperature at which the LHV values correspond, i.e. 150°C) (ii)
Appendix B) while W remains invariant once the mixture of fuels the difference in the heat required to raise the temperature of
is chosen, independently of the relative composition of the fuel the flue gases to the preheater exit conditions and (iii) the
mixture. difference in the heat transferred to the clinker which includes
slag incorporation and accounts for production variations, i.e. equal
3.5. Energy balance and clinker production
to dDHtotal = d{mreactants cpreactants ðT r T s Þ þ mTfg cp (Tkiln Tp) +
Due to changes in the energy balance the specific energy con- cp clinker (k k0) (Tkiln Tr)}. The resulting expression (see
sumption, e, is affected by the use of AFs. The impact may be taken Appendix A) is:
The heat capacities of the flue gasses, cp, of the raw meal, cp rm, of difference @k/ oQk sm @k oQfg becomes smaller as richer AFs are
used. Product quality will vary by the incorpopration of slag: the
the fuels, cpf, and of clinker, cp clinker, are known in advance. Given
slag fraction in the clinker is now equal to rT f/k, where k is given
any fuel mass feed rate vector, f, the vector Wf the total heat rate, e
by Eq. (20), compared to the baseline slag fraction, rT0 f 0 =k0 .
k(=kT f) and the total slag difference rT0 f0 rT f may be determined
and since MSA1 is known, the scalar linear Eq. (18) may be readily
4. Impacts of alternative fuels on production and emissions
solved for k. Note that the simplified version of Eq. (18) obtained
by taking Tr = Ts introduces insiginificant error (<1% on the k value).
4.1. Kiln/soil mill fluegas blower capacity and clinker production
Thermal substitution means that kT f is within the maximum heat
rate of the kiln and possibly equal to the total baseline heat rate va- Production level may also be given by (see Appendix A):
lue, e0 k0 (in which case thermally equivalent substitution is neces-
sary). If, in the baseline case, the kiln is operated well below its k ¼ j0 þ j0T f ð23Þ
thermal capacity, then e k can be greater than e0 k0. If the heat rate,
where
e k, equals to the baseline heat rate, e0 k0, and the initial heating
terms are neglected, then Eq. (18), simplifies to: j0 ¼ Q k sm =½t ðq1 g þ ð1 þ M1 gÞ asm =Mair Þ ð24Þ
k ¼ k0 ½cp1 M1 g j0T ¼ rT ½qT S A1 W=½ðq1 g þ ð1 þ M1 gÞ M1 air asm Þ ð25Þ
h i
þ cp clinker 1 cTp MS A1 W cp1 M 1 g rT ðf f 0 Þ ð19Þ Exhaust blower limitations dictate that Qk sm 6 Qk sm max, and from
Eqs. (23) and (24), a lower value of k resulting from the enthalpy
from which, k may be readily obtained. Eq. (19) is particularly use- balance, corresponds to a lower value of Qk sm. By combining the
ful since it reveals directly that under isothermal subsitution and blower capacity limitation with Eqs. (23) and (24) it follows that
within 1% error, the marginal impact ok/of of the jth fuel flowrate Qk sm in Eq. (24), may be ascribed the maximum possible value
on clinker production loss is the jth component of the row vector Qk smax, with the value of k given by Eq. (20) only by varying the
h i
[cp1 M1 g + cp clinker]1 cTp MS A1 W cp1 M 1 g rT which is the parameters q or asm. Recalling (see notation) the definitions of
q1 = h + w (MWCO2/Mair), and q, it is seen that j0 and j0 T are indepen-
gradient of k with respect to f. Eqs. (5)–(18) provide the principal
dent of the fuel flowrates, f, but depend on the operational circuit-
flowrates affected by the use of alternative fuels in a state of the
ing parameters asm, h and w, which determine the inner thermal
art dry cement manufacturing process in closed form, explicit, lin-
integration circuit flue gas and air flows. Since asm, h and w do
ear expressions in terms of the fuel mixture feeding rates f. It be- not enter the kiln enthalpy balance, Eqs. (20)–(22), they may be
comes evident that the impact of process design on how the use manipulated to adjust Qk sm. The following cases are possible:
of AFs affects production level, clinker quality and emissions is
dominant, due to internal circuiting of fluegases, to kiln process I. The value of k obtained by Eq. (20) equals the upper limit of
characteristics, reaction conditions, excess air and to the nature of k dictated by kiln and soil-mill blower capacity given by Eqs.
raw materials. In the model at hand, these impacts are conspicu- (23)–(25) with Qk smax in place of Qk sm. Then, the enthalpy
ously represented by the parameters E, h, asm, b, w, g. Moreover, balance determines production level k and the kiln-soil-mill
Eq. (18) may be put in the form (see Appendix A): fluegas blower operates at capacity.
