SPH4U

Relative Motion
Relative motion is a branch of kinematics that studies motion that is specified under a
specific frame of reference. Consider a passenger on a train. Though the passenger
may be at rest relative to the floor of the train, the passenger is also moving at the
speed of the train relative to the ground.

Terminology
Heading: the direction an object is facing. It does not however necessarily refer to the
path taken by the object.
Airspeed: an object’s velocity with respect to the air
Ground Speed: an object’s velocity with respect to the ground

Wind Directions
Wind directions are usually reported in reference to the direction from which they are
coming:
Easterly = from the east = toward the west
Westerly = from the west = toward the east
Northerly = from the north = toward the south
Southerly = from the south = toward the north

Inertial Frames of Reference and Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

A frame of reference is an object relative to which the positions, velocities, accel-
erations, etc. of other objects may be measured. An inertial frame of reference is a
frame in which the law of inertia and other physics laws are valid. Any frame moving at a
constant velocity relative to the first frame is also an inertial frame. A non-inertial frame
of reference is a frame in which the law of inertia is invalid.

Consider a bus moving at a constant speed. Atop the floor of the bus lies a ball.
As the bus accelerates at a constant speed in the forward direction, the ball (with respect
to the bus) is at rest. However, when the bus approaches a red light and applies the
brakes, the bus accelerates negatively in the backward direction and the ball moves in
the forward direction; the bus has become a non-inertial frame of reference. However,
the movement of the ball is not induced by any net force. Then…why is it moving?

To account for this phenomenon, physicists have established the concept of the
fictitious force, an invented force used to explain the motion in an accelerating or non-
inertial frame of reference.
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Example
A cruise ship is sailing with a heading of due east at a rate of 45.00 km/h through a cur-
rent that is moving at a rate of 10.00 km/h [N20.00oW]. A passenger standing on the
starboard side of the ship (right side of the ship) throws a Frisbee overboard directly
perpendicular to the side of the ship. If the passenger can throw the Frisbee at a speed
of 50.00 km/h, determine the Frisbee’s velocity with respect to the shore.
Given RTF
# 𝑣" = 45.00 𝑘𝑚 ℎ   𝐸 = 𝑏 8 𝑣/ = 𝑟
" 𝑣/ = 10.00 𝑘𝑚 ℎ   𝑁20.00°𝑊 = 𝑐
8 𝑣# = 50.00 𝑘𝑚 ℎ   𝑆 = 𝑎
Solution Vector Chart
Vector Equation Vector x-component y-component
8 𝑣/ = 8 𝑣# + # 𝑣" + " 𝑣/ 𝑎; = 0 𝑎 < = 𝑎
𝑟 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐 = 50.00 𝑘𝑚 ℎ [𝑆]
Vector Diagram 𝑏; = 𝑏 𝑏< = 0
𝜃P
= 45.00 𝑘𝑚 ℎ  [𝐸]
𝑐; = 𝑐 sin 𝜃C 𝑐< = 𝑐 cos 𝜃C
= 10.00 sin 20.00 = 10.00 cos 20.00
≅ 3.420 𝑘𝑚 ℎ [𝑊] ≅ 9.397 𝑘𝑚 ℎ [𝑁]
𝜃C

𝜃 = 20°

𝑟; = 𝑎; + 𝑏; + 𝑐; 𝑟< = 𝑎< + 𝑏< + 𝑐<

RE- = +45.00 − 3.420 = −50.00 + 9.397
SULT- = 41.58 𝑘𝑚 ℎ  [𝐸] = 40.60 𝑘𝑚 ℎ  [𝑆]
ANT

New Vector Equation Find 𝜃P

𝑟 = 𝑟; + 𝑟< 𝑟;
tan 𝜃P =
Find 𝑟 𝑟<
𝑟 = 𝑟; M + 𝑟<
M 𝑟;
𝜃P = tanST
𝑟<
= (41.58)M + (40.60)M 41.58
≅ 58.11 𝑘𝑚 ℎ = tanST
40.60
≅ 45.68°
∴ the Frisbee’s velocity with respect to the shore is
58.11 𝑘𝑚 ℎ   𝑆45.68°𝐸 .

