b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0

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Research Paper

Strength, permeability and microstructure of

self-compacting concrete containing rice husk ash

Divya Chopra a,*, Rafat Siddique a, Kunal b

a
Department of Civil Engineering, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India
b
Department of Biotechnology, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India

article info
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is characterized by deformability and segregation resis-
Article history: tance. It flows under its own weight while remaining homogeneous in composition. This
Received 16 October 2014 study presents the effect of replacing cement content with rice husk ash (RHA) as sup-
Received in revised form plementary cementitious materials (SCM's) in SCC and observing fresh flow (slump flow, V-
29 November 2014 Funnel, U-box, L-Flow), mechanical strength (compressive and split tensile) and durability
Accepted 12 December 2014 properties (porosity and rapid chloride permeability test) at 7, 28 and 56 d. Concrete
Published online 2 January 2015 specimens were prepared with 0, 10, 15 and 20% RHA replacing cement. 20% RHA
replacement showed minimum specified workability. An increase of about 25% strength at
Keywords: 7 d, 33% at 28 d and 36% at 56 d was observed with RHA content of 15% RHA when
Self-compacting concrete compared to control mix. Maximum split tensile strength was 3.8 N mm
2 at 28 d and
Rice husk ash 4.0 N mm
2 at 56 d for 15% RHA replacement. The inclusion of RHA as partial replacement
Strength to cement improved the strength properties and durability properties that remained within
Permeability limits up to 20% replacement. All the mixes were less porous as compared to the control
mix at all ages and showed “low range” to “very low range” chloride penetration also.
Microstructure (scanning electron microscopy, SEM and X-ray diffraction, XRD) analysis of
15% RHA replacement showed dense formation of C-S-H gel which is the root cause of the
increase in strength.
© 2014 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

strength and durability can be improved by incorporating

1. Introduction
Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is the one that can be placed
in the form and can go through obstructions by its own weight
and without the need of vibrations. Self-compacting involves
the use of limited aggregate content, low water to binder (w/b)
ratio, and use of super plasticisers (Okamura & Ouchi, 2003).
SCC, due to its high fluidity and resistance to segregation, can
be pumped over longer distance (Bartos, 2000), and its
supplementary cementitious materials (SCM's).
SCM's are fillers and powders without cementitious value
but when they are finally divided react with cement in the
presence of moisture form compounds possessing cement
like properties (Detwiler, 1997). SCM's usually replace part of
cement partially and include fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF),
ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and rice husk ash
(Agarwal & Deepali, 2006; Binici, Huseyin, & Mehmet, 2007;
Chindaprasirt, Kanchanda, Sathonsaowaphak, & Cao, 2007).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: divyachopra90@yahoo.co.in (D. Chopra), siddique_66@yahoo.com (R. Siddique), kunal_pau@yahoo.co.in ( Kunal).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.12.005
1537-5110/© 2014 IAgrE. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0 73