II. The value of k obtained by Eq. (20) is lower than the upper
k ¼ j þ jT f ð20Þ
limit of k given by Eqs. (23)–(25) with Qk smax. Then produc-
where j and j do not depend on the operating parameters asm, b, w, tion level, k, is given by Eq. (20) and the blower is operated
h, or on the fuel feed rate vector, f, and may be determined only well below capacicty, i.e. Qk sm < Qk sm 0. This implies that in
from baseline and physicochemical data: practice, asm, h and w can be adjusted towards blower capac-
ity i.e. to increase Qk sm to Qk sm 0.
j ¼ fcp1 M1 g ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M1 gÞ ðT r III. The value of k obtained by Eq. (20) is larger than the upper
T s Þg1 fe0 k0 þ cp1 M1 g k0 ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker k0 ðT p T r Þ limit of k dictated by kiln and soil-mill blower capacity given
by Eqs. (23)–(25). Then, either the blower fan must be
þ cTp M S A1 W0 cp1 M1 g rT0 ðT p T r Þ f 0
revamped to higher capacity so as to obtain case I, or the
1
þ cTpf0 f 0 cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ rT0 f 0 k0 þ cp air ½eT ðM S A W0 IÞ f 0 operator must decrease the kiln/soil-mill flue gas volumetric
flowrate, Qk sm to Qk sm 0, by manipulating anyone of the
þ rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þg parameters asm, h and w, in order to attain case I. Evidently,
ð21Þ this brings about a stringent trade–off between environmen-
tal compliance and production level (profits).
jT ¼ fcp1 M1 g ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M1 gÞ ðT r
Alternatively, excess air, E, may be varied to rebalance the sys-
T s Þg1 fkT cTp M S A1 W cp1 M 1 grT ðT p T r Þ tem. In such a case the stoichiometry matrix, S and consequently,
þ ½cp þ M 1 gÞ rT cTpf cp air ðeT ðM S A1 W IÞ the matrices B and R will be modified and conditions 20–25 are
rm ð1
redetermined.
þ rT Þ ðT r T s Þg ð22Þ
(The simplified versions of Eqs. (20)–(22) via Tr = Ts introduce less 4.2. Necessary process balance conditions independent of the fuel feed
than 1% error in k). Eq. (20) gives the clinker production level corre- rates
sponding to a fuel feed rate vector f. It states that with higher flue
gas volumes, i.e. higher flue gas enthalpy outflow, the enthalpy out- Eqs. (20) and (23) give the necessary condition:
flow associated with the clinker must be lower, necessitating a low- ðj jÞT f ¼ ðj j0 Þ
0
ð26Þ
er clinker production level (see also Section 4 and case study).
Therefore, using lower heating value AFs, such as biological sludge, Eq. (26), together with Eq. (20) constitute the necessary and suffi-
the clinker produced per kiln fluegas volume is lower than using cient conditions for balancing the integrated process. Models
rich AFs, such as TDF. In addition, @k/oQfg < @k/oQk sm < 0 and the 1–25 and condition 26 are the fundamental results of the present
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 29
work and pave the way for balancing the kiln by the proper settings profits/kg clinker, it follows that Qk sm in Eq. (23) may be ascribed
of the parameters, E, asm h, w and for selection of an appropriate AF the maximum possible value Qk smax, given the fuel mixture, with
rate vector f, for compound or direct operation. A five -step proce- the value of k given by Eq. (20). Thus the plant operator has merely
dure is proposed to this purpose (see Section 4.4). The following to adjust the feed rates (for instance, by increasing f3 and decreas-
proposition is the cornerstone of the procedure. ing f4, f5) in order to maximize production level for the given fuel
types, as dictated by the enthalpy balance, Eq. (20), while satisfying
Proposition 1. Eq. (26).
If the fuel feed rates are finalized, a fine tuning may follow via
(a). The kiln/soil mill fluegas volumetric flowrate Qk sm, is a strictly the circuiting parameters, asm, h and the pseudo-air flow fraction,
increasing function of the parameters asm, h and w. In other w, which can be manipulated by the operator in order to finely
words, in case II above, Qk sm can be increased to the baseline tune Eq. (26) and to satisfy environmental constraints: In view of
value Qk sm 0, by increasing the value of anyone of the param- Proposition 1a, since production level is uniquely determined by
eters asm, h and w. In the (unlikely) case III the operator must the enthalpy balance (Eq. (20)), this tuning is achieved by the plant
lower the value of at least one of the parameters asm, h and operator by increasing asm, h and/or w, up to the point where
w, in order not to exceed blower capacity and consequently, Qk sm = Qk sm 0. Hence, the decrease in production level due to high-
pollutant concentrations will rise. er flue gas enthalpy outflow, allows lower mass of fluegases to the
(b). In practical applications, substitution of conventional fuels with fuel mill, or higher soil mill specific air, or higher volumes of pseu-
AFs featuring lower heating value, corresponds to case II: The do air, which may be desirable manipulations for emission compli-
production level dictated by the enthalpy balance is lower than ance and improved environmental performance.