NOTE: If the direction of the resultant is given, it may be necessary to “rotate the uni-
verse” in order to make one of either 𝑟; or 𝑟< equate to 0 and to solve for the angle miss-
ing in another vector.
 SPH4U

Circular Motion
Example
A car enters a circular track traveling clockwise at a velocity of 20.00 m/s [N]. If the car
experiences a linear acceleration of 0.500 m/s2, determine the speed of the car after
30.00s, the distance travelled by the car during the turn, the car’s change in direction if
the radius of the curved section is 800.0 m, and the vector acceleration of the car.
Given RTF
Traveling clockwise (CW) a) 𝑣M
𝑣T = 20.00 𝑚 𝑠 [𝑁] b) 𝑑
M
𝑎 = 0.500  𝑚 ∕ 𝑠 c) ∆𝜃
𝑡 = 30.00  𝑠 d) 𝑎
𝑅 = 800.0  𝑚
Solution a) Find 𝑣M c) Find ∆𝜃
Diagram 𝑣M = 𝑣T + 𝑎𝑡 C _
=
\]^° ∆`
𝑣M = 20 + 0.5 30 \]^°
𝑣M = 35.00   𝑚 𝑠 ∆𝜃 = 𝑑
MaP
∆𝜃 =
b) Find 𝑑 \]^°
(825.0)
1 M Ma b^^.^
𝑑 = 𝑣T 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 ∆𝜃 ≅ 59.09°
2
1
𝑑 = 20 30 + 0.5 30 M
2
𝑑 = 600.0 + 225.0
𝑑 = 825.0  𝑚

Updated Diagram Find ∆𝑣

∆𝑣 = 𝑣T M + 𝑣M M − 2 𝑣T 𝑣M cos ∆𝜃
∆𝑣 = (20)M
+ (35)M
− 2(20)(30) cos 59.09
∆𝑣 ≅ 30.10 𝑚 𝑠
Find 𝛼 Find 𝛽
𝛼 = 90 − 𝛽 𝑣 M = ∆𝑣 M + 𝑣 M − 2 ∆𝑣 𝑣 cos 𝛽
M T T
f
ef f S ∆e S eg f
𝛽 = cos ST
SM ∆e eg
d) Find ∆𝑣 𝛽 = cos ST
(\h)f S(\^.T^)f S(M^)f
SM(\^.T^)(M^)
𝛼
𝛽 ≅ 86.14°
Find 𝑎
∆e
𝑎=
i
\^.T^
𝑎=
\^.^^
M
𝑎 = 1.003  𝑚 𝑠
 SPH4U

Projectile Motion
Projectile motion is the branch of kinematics that predicts the behaviour of objects
launched under the influence of a gravitational field. There are 5 types of projectile motion
questions:
1. 𝑣<T = 0   𝑚 𝑠 2. 𝑣<T ≠ 0   𝑚 𝑠 3. Flat Ground 4. 𝑣<M = 0   𝑚 𝑠 5. 𝑣<M ≠ 0   𝑚 𝑠

N.B.: 1. The horizontal displacement of a projectile is called the range.

2. To maximize range, an object’s optimal launch angle is 90o while a 45o angle is
optimal to maximize flight time.
Example
You are doing an awesome Jason Bourne-esque spy thing from the top of some random
building in some European city. Because of your superhuman strength, you can throw a
powerful gadget. Your fellow spy (and likely a romantic interest because let’s face it, it’s
Hollywood) is on the edge of the roof of another building of the exact same height. The
buildings are separated by 120.0 m. Find the gadget’s initial launch velocity if it is thrown
at the optimum angle and find the gadget’s maximum height.
Given RTF
𝑑; = 120.0  𝑚 a) 𝑣k
𝜃 = 45° b) 𝑑lm;
M
𝑎< = −9.8 𝑚 𝑠
Solution a) Find 𝑣k
Diagram e f opq M`
𝑑= n
r
_r
𝑣k =
𝑣k
opq M`
𝑣<T (TM^)(s.b)
120.0 m 𝑣k =
opq M(th°)

𝑣; 𝑣k = 14 6  𝑚 𝑠
𝑣k ≅ 34.29   𝑚 𝑠
∴ the gadget’s initial launch velocity is 34.29 m/s
[E45oN].
b) Find 𝑣<T & 𝑣; Find 𝑑lm;
M M
𝑣<M = 𝑣<T + 2𝑎< 𝑑lm;  
M M
𝑣<M − 𝑣<T
𝑣k 𝑑lm; =
𝑣<T 2𝑎<
f
^ f S Tt \
𝑑lm; =
𝑣;
M(Ss.b)
588
𝑣<T = 𝑣k sin 𝜃 = 14 3 𝑑lm; = −
−19.6
𝑣; = (14 6) cos 𝜃 = 14 3 𝑑lm; = 30.0  𝑚
 SPH4U

Bodies in Equilibrium
Equilibrium is the state in which the summative forces acting on a body equate to zero.