achieved in 15% RHA containing self-consolidating high per-

Nomenclature formance concrete (SCHPC) with low w/b ratios (0.30e0.50)
due to micro filling ability and pozzolanic activity of RHA.
Abbreviations Similar conclusions were also made by Memon, Shaikh, and
SCC Self-compacting concrete Akbar (2010), Chik, Bakar, Johari, and Jaya (2011), and
SCM's Supplementary cementing materials Rahman, Muntohar, Pakrashi, Nagaratnam, and Sujan (2014)
RCPT Rapid chloride permeability test on increased compressive strength in 10, 15 and 20% RHA-
RHA Rice husk ash concrete mix, respectively, due to improved workability and
SEM Scanning electron microscope sufficient self-compactability.
XRD X-Ray diffraction Improvement in the compressive strength of SCC mixtures
EDS Energy dispersive spectroscopy containing metakaolin (MK) and RHA (1:1) was also observed
C-S-H Calcium silicate hydrate by Kannan and Ganesan (2013). The strength improvement of
w/b Water to binder ratio SCC blended with 15% RHA was higher than that of normal
FA Fly ash SCC which further decreased with increase in percentage of
SF Silica fume RHA after 20%. Juma, Sai, Prakash, Haider, and Rao (2012)
CO2 Carbon dioxide observed that with the increase (2.5 and 5%) of RHA, the
SP Super plasticizer mixes had improved passing and filling ability, and also
OPC Ordinary Portland cement increased the compressive strength of concretes at all the ages
CM Control mix due to the micro filling ability and pozzolanic activity of RHA
10RHA 10% cement replacement by rice husk ash which produced extra C-S-H gel and thus improved the
15RHA 15% cement replacement by rice husk ash microstructure. On the contrary, Sua-iam and Makul (2013)
20RHA 20% cement replacement by rice husk ash reported decreased compressive strength with increase in
POFA Palm oil fuel ash percentage of RHA (0e100 %) which could be improved by
SCBA Sugar cane bagasse ash addition of limestone.
MK Meta-kaolin Incorporation of raw rice husk ash (RRHA) with FA, lime-
LSP Lime stone powder stone powder (LSP) and SF as partial ordinary Portland cement
ITZ Interfacial transition zone (OPC) replacement individually and in blends showed reduc-
tion in compressive strength values compared to control mix
(44.7 MPa) after 90 d (Atan & Awang, 2011). Khadiry, Nayak,
Rice husk, obtained from rice processing mills when properly Aziz, Saurav, and Pai (2014) observed higher 28 d strength in
burnt at temperature lower than 700  C generates rice husk RHA-SCC mixes compared to shell lime powder (SL)-SCC
ash (RHA) containing reactive amorphous silica content mixes due to presence of silica in RHA that reacts better with
(Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Khani, Ramezanianpour, & lime in cement compared to that of calcite contents of SL.
Ahmadibeni, 2009). The silica content in RHA is approxi- Replacement of cement (10%) with RHA in concrete
mately 90% and is most suited for use as a pozzolan to showed excellent resistance (<1000 coulombs both at 28 and
improve the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone 91 d) to chloride ion penetration (Zhang & Malhotra, 1996) and
(ITZ) between the cement paste and the aggregate in SCC. decreased with increase in RHA content (0e20 %) due to micro
The use of RHA in concrete as SCM is a sustainable envi- filling ability of RHA particles (Ramasamy, 2011). Replacement
ronmental solution; it saves energy and natural resources by of Portland cement (PC) with 20% ground rice husk bark ash
reducing cement consumption and CO2 generation (Karim, (GRHBA) in SCC exhibited lower porosity values compared to
Zain, Jamil, Lai, & Islam, 2012), and its utilisation generally 40% GRHBA mix (Rukzon & Chindaprasirt, 2014).
improves the properties of the blended cement concrete Higher strength in RHA concrete was reported compared to
(Chindaprasirt et al., 2007). Memon, Shaikh, and Akbar (2008) that of control super plasticised concrete but was marginally
showed that flow of concrete mixes increased with increase lower than 10% condensed silica fume (CSF) concrete
(3.5e4.5 %) in quantity of super plasticiser (SP) whereas (Mahmud, Majuar, Zain, & Hamid, 2005). Kibriya (2006) found
decreased with increase in the quantity (0e10 %) of RHA, and 4e9 % higher compressive strength of high strength RHA-SCC
compressive strength of all the mixes with RHA were com- compared to control specimen and reported improved dura-
parable to control mix. Safiuddin, West, and Soudki (2012) bility characteristics. Similar, increased strength values in
found that in air entrained SCC mixtures (w/b ratio of 20% RHA concrete compared to control, 10 and 30% RHA
0.3e0.4) the slump flow values were ranged from 665 to concrete mixes were also observed by Muthadi and
770 mm indicating an excellent filling ability of SCC as per Kothandaraman (2013). Yamamichi, Qingge, Shoya, and
EFNARC (2002). Slump flow time increased with increasing Sugita (2003) revealed that the compressive strength of con-
(0e100 %) in RHA content (Sua-iam & Makul, 2013). crete increased both for normal and low w/b ratios, and
SCC mixes containing RHA (10e20 %) showed lower freezing and thawing resistance improved significantly with
compressive strength until 60 d than the mixes with no 10 and 20% RHA replacement.
replacement, but beyond 60 d the strength of composite mixes Therefore, RHA has been proven to be an excellent
goes up due to increase in the rate of pozzolanic reactions of pozzolan that contributes in higher strength and improved
RHA in the matrix (Ahmadi, Alidoust, Sadrinejad, & Nayeri, performance characteristics. However, to date limited
2007). Safiuddin, West, and Soudki (2010) reported that research has been carried out on using RHA as a cement
excellent compressive strength and reduced porosity was replacement in self-compacting concrete. Hence, the aim of
74 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0