the production level determined by blower capacity, i.e. the For instance if, in the baseline scenario (conventional fossil
enthalpy balance determines kiln production level as an active fuels), operation was at blower capacity, then upon use of AFs,
constraint (equality) and its consideration in any attempt since the kiln fluegas volumetric rate increases, i.e. the associated
towards non-inferior AF selection is a sine-qua-non. Poor AFs, enthalpy increases, production level, k from Eq. (20) decreases, so
such as biological sludge, imply greater production cuts due to that clinker enthalpy outflow decrease and the enthalpy balance
this restriction. remain satisfied. This new clinker production level corresponds
to a lower value of kiln-soil mill fluegas volumetric flowrate (de-
spite the higher kiln fluegas volume rate), allowing the plant oper-
Proof. See Appendix A. h ator to increase the volume of pseudo air, or to reduce the fraction
of flue gas directed to the fuel mill, or to increase the specific air in
Proposition 1 unveils two important and novel features of the the soil mill, asm, up to the limit where Qk sm = Qk sm 0. Note that
present work not previously revealed: (a) Consideration of the since the parameters j, j0 are obtained in terms only of baseline
fluegas circuiting through the soil mill, of the kiln/fuel mill energy data and the vectors j, j0 , are independent of the various AF feed
integration and of the use of pseudo air, significantly modifies the rates, both j, j0 and the values of the individual components of
plant mass and energy balances and introduces new manipulating the vectors j, j0 remain constant under any fuel feed rates. The val-
parameters which the operator may use advantageously and (b) ues of j0 and j0 will change however, if the operator modifies the
since AFs are usually poorer fuels than fossil fuels, the enthalpy settings of the circuiting parameters asm, h and w: if for instance,
balance dictates production losses as a binding constraint. More RDF participates in any fuel mixture, the respective component
specifically: if the types of fuels in the fuel mixture are given but of the vector j, is the same. In mathematical terms the components
the feed rates are yet to be determined, then upon variation of f, keep the same value because they form the gradient of k with re-
the parameters asm, h and w remain constant, j, j0 , j, j0 , remain spect to 1 t of the AF in Eq. (20), which is linear in f. By the same
constant, independently of the specifc feed rates, i.e. of the vector token, if an AF participates in any fuel combination, under constant
f, the projector (j0 j) and the projection (j j0 ) of f remain con- asm, h and w, the components of j0 in Eq. (23) are the same, since
stant. Assuming the blower costs/kg clinker to be much lower than they constitute the gradient of k with respect to 1 t of the AF,
Table 1
Actual plant characteristics and fuel properties.
e 5.338 TJ/y clinker Case study plant data k1 (kcal/kg) 6685 [43], Case study plant data
f 0.43 Case study plant data k2 (kcal/kg) 8342 [43], Case study plant data
g (kmol/kg) 0.0116 Case study plant data k3 (kcal/kg) 6800 [43], Case study plant data
q1 1.079 Case study plant data k4 (kcal/kg) 3000 [18,19], Case study plant data
Tkiln (K) 1700 Case study plant data k5 (kcal/kg) 4300 Case study plant data
Tp (K) 1273 Case study plant data cp1 (kcal/kg °C) 0.2807 [44]
Tr (K) 423 Case study plant data cp2 (kcal/kg °C) 0.5214 [44]
Ts (K) 298 Case study plant data cp3 (kcal/kg °C) 0.2503 [44]
E 20% Case study plant data cp4 (kcal/kg °C) 0.2712 [44]
h 65% Case study plant data cp5 (kcal/kg °C) 0.1974 [44]
b1 0.15 Case study plant data cp6 (kcal/kg °C) 0.2034 [44]
b2 0.059 Case study plant data cp7 (kcal/kg °C) 0.2000 [44]
b3 0 Case study plant data cp clinker (kcal/kg °C) 0.1860 [44]
b4 0 Case study plant data cp air (kcal/kg °C) 0.2663 [44]
b5 0 Case study plant data cp (coal) (kcal/kg °C) 0.370 [44]
r1 (% ww) 0.0980 [40] cp (petcoke) (kcal/kg °C) 0.403 [44]
r2 (% ww) 0.0058 [40] cp (TDF) (kcal/kg °C) 0.415 [44]
r3 (% ww) 0.0000 [40] cp (BIS) (kcal/kg °C) 0.374 [45]
r4 (% ww) 0.1790 [40] cp (RDF) (kcal/kg °C) 0.326 [45]
r5 (% ww) 0.0000 [40] cp (CaCO3) (kcal/kg °C) 0.219 [44]
Heat capacities, cp, were determined as a function of temperature (see Appendix A) with the constants taken from [42,44]. The corresponding temperature range is according
to Eqs. (20)–(22), e.g. for the fluegases the temperature range is from Tr to Tp.
30
Table 2
Parameter values: case study.
Scenario Fuel feed: mass flowrate vector f (tn/y) asm (kg air/kg clinker) h w j (tn/y) j0 (tn/y) j1 j2 j3 j4 j5 j01 j02 j03 j04 j05
Direct operation, no pseudo air f1 = 57 218 0 1 0 72 093 20 233 854 7.66 10.60 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 38.1339 43.1293 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
f2 = 106 989
1 f1 = 57 218
Baseline f2 = 106 989 1.75 0.85 0.15 72 093 2 252 885 7.66 10.60 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.1789 4.8277 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
2 f1 = 190 726 1.75 0.85 0.15 72 093 2 252 885 7.66 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.1789 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Coal 100% 1.75 0.8 0.2 72 093 2 246 311 7.66 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.1733 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.75 0.8 0.25 72 093 2 227 447 7.66 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.3546 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
1.75 0.8 0.38 72 093 2 179 853 7.66 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.8121 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
3 f2 = 152 841 1.75 0.85 0.15 72 093 2 252 885 0.0000 10.60 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 4.8277 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
Notation: Petcoke 10% (HV) TDF means that 10% of the total energy required was supplied by TDF substituting for petcoke, that is 533.8 TJ/year were contributed by TDF.