Example #1: Multiple Bodies in Equilibrium (with Data)

A 0.50 kg block of cheese sits on a level table. The coefficient of static friction is 0.60.
Three strings are tied together in a knot, 𝐾. 𝐾" is horizontal and fastened to the cheese.
𝐾v angles up to the wall at 30o to the horizontal. 𝐾l hangs vertically, supporting a mouse.
What is the maximum mass of the mouse if the cheese and the mouse remain in equilib-
rium?
Given RTF
𝑚" = 0.50  𝑘𝑔 𝑚l
𝜇 = 0.60
𝜃 = 30°
Solution Vector Diagram FBD of M 𝐹~•i€
FBD of K 𝑇v
𝑇" 𝑇l 𝐹~•i€ = 𝑇l + 𝐹rl
𝑇v 0 = +𝑇l − 𝑚l 𝑔
𝑇" K 𝜃 = 30° 𝑇l
𝛾 M 𝑇l = 𝑚l 𝑔   1
𝜃 = 30°
z
𝑇l tan 𝛾 = {   0 𝐹rl
z |
𝛾 = 90° − 𝜃
FBD of C 𝐹~•iC; 𝐹~•iC<
𝐹‚"
𝐹~•iC; = 𝐹8" + 𝑇" 𝐹~•iC< = 𝐹‚" + 𝐹r"
0 = −𝜇𝐹‚" + 𝑇" 0 = +𝐹‚" − 𝑚" 𝑔
𝐹8" 𝑇" 𝑇" =  𝜇𝐹‚"   2 𝐹‚" = 𝑚" 𝑔   3
K
Sub 3 into 2
𝐹r"
𝑇" = 𝜇𝑚" 𝑔   4
Sub 4 & 1 into 0
𝑇"
tan 𝛾 =
𝑇l
𝜇𝑚" 𝑔  
tan(90° − 𝜃) =
𝑚l 𝑔
𝜇𝑚"
tan 60° =
𝑚l
𝑚l tan 60° =  𝜇𝑚"
𝜇𝑚"
𝑚l =
tan 60°
(0.60)(0.50)
𝑚l =
3
𝑚l ≅ 0.17 kg
∴ in order to maintain static equilibrium, the mouse must not have a mass greater
than 0.17 kg or 170 g.
 SPH4U

Example #2: Multiple Bodies out of Equilibrium (No Data)

Derive a formula for a theoretical algebraic expression for the acceleration (𝑎) of the sys-
tem in terms of 𝑚m , 𝑚# , 𝑚" , 𝑔, 𝜃  &  𝜇 for the mass and pulley system below, which is con-
figured such that 𝑚m ≫ 𝑚# > 𝑚" .
Diagram FBD A FBD B
𝐹‚ˆ
𝑚#
𝑇T

𝑎
𝑚m 𝑇M
𝑇T
𝑚#
𝐹8ˆ
𝑚m
𝜃
𝐹r‡
𝐹rˆ
𝐹~•i‡
𝐹~•i‡ = 𝑇T + 𝐹r‡ 𝑎
−𝑚‡ 𝑎 = +𝑇T − 𝑚‡ 𝑔   1
𝐹~•iˆ; FBD C Find 𝐹r"; &  𝐹r"<
𝐹~•iˆ; = 𝑇T + 𝑇M + 𝐹8ˆ 𝜃 𝐹r"; = 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝐹r"
−𝑚ˆ 𝑎 = −𝑇T + 𝑇M + 𝜇𝐹‚ˆ 𝐹r"< = 𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃

𝐹r"<
𝑇M 𝐹 ‚"
𝑇T = 𝜇𝐹‚ˆ + 𝑇M + 𝑚ˆ 𝑎   2
𝐹8" 𝐹r";
𝐹~•iˆ<
𝜃

𝐹~•iˆ< = 𝐹‚ˆ + 𝐹rˆ 𝐹r"