Table 1 e Basic tests conducted on ordinary Portland Table 3 e Physical properties of coarse aggregates, fine
cement. aggregates and rice husk ash.
Characteristics Values obtained Standard values Characteristic Coarse Fine Rice
IS: 8112 (1989) aggregates aggregates husk ash
Normal consistency (%) 28.2 e Size 12.5 mm max 4.75 mm max <45 mm
Initial setting time (min) 128 30 Specific gravity 2.66 2.567 e
Final setting time (min) 192 600 Total water 0.56 1.914 e
Specific gravity 3.51 e absorption (%)
Fineness 6.83 2.465 e
modulus (%)
the present research work was to ascertain the suitability of Colour e e Grey black
using Indian RHA as partial replacement for cement in
concrete.

1000 magnification for OPC is shown in Fig. 1a and revealed

that the particle shape of the OPC was irregular.
2. Material and methods

2.1. Material 2.1.2. Fine and coarse aggregates

The sand used for the experiments was locally procured and
conformed IS: 383 (1970). The sand was first sieved through
2.1.1. Cement
4.75 mm sieve to remove any particles greater than 4.75 mm,
The OPC used in the study was mixed with water and mate-
locally available coarse aggregates having the maximum size
rials such as sand and coarse aggregates of various sizes to
of 10 mm was used in the present work. Testing of fine and
make concrete. Grade 43 Ultra Tech cement was used for
coarse aggregates were done as per IS: 383 (1970), and results
casting cubes and cylinders for all concrete mixes. Testing of
are shown in Table 3.
cement was conducted as per IS: 8112 (1989) and the results
are reported in Table 1.
Chemical compositions of the cement were analysed by
2.1.3. Rice husk ash (RHA)
The RHA used in the study was obtained from Mullanpur
energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS; INCA x-act, Oxford In-
district Ludhiana, India. Physical properties are shown in
strument, UK) are shown in Table 2. SEM micrographs at
Table 3. Chemical properties of the RHA were detected by
energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis and are shown
Table 2 e Chemical composition limits of ordinary in Table 2. SEM analysis revealed that RHA is micro porous and
Portland cement and rice husk ash by EDS analysis. irregular (Fig. 1b).

Composition (%) OPC RHA

2.1.4. Admixture
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) 21.24 94.0
Conplast SP430 complies with IS: 9103 (1999) as a high range
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) 5.98 1.2
water reducing admixture. Conplast SP430 is based on Sul-
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3) 4.10 0.37
Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.96 0.60 phonated Naphthalene Polymers and is supplied as brown
Calcium oxide (CaO) 60.78 2.93 liquid instantly dispersible in water and specially formulated
Sodium oxide (Na2O) 0.86 e to give high water reduction up to 25% without loss of work-
Potassium oxide (K2O) 2.20 0.50 ability, specific gravity 1.22 to 1.225 at 30  C.
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 3.98 0.30

Fig. 1 e SEM images of: a) OPC (43 Grade), b) Rice Husk Ash.
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0 75

Table 4 e Mix proportions of various SCC mixes.