Table 3
Process balance upon AF use: case study.
Scenario Fuel feed: mass flowrate asm (kg air/kg h w k (tn/ Qk sm (N Qfg (N @k/@ DH (tn/ mCO2eq dmCO2eq @mCO2eq/@k mCO2eqa @mCO2eq/ @mCO2eq/@ DH⁄ (tnCO2eq/
vector f (tn/y) clinker) y) m3/h) m3/h) 100 Gcal) (tn/y) (tn/y) (tn/tn) (tn/y) @ka (tn/tn) substituted TJ)
Direct Operation, f1 = 57.218 0 1 0 1 500 246 000 246 0,00E + 00 1 274 0 0 1 274 053 0
no pseudo air 000 012 053
f2 = 106.989 1 500
000
1 f1 = 57.218 1.75 0.85 0.15 1 500 600 730 246 0.00E + 00 1 274 0 0 1 274 053 0 0.0
000 012 053
Baseline f2 = 106.989 1 500
000
2 f1 = 190.726 1.75 0.85 0.15 1 388 547 027 255 8.7 1 218 55 174 0.3537 1 218 879 0.3537 0.0
820 977 879
Coal 100% 1.75 0.80 0.20 1 388 548 338 255
820 977
1.75 0.80 0.25 1 388 562 297 255
820 977
1.75 0.80 0.38 1 388 598 590 255
820 977
3 f2 = 152.841 1.75 0.85 0.15 1 547 623 745 241 3.7 1 298 24 077 0.3783 1 298 131 0.3783 0.0
639 766 131
31
32 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
(tnCO2eq/substituted
Similar necessary conditions may be obtained using the fuel
@mCO2eq/@ DH⁄ mill volumetric flowrate Qfm, by substituting k = e1 kT in Eq. (17)
from which k = j00 + j00 T f results, where now j00 and j00 depend
upon h, and b, which are the manipulated parameters (increasing
119.1
bi will increase Qfm but the fuel mill atmosphere becomes less in-
TJ)
are lower upon use of AFs and such a condition is usually not nec-
1.2949
971 286
(tn/y)
112
1=2
001
where Qfg is given by Eq. (8). AF logistics and CO2 emissions (around
1 162
(tn/y)
052
and the marginal gain with respect to the jth fuel is the jth element
of the row vector uT1 M B. Upon fossil fuel substitution by AFs, Eq.
(27) gives (see Case Study below, Table 5) CO2eq emission reduc-
Qfg (N
m3/h)
264
754
264
754
264
754
264
754
495 733
532 189
599 494
540 602
RDF, figures which agree with reported values, e.g. 14.159 t CO2eq/
@mCO2eq/@ DH = reduction in CO2eq emissions due to the use of AF (t CO2eq per substituted petcoke TJ).
1 286
1 286
1 286
k (tn/
312
312
312
312
0.28
0.31
0.52
0.85
0.85
0.85
and baseline data including f, g, total heat rate, e0 k0, f0, W0,
h
1.75
1.75
1.75
f2 = 61.136
f5 = 29.651
f3 = 18.750
f4 = 42.500
of gases (e.g. coal, biomass, NG, BIS, RH, ABW) and by increasing
Scenario
Petcoke
the feed rate of thermally equivalent low gas producing AFs, e.g.
TDF, APW, RDF, plastic wastes. Obtain the clinker production
7
700.000
Qk sm Nm3/h
Qfg Nm3/h
3
500.000
400.000
300.000
200.000
100.000
0
scenario 1 scenario 2 scenario 3 scenario 4 scenario 5 scenario 6 scenario 7
Kiln fluegas volumetric flowrate, Q fg (Nm /h)
270 000
3
265 000
260 000
255 000
250 000
245 000
240 000
235 000
230 000
scenario 1 scenario 2 scenario 3 scenario 4 scenario 5 scenario 6 scenario 7
Fig. 5. Kiln fluegas, Qfg, and kiln/soil mill flue gas, Qk sm, volumetric flow rates, under calorific (HV) substitution of petcoke with respect to the baseline case, as dictated by the
enthalpy balance (Eq. (18)). (Baseline: petcoke 70%, coal 30% HV contribution.)
1 600 000
1 500 000
clinker production, k (t/y)
1 400 000
1 300 000
1 200 000
1 100 000
1 000 000
900 000
800 000
scenario 1 scenario 2 scenario 3 scenario 4 scenario 5 scenario 6 scenario 7
5. Obtain the kiln/soil mill fluegas volumetric flowrate Qk sm using modified). If, by decreasing the parameters, asm, w, h, off-gas
Eq. (14) and check that it is below the respective blower capac- pollutant concentrations exceed the maximum limits, then go
ity as expected by Proposition 1. If yes, then increase anyone of back to step 3 with a new f. With the finally selected f, deter-
the parameters, asm, w, h, so that Eq. (26) be satisfied; if no, any- mine e from Eq. (1), i.e. e = k1 kT f, the matrix B and the mass
one of the parameters asm, h and w, may be decreased in order and gas flowrates from Eqs. (5)–(17).