𝐹~•iC;
0 = +𝐹‚ˆ − 𝑚ˆ 𝑔 𝑎 𝐹~•iC; = 𝐹8" + 𝐹r"; + 𝑇M
𝐹‚ˆ = 𝑚ˆ 𝑔   3
−𝑚" 𝑎 = +𝜇𝐹‚C + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑇M
𝑇M = 𝜇𝐹‚C + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑎   4
𝐹~•iC<
𝐹~•iC< = 𝐹‚C + 𝐹r"<
0 = +𝐹‚C − 𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃
𝐹‚C = 𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃   5
Sub 5 into 4 Sub 3   into 2
𝑇M = 𝜇𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑎   6 𝑇T = 𝜇𝑚ˆ 𝑔 + 𝑇M + 𝑚ˆ 𝑎   7
Sub 6 into   7
𝑇T = 𝜇𝑚ˆ 𝑔 + 𝜇𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑎   + 𝑚ˆ 𝑎   8
Sub 8 into 1
−𝑚‡ 𝑎 = 𝜇𝑚ˆ 𝑔 + 𝜇𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑎   + 𝑚ˆ 𝑎 − 𝑚‡ 𝑔
−𝑚‡ 𝑎 − 𝑚ˆ 𝑎 − 𝑚" 𝑎 = 𝑚ˆ 𝑔 + 𝜇𝑚" 𝑔 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" 𝑔 sin 𝜃 − 𝑚‡ 𝑔
−𝑎 𝑚‡ + 𝑚ˆ + 𝑚C = 𝑔(𝜇𝑚ˆ + 𝜇𝑚" cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" sin 𝜃 − 𝑚‡ )
−𝑔(𝜇𝑚ˆ + 𝜇𝑚" cos 𝜃 + 𝑚" sin 𝜃 − 𝑚‡ )
𝑎=
𝑚‡ + 𝑚ˆ + 𝑚C
−𝑔[𝜇(𝑚ˆ + 𝑚" cos 𝜃) + 𝑚" sin 𝜃 − 𝑚‡ ]
𝑎=
𝑚‡ + 𝑚ˆ + 𝑚C
 SPH4U
Torque
Torque occurs when the net force on a system is 0 N, but the system will still experience
angular acceleration (rotation). By convention, torque is defined to be positive if the force
tends to rotate the system counterclockwise and negative if the rotation is clockwise.

Example #1: Linear Torque

An 80 kg man is walking on a 10 m long plank that has a mass of 100 kg. If the last 3m
of the plank hangs over the edge, how far can he walk out before it tips over?
Diagram Solution
𝜏~•i = 𝜏Œ•m~Ž + 𝜏lm~ + 𝜏‚
𝐹‚ 0 = +𝜏Œ•m~Ž − 𝜏lm~
7m
𝜏Œ•m~Ž = 𝜏lm~
3m 𝑅Œ•m~Ž 𝐹Œ•m~Ž = 𝑅lm~ 𝐹lm~
𝑅Œ•m~Ž 𝑚Œ•m~Ž 𝑔 = 𝑅lm~ 𝑚lm~ 𝑔
P.O.R. 𝑅Œ•m~Ž 𝑚Œ•m~Ž
𝑅lm~ =
𝑚lm~
(2)(100)
5m 𝐹lm~ 𝑅lm~ =
2m 80
𝑅lm~ =? 𝐹Œ•m~Ž 𝑅 lm~ = 2.5   𝑚
𝑅‚ = 0  𝑚  (𝑃. 𝑂. 𝑅) ∴ the man can walk 2.5 m over
𝑅Œ•m~Ž = 2  𝑚 the edge before the plank tips.

Example #2: Angular Torque

A 12.0 m ladder, whose mass is 20 kg, is leaning against a wall, with its base 6.0 m from
the wall and at a slope of 60o to the floor. Because both the wall and the floor are friction-
less, a rope is tied horizontally 0.50 m from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. A 72 kg
plasterer climbs three quarters of the way up the ladder and stops. What is the tension in
the rope and what are the reactive forces at the wall and the floor?
Diagram 𝐹~•i< 𝜏~•i
𝛼
𝐹“ 𝐹~•i< = 𝐹‘ + 𝐹’ + 𝐹‚ 𝜏~•i = 𝜏“ + 𝜏‘ + 𝜏’ + 𝜏 z + 𝜏‚
0 = −𝜏“ + 𝜏‘ + 𝜏’ + 𝜏 z
0 = −𝐹‘ − 𝐹’ + 𝐹‚
𝜏“ = 𝜏‘ + 𝜏’ + 𝜏 z
𝐹‚ = 𝐹‘ + 𝐹’ 𝑅“ 𝐹v sin 𝛼 = 𝑅‘ 𝐹‘ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅’ 𝐹’ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅z 𝑇 sin 𝛼
𝜃 𝐹‚ = 𝑚 ‘ 𝑔 + 𝑚 ’ 𝑔 𝑅“ 𝑇 sin 𝛼 − 𝑅z 𝑇 sin 𝛼 = 𝑅‘ 𝐹‘ sin 𝜃 + 𝑅’ 𝐹’ sin 𝜃
𝐹‚ = 𝑔 𝑚‘ + 𝑚’ 𝑇 sin 𝛼 𝑅“ − 𝑅z = 𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑅‘ 𝑚‘ + 𝑅’ 𝑚’ )
𝐹‚ = 9.8 72 + 20 𝑔 sin 𝜃 (𝑅‘ 𝑚‘ + 𝑅’ 𝑚’ )
𝑇=
𝜃 𝐹‚ = 901.6  𝑁 sin 𝛼 𝑅“ − 𝑅z
𝐹‘ 9.8 sin 30 [ 6 20 + 9 72 ]
𝐹~•i; 𝑇=
𝐹’ 𝐹‚ 𝐹~•i; = 𝐹“ + 𝑇 sin 60 12 − 0.5
𝛼𝜃 0 = +𝐹“ − 𝑇 𝑇 ≅ 378   𝑁
𝑇
𝑇 = 𝐹“   1
Since 𝑇 = 𝐹“ ,  𝐹‚ = 901.6  𝑁,  𝑇 ≅
𝜃 = 30°            α = 60° 378  𝑁 & 𝐹“ ≅ 378  𝑁.
𝑅‚ = 0  𝑚   𝑃. 𝑂. 𝑅.
𝑅z = 0.5  𝑚          𝑅‘ = 9  𝑚
𝑅’ = 6  𝑚                𝑅“ = 12  𝑚
 SPH4U
Centripetal Force
Centripetal force is a physical concept that causes mental distress among students be-
cause it doesn’t actually exist in a traditional sense. Centripetal force is a result of cen-
tripetal acceleration. The force that causes centripetal acceleration is the net resultant of
other forces such as friction, air pressure or tension. Centripetal force is just a “net force”.