Mixture ID Cement (kg m
3) RHA (kg m
3) RHA (%) Sand (kg m
3) CA (kg m
3) Water (kg m
3) w/b SP (kg m
3) SP (%)
0RHA 550 0 0 910 590 226 0.41 5.5 1
10RHA 495 55 10 910 590 226 0.41 5.5 1
15RHA 468 83 15 910 590 226 0.41 5.5 1
20RHA 440 110 20 910 590 226 0.41 5.5 1

2.2. Mixture proportioning 2.4.4. Microstructure analysis

Four concrete mix proportions were made. First was the
control mix (with 0% RHA) and the other 3 mixes contained
rice husk ash with varying percentage (10, 15 and 20%) as the
partial replacement to cement. Parameters kept constant are
the amount of fine aggregates (910 kg m
3), coarse aggregates
(590 kg m
3), water (225.5 kg m
3), SP content (1%), w/b ratio
(0.41). For each mix 24 samples were prepared, which consists
of 9 cubes (150  150  150 mm) for compressive strength and
9 cylinders (300  150 mm) for split tensile strength cured at 7,
28 and 56 d; 6 cylinders (200  100 mm) were cut to the size of
100  50 mm discs for rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT)
at 28 d and porosity at 7 and 28 d. Mix proportions are shown
in Table 4.
2.3. Preparation and casting of test specimen
Microstructure analyses of concrete specimens were done by
scanning electron microscope (SEM: 6510-LV, JOEL, USA).
Original microstructure and morphology of the hydrate mixes
were observed on crushed sample surfaces. Crushed samples
were mounted on the brass stubs using carbon tapes and were
gold coated. For X-ray diffraction (XRD) the samples, which
were already cast and cured for 28 d, are crushed and pulv-
erised to an average particle size of 10 mm. After that this
crushed sample was mounted on the glass fibre filter using
tubular aerosol suspension chamber (TASC). After placing the
sample in the chamber the mass absorption coefficient of the
sample was determined by X-Ray transmission (Xpert pro,
Panalytical, USA). The XRD pattern was observed by scanning
the sample from 10 to 80 , 2 theta and having Cu radiation and
graphite monochromatic with a current of 30 KV and a voltage
of 40 MV by using a vertical X-ray diffraction meter.