to satisfy Eq. (26). If condition 26 is satisfied, obtain b, and check
other blower (e.g. fuel mill) capacity requirements. If not satis- The procedure should be followed for both compound and di-
fied by manipulating b, or even asm, w, h, go to step 3 (r and k rect operation (asm = 0), since the respective values of the parame-
remain the same if the types of the various fuels in the AF mix- ters h, w, may have to be different in order to satisfy all process
ture are the same and only the relative mass feeding rates are requirements. It is evident that the environmental compliance
34 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
1.8000
1.4000
1.2000
1.0000
0.8000
0.6000
0.4000
0.2000
0.0000
scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario scenario
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 7. Marginal reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated with use of AFs per ton of product lost due to necessary reduction in the level of clinker production.
action included in step 5 is rudimental and the overall optimiza- under the same values of the inner circuiting parameters, asm, h
tion including satisfaction of environmental constraints by fine and w, they are the same; the values are given in the full mixture
tuning may be further elaborated – a task beyond the scope of scenario 7. Then the clinker level is obtained from Eq. (20) (Table 3)
the present work. For instance, not all N in the rotary kiln is trans- and the blower constraint is checked. As expected from Proposition
formed to N2; a part of it is transformed to NOx depending on the 1 in all scenaria (except scenario 3, 100% petcoke) production is
kiln temperature, excess air, N content in the fuel and type of fuel, lower: fluegas volumetric flowrates given in Fig. 5 corroborate
as well as on the conditions along the circuiting of the flue gases. the high kiln fluegas volumes of poor fuels which result in produc-
The resulting NOx, together with dust emissions, usually constitute tion cuts – see clinker production level determined via Eq. (20) in
the most stringent to comply with. Investigation using the present Fig. 6. Petcoke, being the richest fuel, corresponds to the highest
formulation is under way. production level (1.56 106 t/y), while dried BIS (the poorest AF)
necessitates production cuts of the order of 107,000 t/y. Table 3
also presents step five of the procedure: tuning of the parameters
5. Case study asm h, w, achieving equal kiln/soil mill volumetric flowrate,
Qk sm, with the baseline scenario (exhaust blower at capacity
An actual dry process plant producing 1.500.000 t per year clin- 600.000 m3/h).
ker at a specific thermal rate of 850 kcal/kg includes 2 rotary kiln/ The marginal production levels (@k/@ DH, in t/y per 100 Gcal/y)
preheater lines with a baseline fuel corresponding thermally 70% with respect to the baseline case, which are used in step 4 of the 5-
to petcoke and 30% to coal at blower capacity. Kiln fluegas thermal step procedure to obtain a non-inferior fuel feed rate vector f, are
circuits to both the soil mill and the fuel mill are active, while more determined for the six additional scenaria (Table 3). Petcoke sub-
than 90% of operation is under compound mode. The plant has stitution by coal or TDF corresponds to a marginal production more
been running at capacity during 2000–2008, driven by excessive than twice lower than subistution by BIS or RDF. Concerning CO2 eq
building development in Greece. Table 1 presents baseline opera- emissions the relative contribution of N2O is about 1% of the CO2
tional data and fuel propoerties. In view of the falling demand contribution, while biogenic AF transportation contributes about
and anticipated production cuts, an appropriate AF or/and coal/ 0.5% of CO2. BIS presents the highest marginal benefits with respect
petcoke fuel mixture is sought which could balance off some of to CO2eq emissions (Table 3, Fig. 7): that is, four times the mass of
the profit losses. Candidate AFs include tire derived fuel, (TDF) CO2eq per t of clinker lost due to production cuts, than for TDF and
(EC code 16 01 03), dried biosludge from wastewater treatment 30% higher than for RDF. In addition, BIS may bring the highest tip-
plants BIS (EC code 200306) and RDF (EC code 19 12 10). Due to ping fee income, followed by RDF. The marginal clinker production
the high price of petcoke relaitively to coal, interest is focusing in loss levels with respect to enthalpy (@k/@ DH) in t clinker/100 Gcal
petcoke substitution by the above AFs. are 5.2 for TDF, 8.4 for BIS and 8.0 for RDF. These findings favor BIS
From Proposition 1, since the heating values of the candidate as an AF for petcoke, if demand falls. For instance, if environmental
AFs are lower than the HV of the conventional fuel to be substi- constraints are not taken into account, and demand is projected to
tuted (petcoke) the enthalpy balance is expected to be the produc- drop from the baseline level of 1.5 million t/y to 1.39–1.40 million
tion limiting constraint. t/y, then both RDF and BIS are appropriate (Table 5 gives clinker
Steps 1 and 2 of the procedure in Section 4.4 give the data pre- levels 1.393 million t/y and 1.398 million t/y respectively). If they
sented in Table 2. Seven scenaria are investigated: Scenaria 2 and 3 present the same tipping fee, BIS is more beneficial due to lower
correspond to 100% coal, 100% petcoke respectively. Scenaria 4, 5, 6 CO2 eq emissions (Table 5, last column) and scenario 5 is selected
correspond to 10% thermal substitution of petcoke by each one of which gives 40% more income from greenhouse gas emissions.