Example #1: Inclined Centripetal Force

A 1000 kg car travels around a frictionless banked curve at a radius of 80 m. What speed
is required to maintain a constant radius?
Given RTF
𝑚 = 1000  𝑘𝑔 𝑣
𝑅 = 80  𝑚
𝜃 = 20°
Solution Vector Equation Find 𝑣
Diagram 𝐹~•i = 𝐹‚ + 𝐹r 𝐹C
tan 𝜃 =
𝐹C = 𝐹‚ + 𝐹r 𝐹r
𝐹‚ 𝜃
Vector Diagram 𝐹C = 𝐹r tan 𝜃
𝐹"
𝑚𝑎C = 𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑣M
𝜃 𝐹r 𝜃 𝐹‚ = 𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑅
𝐹r 𝑣 M = 𝑅𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝐹" 𝜃
𝑣 = 80 1000 tan 20°
𝑣 ≅ 16.9  𝑚/𝑠

Example #2: Tetherball Questions

A tetherball ball of unknown mass is attached to a 1.0 m long cord. If the cord makes an
angle of 30o to the normal, determine the rotational frequency and speed of the ball.
Given RTF
𝑙 = 1.0  𝑚 a) 𝑣
𝜃 = 30°
Solution Vector Equation Vector Diagram a) Find 𝑓
𝐹~•i = 𝑇 + 𝐹r 𝐹C
tan 𝜃 =
𝜃 𝐹C = 𝑇 + 𝐹r 𝜃 𝐹r
𝑙 𝑇 𝐹r tan 𝜃 = 𝐹C
FBD
𝐹r 𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎C
𝑇 𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 𝑎C
𝐹" 𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 4𝜋 M 𝑅𝑓 M
𝑅 sin 𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝐹" 𝑔 = 4𝜋 M 𝑙 sin 𝜃 𝑓 M
cos 𝜃
𝐹r r
𝑓M = f
ta • ˜™o `
r
𝑓=
taf • ˜™o `
𝑓 ≅ 0.535  𝐻𝑧
 SPH4U

Example #3: Centripetal Acceleration in Space

Determine the orbital period and speed of a satellite in a stable orbit, that is located 100km
above the surface of the Earth.
Given RTF
𝑚• = 5.9742×10Mt  𝑘𝑔 a) 𝑇
] b) 𝑣
𝑅 = 6.378×10 + 100000  𝑚

Solution a) Find period b) Find speed

Diagram •€
𝐹" = 𝐹r 𝑎" = f
P
•€l
𝑚𝑎" = ef •€
Pf =
P Pf
taf P •€ •€
= M
𝑣 =
zf Pf P
M taf P ž
𝑇 = •€
•€ 𝑣=
P
taf P ž
𝑇= (].]Ÿ×T^¢gg )(h.sŸtM×T^f )
•€ 𝑣=  
(].\Ÿb×T^f ¡T^^^^^)ž
taf (].\Ÿb×T^f ¡T^^^^^)ž
𝑇= 𝑣 ≅ 7842.9  𝑚/𝑠 or28234  𝑘𝑚/ℎ
(].]Ÿ×T^¢gg )(h.sŸtM×T^f )
𝑇 ≅ 5189  𝑠 = 86.5  𝑚𝑖𝑛