For casting, the entire test specimen were cleaned and oiled
properly. These were securely tightened to correct dimensions 3. Results and discussion
before casting. The casting of specimens was in accordance
with IS: 516 (1959). After casting, the specimens were allowed 3.1. Fresh concrete properties
to remain in iron moulds for first 24 h at room temperature
(27 ± 2  C). After that these were demoulded and placed in the Various mixes have been designed and tested for fresh con-
water tank at room temperature for curing. The specimens crete properties. SP content varied from 0.8 to 1.5 % and w/b
were tested after 7, 28 and 56 d of curing period. ratio was varied from 0.35 to 0.45. Optimum results were ob-
tained by the mix with 1% SP and 0.41 w/b ratio. The results of
2.4. Test methods fresh properties of all self-compacting rice husk ash concrete
are included in Table 5. The table shows the properties such as
2.4.1. Fresh concrete properties slump flow, V-funnel flow time, L-box, U-box. In terms of
A concrete mix can only be classified as SCC if the require- Slump flow, all SCCs exhibited satisfactory slump flow in the
ment of all three characteristics i.e. filling ability, passing range of 550e800 mm, which is an indication of good
ability and segregation resistance are fulfilled. To fulfil these deformability. All the fresh properties of concrete values were
requirements basic tests are conducted i.e. slump flow test in good agreement to that of values given by European
and V- funnel test for filling ability, L-box and U-box for guidelines. Lowest workability was obtained by mix contain-
passing ability. All these tests were performed in accordance ing maximum percentage of RHA i.e. 20%. Workability
to the methods mentioned in EFNARC (2002). Acceptance decreased with increase in RHA content. Similar results were
criteria for SCC as per EFNARC (2002) are shown in Table 5. obtained by Memon et al. (2008) who have reported that fresh
properties were in accordance to the EFNARC (2002) range. It
2.4.2. Mechanical properties
Compressive strength (cube 150  150  150 mm) and split
tensile strength (cylinder 150  300 mm) was determined at Table 5 e Fresh concrete properties for mixes with and
without rice husk ash compared with EFNARC (2002)
the age of 7, 28 and 56 d in triplicates. They were tested ac-
results.
cording to IS: 516 (1959) and IS: 5816 (1999), respectively.
Type of test RHA (%)
2.4.3. Durability properties Range 0% 10% 15% 20%
The investigated durability properties are porosity and rapid (EFNARC, 2002)
chloride permeability. For both the test 100  200 mm cylin- Slump flow (mm) 650e800 730 700 670 600
ders were cast and sliced to 100  50 mm cylinders. Both these V- Funnel (sec) 6e12 6 8 11 13
tests were performed according to ASTM C 642 (2006) and L- Box (H2/H1) 0.8e1 1 0.9 0.8 Blocking
U-Flow (H2eH1) 0e30 5 18 25 30
ASTM C 1202 (2010), respectively for 28 d.
76 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0
was also reported that there was decrease in flow with the
increase in RHA content. Safiuddin et al. (2012) reported that
all the mixes exhibits good filling and passing ability corre-
sponding to values as per EFNARC (2002). Kannan and
Ganesan (2013) reported that values for slump flow were in
the range as per EFNARC (2002) indicating good filling ability
but its value decreased with increase in percentage of RHA
and MK.
3.2. Compressive strength
The compressive strength test results of SCC mixes are shown
in Fig. 2. The w/b ratio was kept constant at 0.41 for all mixes.
With increase in RHA content from (10e20 %), SCC mixes
develop compressive strength between 29.0 and 32.6 MPa for
7 d, 36.7 and 41.2 MPa for 28 d and 39.6 and 46.4 MPa for 56 d.
Compressive strength increases with increases in the per-
centage of RHA up to 15% replacement, after that the strength
starts to decrease. The highest level of long term compressive
strength was achieved for 15RHA which contained 15% RHA.
The results obtained are comparable to the results by Juma
et al. (2012) who reported that cement replaced with RHA
significantly increased the compressive strength of concretes
at all the ages. Kannan and Ganesan (2013) reported that
compressive strength of SCC blended with 15% RHA was
higher than that of normal SCC. However, it decreased with
increase in percentage of RHA above 20%. Safiuddin et al.
(2010) reported that excellent compressive strength was ach-
ieved for the mix containing 15% RHA and Chik et al. (2011)
reported that at 28 d a mix containing 15% RHA showed the
maximum compressive strength followed by mixtures con-
taining 20 and 10% RHA.
In present investigation the improvement of compressive
strength is mostly due to micro filling ability and pozzolanic
activity of RHA. Also the RHA is highly reactive; it reacts with
calcium hydroxide (a byproduct of cement hydration) and
produces additional C-S-H. The additional C-S-H reduces the
porosity of concrete by filling the capillary pores thus
improving the microstructure of concrete in bulk paste matrix
and transition zone leading to increased compressive
strength.
A decrease in compressive strength was observed with
20RHA. In this case, the amount of silica available in the hy-
drated blended cement matrix was probably too high and the
amount of the produced CeH was most likely insufficient to
Fig. 2 e Compressive strength of SCC mixes at various ages.
react with all the available silica and as a result of that, some
amount of silica was left without any chemical reaction.
3.3. Split tensile strength
Similar trend as per compressive strength results was
observed with split tensile strength. The highest strength is
obtained by the mix 15RHA at all ages. Figure 3 shows that the
split tensile strength increases with increase in percentage of
RHA up to 15% replacement and strength increased with in-
crease in curing age. There was decrease in strength for mix
20RHA, but the values were still higher than control mix at all
ages. With increase in RHA content from (10e20 %) SCC mixes
developed splitting tensile strength values between 2.0 and
2.8 MPa for 7 d, 2.5 and 3.7 MPa for 28 d and 2.8 and 4.0 MPa for
56 d. Similar results were reported by Rahman et al. (2014) who