the above AFs in the respective order. From step 3 of the 5-step Otherwise they may suggest an AF balanced fuel mixture with
procedure j, j, are obtained. It is corroborated that j and the com- approximately equally distributed petcoke substitution by TDF,
ponents of the vector j are independent of the inner circuiting BIS and RDF: scenario 7 presents such a case with 30% HV petcoke
parameters, asm, h and w and that they are also independent of substitution (10% by TDF, 10% by BIS and 10% by RDF) leading to a
the fuel mixture: the components of j are all included in the full considerable (275,000 t/y 18%) reduction in clinker production.
mixture scenario (scenario 7). If a fuel is absent from the mixture The pseudo-air flow parameter w, may be increased from the base-
then fi is equal to zero and the full vector j may be used in Eq. line value (0.15) up to the value 0.52, where the exhaust blower
(20). Similarly the values of j0 and the vector j0 are obtained; operates at capacity, in order to compensate for any pollutant
C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39 35
emissions increase due to BIS or RDF. The results may be particu- mCO2 ;lime ¼ M1 g km ðA3Þ
larly valuable today: the current economic crisis is taking a severe T T
But k = km + r f or km = k r f or, using Eq. (1)
toll on the local cement plants, with more than 70% profit down-
turn in 2010 and a 55% reduction in demand in the first quarter km ¼ ðe1 kT rT Þ f ðA4Þ
of 2011.
Substituting Eq. (A4) in Eq. (A3) gives
Use of alternative fuels in cement manufacturing processes is From Eqs. (A3) and (A2) it follows that:
attractive due to environmental and potential economic benefits. ðraw mealÞ ¼ km þ M1 gkm or
The results presented here provide a systematic way for determin-
ing the flows of the main process fluegas streams when alternative ðraw mealÞ ¼ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ km ¼ ð1 þ M1 gÞ ðe1 kT rT Þ f ð3Þ
fuels are used and for quantifying the effect of critical operational
parameters, such as thermal integration by inner circuiting of kiln
fluegas to the soil mill and to fuel mill, or varying pseudo-air flow. A.2. Proof of Eq. (5)
During periods of economic expansion, with high building activity
and product demand, when cement plants are running at capacity, The fuel combustion producess a flue gas mass rate vector
use of alternative fuels results in higher fluegas volumes, necessi- equal to MSA1 W f where S is corresponds to reaction (a). Then
tating production cuts and consequent profit losses. In contrast the total flue gas mass rate vector mfg = flue gas mass flowrate
to common belief, that such losses are due to the fact that the flue-
vector from (a) + CO2 from (b) =M S A1 Wf + M1g (e1 kT rT)
gas volumes are beyond the operating range of installed process
equipment (e.g. blowers), it was shown, based on a rigorous, yet f = M S A1 W f + M u1g k = M S A1 W f + M u1g (e1 kT rT)
compact model for the integrated process developed herein, that f = M B f, where B = S A1 W + g u1(e1 kT rT), a mxn matrix.
production cuts and associated losses originate from the funda- The mxn matrix u1g (e1 kT rT) has nonzero first row equal
mental kiln enthalpy balance, while the kiln/soil mill fluegas blow- to g (e1kT rT) and all other rows equal to zero; from Eq. (2)
ers are forced to operate well below capacity, despite the higher
if multiplied by f it gives the molar rate production of CO2 due
kiln fluegas volumes. Significant margins are therefore provided
to lime dissociation.
to the plant operator towards environmental compliance. Eco-
nomic contraction, on the other side and weak demand for cement,
A.3. Proof of Eqs. (6)–(27)
renders production cuts necessary and therefore, use of alternative
fuels may be both environmentally and economically attractive.
Qfg = (RT/P) M1 mfg = t (S A1 W + g(e1 kT rT)) f () Qfg = t
The results may serve for mass and heat balancing the integrated
process at acceptable production levels, both during compound B f which is Eq. (6).
and direct operation and for selection of AF mixtures which profit- Eq. (7) results from mfg = eTmfg and noting that eTu1 = 1. For Eq.
ably compensate economic sacrifices from production cuts, with (8) the total volume, if t = RT/P is the gas molar volume at T, P and
greenhouse gas emission cost reduction and higher AF tipping ni is number of moles of the ith flue gas then, Qfg = t
fee income or lower fuel mixture costs. (n1 + n2 + + nm) or Qfg = t eT M1 mfg or Qfg = eT tM1mfg or
Qfg = eT Qfg or Qfg = t eT B f.
Appendix A The soil mill air mass drawn, is proportional to raw material
crushed in the soil mill. i.e., to the raw meal: from Eq. (2): soil
A.1. Proof of Eq. (3) mill air = msm = asm (1 + M1 g) (e1kT rT) f, where asm is con-
stant. The total air flow, which will be mixed with the flue gas
From the reaction CaCO3 ? CaO + CO2, with mass stoichiometry contains in addition the pseudo air mass inflow, set by the oper-
(100 ? 56 + 44) it follows that if the raw meal content in calcium ator as a fraction, w, of the total flue gas mass flowrate. Thus the
oxide, CaO, is known (a typical value is 43% ww) then total air mass inflow rate is msm p = asm (1 + M1 g)
(e1kT rT) + mp, where mp = w mfg. Substitution of mfg from Eq.
mCO2 ;lime ¼ v ðraw mealÞ MBCO2 =MBCaO or
(7) gives Eq. (10).