Example #4: Centripetal and Projectile Motion

An Australian bushman hunts kangaroos with the following weapon: a rock to one end of
a light vine of length 2 m. He holds the other end above his head, at a point 2 m above
ground level, and swings the rock in a horizontal circle. The cunning kangaroo has ob-
served that the vine always breaks when the angle 𝜃 (measured between the vine and
the vertical) reached 60o. At what minimum distance from the hunter can the kangaroo
stand with no danger of a direct hit?
Diagram(s) Projectile Motion Portion Find 𝑡
Centripetal Motion Portion 1
𝑑< = 𝑣<T 𝑡 + 𝑎< 𝑡 M
2
𝜃 M
𝑙 = 2.0  𝑚 𝑦
2𝑑 < = 𝑎 < 𝑡
M_¦
𝑅 ℎ = 2.0  𝑚 𝑡=
m¦

M[S§ TS˜™o ` ]
𝑡=
Sr

Let 𝑙 = ℎ M§(TS˜™o `)
𝑡= 1
𝑅 = ℎ sin 𝜃 𝑦 = ℎ cos 𝜃 r

FBD Vector Diagram Find 𝑣;

¨{
𝑇 𝑇 tan 𝜃 =
𝜃 ¨©
𝑇
𝐹" 𝐹r 𝑚𝑔 tan 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑎"
𝑣;M
𝐹" 𝑔 tan 𝜃 =
𝐹r 𝑅
𝑣;M = 𝑅𝑔 tan 𝜃
𝑣; = 𝑅ℎ sin 𝜃 𝑔 tan 𝜃 2
 SPH4U

Find 𝑑; Find 𝑑 from hunter to kangaroo

𝑑; = 𝑣; 𝑡
𝐾
M§ TS˜™o `
𝑑; =( 𝑅ℎ sin 𝜃 𝑔 tan 𝜃)  
r

𝑅ℎ sin 𝜃 𝑔 tan 𝜃 [2ℎ 1 − cos 𝜃 ] 𝑑

𝑑; = 𝑑<
𝑔

2ℎM sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 (1 − cos 𝜃)

𝑑; =
cos 𝜃 𝑅
𝐻 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒
2(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑑; = ℎ sin 𝜃 3
cos 𝜃

Find 𝑑
𝑑= 𝑅M + 𝑑<M
M

M
2(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑑 =   ℎ sin 𝜃 + ℎ sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃

2(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑑= ℎM sinM 𝜃 + ℎM sinM 𝜃
cos 𝜃

2(1 − cos 𝜃)
𝑑 = ℎ sin 𝜃 1 +
cos 𝜃

cos 𝜃 + 2(1 − cos 𝜃)

𝑑 =  ℎ sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃

2 − cos 60
𝑑 =  ℎ sin 60
cos 60
1
3 2−
𝑑=2 2
2 1
2
𝑑= 3 3
𝑑 = 3  𝑚
∴ the kangaroo must stand at a minimum of exactly 3 m to avoid being hit by the
bushman’s projectile.
 SPH4U
Momentum
Momentum is an extension of Newton’s 2nd Law. It is defined as the product of an object’s
mass with its velocity. Newton described momentum as the “quality of motion”. An object’s
momentum is related to its mass and hence, its inertia (recalling that inertia is an object’s
inherent resistance to changes in motion). It is expressed in 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠.

Impulse is defined as an object’s change of momentum.

In addition, the total momentum within a close system is constant. This implies that the
total momentum before and after a collision is constant (this is called conservation of
momentum).

Example
The USA detonates an enemy bomb, which explodes in a spectacular display of flames
and patriotism. If the bomb breaks into three pieces (300.0 kg, 400.0 kg and 200.0 kg
respectively), determine the velocity of the third piece if the first two travel at 25.00 m/s
[N] and 8.00 m/s [W] respectively.
Given RTF
𝑚‡ = 300.0  𝑘𝑔 𝑣"
𝑚ˆ = 400.0  𝑘𝑔
𝑚" = 200.0  𝑘𝑔
𝑣‡ = 25.00 𝑚 𝑠 [𝑁]
𝑣ˆ = 8.00 𝑚 𝑠 [𝑊]
Solution Determine 𝑃‡ Vector Dia-
Determine 𝑃‡ 𝑃ˆ = 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆ gram Since the bomb is in-
𝑃‡ = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡ itially at rest, its ve-
= (400.0)(8.00)
𝛽 𝑃®⃑ˆ locity (and conse-
= (300.0)(25.00) = 3200  𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚 𝑠 [𝑊]
quently, its momen-
= 7500  𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚 𝑠 𝑁
tum) has a value of 0 ®⃑.
As a result, there is
no resultant ∴
𝑃®⃑" 𝑃®⃑‡ ®⃑
𝑃®⃑‡ + 𝑃®⃑ˆ + 𝑃®⃑" = 0