found that split tensile strength decreased with increases in
percentage of RHA. A 20% RHA replacement is acceptable, as
its strength is similar to the strength of controlled mix.
Khadiry et al. (2014) reported that 28 d strength for RHA mix is
higher as compared to SL.
3.4. Rapid chloride permeability test
The 28-day test results for the resistance to penetration of
chloride ions into concrete, measured in terms of the electric
charge passed through the specimens in coulombs for
different SCC mixes with and without rice husk ash are shown
in Fig. 4. From the results it was found that as the replacement
level of RHA increased, the charge passed decreased, except in
case of 20RHA in which charge passed increased, but is still
less than the CM (Fig. 4). The results can be compared to
Kannan and Ganesan (2013) who reported that SCC blended
with MK and RHA þ MK showed best results with very low
chloride ion penetration. Therefore blended mixes have lower
ion penetration than unblended SCC. Zhang and Malhotra
(1996) reported that RHA concrete (10% replacement of
cement) had excellent resistance to chloride ion penetration
and the charge passed was below 1000 coulombs both at 28
and 91 d. Ramasamy (2011) reported that most of the chloride
ion permeability values fall in the range of very low (100e1000
coulombs) category. He also reported that as cement
replacement by RHA increases, the charge passed decreases.
According to present investigation the permeability class
ranged from “moderate” for CM to “very low” for 15RHA. This
Fig. 3 e Split tensile strength of SCC mixes at various ages.
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0
Fig. 4 e Rapid chloride permeability test (RCPT) of SCC
mixes at 28 days of curing.
is mainly due to the fact that incorporation of the RHA in
concrete results in finer pore structure in the hydrated cement
paste especially at the aggregate and paste interface.
3.5. Porosity
Porosity is a significant factor as it directly affects the dura-
bility of the SCC. The results of porosity of SCC concrete mixes
are shown in Fig. 5. The results indicate that the porosity
decreased with increases in curing time. The main reason
behind this is due to the additional or increased rate of hy-
dration and/or pozzolanic reactions. There is more formation
of C-S-H gel as a product of pozzolanic reaction between cal-
cium hydroxide and silica. This gel fills the voids and in-
creases the density of concrete. Lowest porosity is achieved by
mix 15RHA. 20RHA mix shows increase in porosity, but it is
still less than the CM. These results can be compared to those
from Ramasamy (2011) who observed that the porosity value
decreases as the percentage of replacement increases. Rukzon
and Chindaprasirt (2014) revealed that the porosities of SCC
decreased with increase in the curing time due to the addi-
tional hydration and/or pozzolanic reaction.
Fig. 5 e Porosity of various SCC mixes at 7 days and 28
days of curing.
77
In present investigation porosity decreased with increases
in age. This is basically due to large formation of C-S-H gel,
dense structure is formed so porosity decreased.
3.6. Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
SEM images of unblended SCC (100% OPC), 10% RHA, 15% RHA
and 20% RHA are shown in Fig. 6aed. These micrographs show
clear spread of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gel. Figure 6a
shows mix with 0% RHA replacement. It is observed that un-
blended concrete mix consist of irregular particles with micro
pores and cracking is also observed. This may be the main
reason for poor performance in relation to strength and
durability as compared to blended concrete. Figure 6b shows
mix with 10% RHA replacement. It is observed that micro
pores have decreased due to hydration progress. C-S-H gel is
more widely spread in this case giving a uniform dense
structure than unblended concrete. This may be the reason for
slight increase in strength and durability properties as
compared to unblended concrete. Figure 6c shows mix with
15% RHA replacement. It was observed that pore structure
improved to a greater extent. No pores or cracking were
observed in this case. The C-S-H gel was fully spread over the
micrograph leading to highly uniform and dense structure.
The fibrous C-S-H formation acts as a thick impermeable
membrane for the ingress of chloride ions into concrete. This
would make the concrete more resistant to aggressive envi-
ronment as was observed from RCPT values. Figure 6d shows
mix with 20% RHA replacement. It was observed that mix have
started crumbling as the amount of RHA is increased. C-S-H
gel was not seen at all the places. Crumbling of mix may be the
reason for the reduced strength and degraded durability
properties of this mix.
3.7. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
XRD analysis was conducted to analyse the components of
concrete mixes (Fig. 7a and b) and the material (Fig. 8aed)
used. The XRD pattern and analysis of the concrete mixes i.e.
reference mix, and RHA mixes was carried out at age of 28 d.
One of the major problems encountered in the qualitative and
quantitative analysis of cement is that there was strong
overlapping of major diffraction peaks of all the main phases
of cement components. XRD analysis of concrete samples
with or without RHA, showed peaks of quartz (Q), C-S-H, and
ettringite (E) phases.
XRD analysis also showed that the RHA was mainly in
amorphous silica form. Much less crystalline silica form was
observed in the form of cristobalite. From XRD analysis of OPC
it was observed that the main products were C3S (major
mineral component responsible for initial and final strength)
and C2S. In all the concrete mixes, C2S, C3S, and C4AF peaks
were not visible indicating that they may be totally consumed
or overlapping of the peaks of un-hydrated cement by that of
Si may have occurred as all analysed mixes were concrete
specimens with large number of aggregate particles contain-
ing quartz which resulted in intensive Si peaks. For the mix
15RHA the intensity of free silica decreased to 2000. There
were more formation of C-S-H gel, this is the main reason for
increase in strength as compared to other mixes.
78 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0