Define the m vector aT = [0, 0, (21/100), (79/100), 0, 0 . . . , 0]
which serves to transform air mass flowrate drawn by the soil mill
mCO2 ;lime ¼ ðraw mealÞ M1 v=56 ðA1Þ fan, to individual oxygen and nitrogen mass rates, in the appropri-
If km is the clinker mass rate from raw meal, then ate order, i.e. as they appear in the flue gas vector, mfg. Then the
oxygen and nitrogen mass rate contributions of a an air mass rate
ðraw mealÞ ¼ km þ mCO2 ;lime ðA2Þ to the respective flue gas vector components results by multiplica-
Substituting (A2) in (A1) and soloving for mCO2 ;lime gives tion of the air mass rate by the vector Ma Mair1.
mCO2 ;lime ¼ M 1 v=56ð1 M 1 v=56Þ1 km or, since g = v/56 (1 M1v/ For Eq. (11): mk sm ¼ h mfg þ M a M 1 1
air w mfg þ M a M air msm and
56)1 using Eqs. (6), (9) and (10):
mk sm ¼ h M B f þ M a M 1 T 1
air w e M B f þ Ma M air asm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðe
1 T
k rT Þ f ()
mk sm ¼ Mfh B þ aM 1 T 1
air w e M B þ a M air asm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðe
1 T
k rT Þg f or
mk sm ¼ M fðh I þ M1 T 1
air a w e MÞB þ M air a ð1 þ M 1 gÞ asm ðe
1 T
k rT Þg f ðA5Þ
36 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
T
From the definition of q follows that qT ¼ eT ðh I þ M 1 air w MÞ A.4. For the enthalpy balance
T T 1
or a q = ae ðh I þ M air w MÞ. Adding h I to both sides gives
h I þ a qT ¼ h I þ aeT ðh I þ M 1 1 T
air w MÞ () h I þ M air w ae M ¼ Ts = 25 °C corresponds to the ambient temperature, Tr(=150 °C)
T T 1 T T
h I þ a q ae h I () h I þ M air w ae M ¼ a q þ h ðI aeT Þ is the reference temperature for the lower heating value
and upon substitution in Eq. (A5) mk sm ¼ M f½a qT þ h ðI aeT ÞB (DHreaction), Tp = 1000 °C is the preheater temperature, Tkiln =
þM1 air a ð1 þ M 1 gÞ asm (e1 kT rT)} f ¼ M fR B þ M 1 air a 1415 °C is the kiln tempertature. Then the enthalpy balance is:
ð1 þ M1 gÞ asm (e k r )} f which is Eq. (11) with R = a qT + h
1 T T
(I aeT) = h I + Mair1 a w eT M. Note that R depends only on the Products at Tkiln Clinker at Tkiln
system parameters, h, w. (Clinker at Tkiln +
Eq. (12) results from Eq. (9) via right multiplication by t M1, Fluegas at Tkiln)
Qk sm ¼ eT Q k sm () Q k sm Initial
Heating
T
¼ t fe h B þ M 1
air
T
w e M Bþ M1
air asm ð1 þ M1 gÞ
Reactants at Ts
ðe1 kT r Þg f () Q k
T
sm
¼ t feT ðh I þ M1 1
air w MÞB þ M air asm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ
Qf m ¼ t fð1 hÞ B þ M1
air
T
a b g f () Q f m þ cp air mair ðT r T s Þ cp air mair 0 ðT r T s Þ
¼ t fð1 hÞ SA 1
W þ u1 ð1 hÞ g ðe 1 T T
k r Þ þ cTp ðmfg mfg 0 Þ ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðk
þ M 1 T k0 Þ ðT kiln T r Þ ðA11Þ
air a b g f
which is Eq. (16). From the law of Lavoisier for reaction (a), total fuel
Eq. (17) results from Eq. (15) by right multiplication by eT and mass + mair = mcombustion flue gas + slag or mair = mcombustion flue gas +
noting that eT a = 1 and eT u1 = 1. slag total fuel mass or mair = eT mfg + rT f eT f or using Eq. (5),
Using Eq. (5) for the flue gas mass flowrate vectors, mfg, (A11) is
(or by grouping the f–terms) ()
written in terms of the fuel mass rate vectors, f and f0 and by using
Eq. (1), i.e. k = e1 kT f, Eq. (A11) becomes: kfcp1 M 1 g ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðT r T s Þg
¼ e0 k0 þ cp1 M 1 g k0 ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker k0 ðT kiln T r Þ
dðLHVÞ ¼ ðcTpf f cTpf0 f 0 Þ ðT r T s Þ þ cp rm ðð1 þ M1 gÞ ðk rT f Þ h i
þ cp air eT ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 þ rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ þ cTp M S A1 W0 cp1 M1 g rT0
ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðk0 rT0 f 0 ÞÞ ðT r T s Þ
ðT p T r Þ f 0 þ ½cTpf0 f 0 cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ rT0 f 0 k0 ðT r T s Þ
þ cp air ½eT ðM S A1 W IÞ f þ rT f n
þ kT cTp M S A1 W cp1 M 1 grT ðT p T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M1 gÞ rT cTpf ðT r T s Þ
eT ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ o
cp air ½eT ðM S A1 W IÞ þ rT ðT r T s Þ f () k ¼ j þ jT f ð20Þ