Determine 𝑃" Determine 𝛽 Determine  𝑣"

M M 𝑃‡ 𝑃" = 𝑚" 𝑣"
𝑃" = 𝑃‡ + 𝑃ˆ tan 𝛽 =
𝑃ˆ 𝑃"
𝑣" =
= 7500 M + 3200 M
𝑃‡ 𝑚"
≅ 8154.14  𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠 𝛽 = tanST 8154.14
𝑃ˆ 𝑣" =
200.0
7500 𝑣" ≅ 40.77 𝑚 𝑠 [𝐸66.9°𝑆]
𝛽 = tanST  
3200
𝛽 ≅ 66.9°
 SPH4U

Elastic Collisions and Energy

Elastic collisions are collisions in which two or more colliding objects do NOT stick to-
gether, permanently deform or radiate energy in other forms. These collisions are non-
existent in reality, but such collision have come very close to being 100% elastic. In elastic
collisions, all energy is conserved and as a result, the concept of conservation of energy
is applied.

Example #1: Conservation of Energy and Conservation of Momentum

An archer fires a 20.000 g arrow towards a target. If the archer’s draw length is 40.000
cm and we assume it behaves like a Hooke’s Law spring with a “k” value of 1600.0 N/m,
find the total amount of spring energy at the beginning, the arrow’s speed upon release,
the arrow’s speed after completely piercing through a 1.0000 kg target (where the arrow
loses 70.000% of its kinetic energy) and the target’s speed post-collision.
Given RTF Solution
a) 𝐸²T a) Find 𝐸²T
b) 𝑣‡M 1
𝐸²T = 𝑘𝑥TM
c) 𝑣‡\ 2
d) 𝑣z\ 1
𝑚‡ = 0.020000  𝑘𝑔 𝑚‡ = 0.020000  𝑘𝑔 𝑚‡ = 0.020000  𝑘𝑔 𝐸²T = 1600.0 0.40000 M
𝑥T = 0.40000  𝑚 𝑥M = 0  𝑚 𝑚 z = 1.0000  𝑘𝑔
2
𝑘 = 1600.0  𝑁 /𝑚 𝑘 = 1600.0  𝑁 /𝑚 𝑣‡\ =  ? 𝐸²T = 128.00  𝐽
𝑣‡T = 0  𝑚/𝑠 𝑣‡M =  ? 𝑣z\ =  ?
𝐸Ž\ =  30%𝐸ŽM
b) Find 𝑣‡M c) Find 𝑣‡\ d) Find 𝑣z\
𝐸zT = 𝐸zM 1 M 𝑃zµzM = 3
𝐸´M = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡M
𝐸²T + 𝐸ŽT = 𝐸²M + 𝐸ŽM 2 𝑃‡M + 𝑃zM = 𝑃‡\ + 𝑃z\
𝐸²T = 𝐸ŽM 1 M 𝑃z\ = 𝑃‡M − 𝑃‡\
𝐸ŽM = 0.020000 113.14
1 M 1 2 𝑚 z 𝑣z\ = 𝑚‡ (𝑣‡M − 𝑣‡\ )
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑣 M 𝐸ŽM ≅ 128.01  𝐽 𝑚‡ (𝑣‡M − 𝑣‡\ )
2 T 2 ‡ ‡M
𝑘𝑥TM = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡M M 𝑣z\ =
𝑚z
𝑘𝑥TM Find 𝐸Ž\ (0.02)(113.14 − 61.97)
M
𝑣‡M =   𝐸Ž\ = 30%𝐸ŽM 𝑣z\ =
𝑚‡ 1.0000
𝐸Ž\ = 0.3(128.01) 𝑣z\ ≅ 1.023  𝑚/𝑠
𝑘𝑥TM 𝐸Ž\ = 38.40  𝐽
𝑣‡M =   T
𝑚‡ BUT 𝐸Ž\ = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡\ M
M

1600.0 0.40000 M 2𝐸Ž\

𝑣‡M =   𝑣‡\ =
(0.020000) 𝑚‡
𝑣‡M ≅ 113.14  𝑚/𝑠
2(38.40)
𝑣‡\ =
0.020000
𝑣‡\ ≅ 61.97  𝑚/𝑠
 SPH4U