Fig. 6 e SEM Micrographs of various mixes a) 0RHA, b) 10RHA, c) 15RHA, d) 20RHA.

4. Conclusions

1. Replacement of cement by RHA as a supplementary

cementitious material, has positive effect on all properties
of self-compacting concrete.
2. Fresh properties results showed that with increase in
amount of RHA workability decreased. Lowest workability
was obtained by the mix containing 20% RHA.
3. Increases of about 25% strength at 7 d, 33% strength at 28 d
and 36% strength at 56 d were observed with increases in
RHA content from control mix to 15% cement replacement.
Increasing RHA content increased the compressive
strength of the concrete up to 15% RHA content whereas
above this value there was a decrease in strength due to
reduced hydration reaction and lower cement content.
4. A similar trend was shown as for compressive strength.
The split tensile strength increased up to 15% replacement
of cement by RHA. SCC mixes develop split tensile strength
ranging from 2.0 to 2.8 MPa, form 2.5e3.7 MPa, from 2.8 to
4.0 MPa at 7, 28 and 56 d, respectively.
5. SCC mixes made with RHA reduced the chloride ion
penetrability. Increase in replacement decreased the
charge passed. Very low permeability was achieved by the
15% RHA replacement to cement and moderate perme-
ability was recorded for the control mix.
6. Including RHA into the matrix reduced the pores for all Fig. 7 e X-ray diffraction pattern of a) ordinary Portland
mixes. Porosity decreased with increase in curing time due cement (OPC), b) rice husk ash (RHA).
 b i o s y s t e m s e n g i n e e r i n g 1 3 0 ( 2 0 1 5 ) 7 2 e8 0
Fig. 8 e X-ray diffraction pattern of a) 0RHA (Control) mix, b) 10RHA, c) 15RHA, d) 20RHA.
to increased rate of hydration with time. The lowest
porosity was obtained by the mix containing 15% RHA.
7. XRD and SEM analyses revealed the increased formation of
a CSH gel for all mixes which helps explain the increased
compressive strength for 15% RHA concrete. Pores and
cracking were at maximum for the control mix. The most
dense structure was observed for 15% replacement with
RHA which resulted in the highest compressive strength
for the mix.
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