þ cTp MðBf B0 f 0 ÞðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðk k0 Þ ðT kiln T r Þ
() dðLHVÞ ¼ ðcTpf f cTpf0 f 0 Þ ðT r T s Þ þ cp rm ½ð1 þ M1 gÞ j ¼ fcp1 M1 gðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M1 gÞ
ðk rT f Þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðk0 rT0 f 0 Þ ðT r T s Þ ðT r T s Þg1 e0 k0 þ cp1 M1 gk0 ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker k0
þ cp air ½eT ðM S A1 W IÞ f þ rT f ðT kiln T r Þ þ cTp M S A1 W0 cp1 M 1 g rT0 ðT p T r Þ f 0
eT ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ h
þ cTpf0 f 0 cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ rT0 f 0 k0
þ cTp M ðS A1 W f þ u1 g k u1 g rT f S A1 W0 f 0 i o
u1 g k0 þ u1 g rT0 f 0 Þ ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðk k0 Þ ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp air ðeT ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 þ rT0 f 0 Þ ðT r T s Þ ð21Þ
or, since d(LHV) = (LHV) (LHV)0 = ek e0 k0 and e k = kTf jT ¼ fcp1 M1 g ðT p T r Þ þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ þ cp rm ð1 þ M1 gÞ
T n
k f e0 k0 ¼ ðcTpf f cTpf0 f 0 Þ ðT r T s Þ ðT r T s Þg1 kT cTp M S A1 W cp1 M 1 grT ðT p T r Þ
h
þ cp ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðk rT f Þ h i
rm
i þ cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ rT cTpf cp air ðeT ðM S A1 W IÞ þ rT Þ
ð1 þ M1 gÞ k0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ ðT r T s Þg ð22Þ
þ cp air ½eT ðM S A1 W IÞ f þ rT f The initial heating terms (all terms multiplying (Tr Ts)) are rel-
eT ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ atively small and Eqs. (21) and (22) may be simplified by setting
h Tr = Ts; then cp rm, cpf, cp f0, cp air data are not necessary.
þ cTp M ðS A1 W u1 g rT Þ f þ u1 gk
i
A.5. For the level of production
S A1 W0 u1 g rT0 f 0 u1 gk0 ðT p T r Þ
þ cp clinker ðk k0 Þ ðT kiln T r Þ ðA12Þ Use of the relation, e1 kT f = k, in Eq. (14) gives:
n h i o
Noting that cTp M u1 ¼ cp1 M 1 , Eq. (A12) gives Eq. (18): Q k sm ¼ t qT S A1 W þ q1 g þ ð1 þ M1 gÞ M1
air asm ðe
1 T
k rT Þ f
h i
kT f ¼ e0 k0 þ cTpf f cTpf0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ () Q k sm ¼ t fqT S A1 Wg f þ t q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M 1
air asm k
h i h i
1 T
q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M air asm t r f () Q k sm
þ cp rm ð1 þ M 1 gÞ ðk rT f Þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ k0 rT0 f 0 n h i o
h ¼ t qT SA1 W q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M 1 T
air asm r f
ðT r T s Þ þ cp air eT ðM S A1 W IÞ f þ rT f eT h i
i 1
þ t q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M air asm k () k
ðM S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ n h io1
h ¼ t q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M 1
air asm Q k sm
þ cTp M S A1 ðW f W0 f 0 Þ þ ðk k0 Þ ðcp CO2 M CO2 gÞ h i1
i q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M 1
air asm qT SA1 W þ rT g f
þ cp1 M 1 g rT0 f 0 rT f ðT p T r Þ
which is Eq. (23) with j0 and j0 given by Eqs. (24) and (25).
þ ðk k0 Þ cp clinker ðT kiln T r Þ ð18Þ h i
1
Q k sm 6 Q k smax () t fqT SA Wg f þ t q1 g þ ð1 þ M1 gÞ M1air asm k
(Eq. (19) results upon isothermal substitution, kT f = e0 k0, by h i
neglecting the reactant heating terms, Tr = Ts). Keeping the k-terms q1 g þ ð1 þ M1 gÞ M1 air asm t r f
T
1 þ M 1 gÞ k0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ 6 Q k smax () k
h n h io1
cp air eT ðM S A1 W IÞ f þ rT f eT 6 t q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞM 1
air asm Q k smax
i
nh io1
M S A1 W0 IÞ f 0 rT0 f 0 ðT r T s Þ q1 g þ ð1 þ M 1 gÞ M 1 qT SA1 W þ rT g f
air asm
h
cTp M S A1 ðW f W0 f 0 Þ k0 cp CO2 MCO2 g
which, if baseline blower capacity is the operating constraint,
i
cp1 M 1 g rT0 f 0 rT f ðT p T r Þ Qk sm = Qk sm 0, then, given Qk sm 0, it may be solved for the clinker
production level, k corresponding to blower capacity:
38 C.A. Tsiliyannis / Fuel 99 (2012) 20–39
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