Example #2: Elastic Collisions with Two Objects

Two boxes, A & B, are attached by a spring (k=2000 N/m) that is stretched 72 cm. Box
A, which has a mass of 1.0 kg, and mass B, which has a mass of 3.0 kg, both accelerate
in opposite directions when the spring is released. What are the speeds of both boxes if
the floor on which they travel is frictionless?
Given RTF
𝑣‡M
A B A B 𝑣ˆM
𝑚‡ = 1.0  𝑘𝑔 𝑚‡ = 1.0  𝑘𝑔
𝑚ˆ = 3.0  𝑘𝑔 𝑚ˆ = 3.0  𝑘𝑔
𝑥T = 0.72  𝑚 𝑥T = 0  𝑚
𝑘 = 2000  𝑁 /𝑚 𝑘 = 2000  𝑁 /𝑚
𝑣‡T = 0  𝑚/𝑠 𝑣‡M =  ?
𝑣ˆT = 0  𝑚/𝑠 𝑣ˆM =  ?
Solution Find expression for  𝑣‡M
𝐸zT = 𝐸zM 𝑃zT = 𝑃zM
𝐸Ž‡T + 𝐸ŽˆT + 𝐸²‡T + 𝐸²ˆT = 𝐸Ž‡M + 𝐸ŽˆM + 𝐸²‡M + 𝐸²ˆM 0 = −𝑃‡M + 𝑃ˆM
𝐸²‡T + 𝐸²ˆT = 𝐸Ž‡M + 𝐸ŽˆM 𝑃ˆM = 𝑃‡M
1 M 1 M 1 1 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡M
𝑘𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 𝑣 M + 𝑚 𝑣 M 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM
2 T 2 T 2 ‡ ‡M 2 ˆ ˆM 𝑣‡M =   2
M
1 M M 𝑚
𝑘𝑥T = 𝑚‡ 𝑣‡M + 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM   1 ‡
2
Sub 2 into   1 Determine 𝑣‡M
1 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM M 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM
𝑘𝑥TM = [𝑚‡ M
+ 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM ] 𝑣‡M =
2 𝑚‡ 𝑚‡
1 𝑚ˆM 𝑣ˆM M
M
𝑘𝑥TM = + 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM 2 2000 0.72 M
2 𝑚‡ 3.0
𝑚ˆM 𝑣ˆMM 3 M
M
2𝑘𝑥T = M
+ 𝑚ˆ 𝑣ˆM +3
(1)
𝑚‡
𝑣‡M =
M M
𝑚ˆM  1.0
2𝑘𝑥T = 𝑣ˆM + 𝑚ˆ 𝑣 ≅ 39.5   𝑚 /𝑠  
𝑚‡ ‡M

2𝑘𝑥TM
𝑣ˆM =
𝑚ˆM
+ 𝑚ˆ
𝑚‡

2 2000 0.72 M
𝑣ˆM =
3 M
+3
(1)
𝑣ˆM ≅ 13.15  𝑚/𝑠
 SPH4U
Introduction to Integration
The integral is an interesting mathematical property. In reality it is simply the sum of the
areas of several “rectangular slices”.

The integral is also considered the “anti-derivative”. Consequently, since the derivative
_< T
is given by = 𝑘𝑥 ŽST , the integral of a function is given by 𝑥 l 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 l¡T
_; l¡T

Consider the force of gravity—if it pulls an object downward, it does negative work.
𝑊 = −𝐹r ∆𝐻
If we establish the two heights as being the radius of the planet, R, and infinity, we can
find the integral of the function:
¶
𝑊= −𝐹r 𝑑𝑟
P
¶
𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M
𝑊= − 𝑑𝑟
P 𝑟M
¶
𝑊 =   − 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M (𝑟 SM )𝑑𝑟
P
𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M ¶
𝑊 = /P
𝑟
1 ¶
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M / This symbol equates to a delta symbol.
𝑟 P
1 1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M − Any fraction whose denominator is infinity equates to 0.
∞ 𝑅
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M 0 −
𝑅

𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M
𝑊=−
𝑅
𝑏𝑢𝑡  𝑊 = 𝐸r
𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M
𝐸r = −
𝑅
The formula for absolute gravitational potential energy is therefore the integral of the func-
tion of gravitational force.
 SPH4U
Planetary Mechanics
The ancient Greeks believed in the geocentric model of the universe, which proposed
that the Earth was at the center of the solar system and that all other planets and the Sun
revolved around it. Copernicus argued against this model because retrograde motion
could not be explained under it—but it could be explained under a heliocentric view.

Galileo was put on trial by the church for supporting the Copernican theory. Part of the
reason he was tried was that he published a book where he referenced the Pope as a
“simple-minded” believer of the geocentric model.

Tycho Brahe made various observations about the motion of the planets (as a side note,
he also perfected the calendar). Johann Kepler expanded on Brahe’s work and noted
that planets orbit the Sun in an elliptical shape, not a circular one. He also developed 3
laws:
1. The planets move about the Sun in elliptical orbits with the Sun as one of the
foci.
2. The straight line joining the Sun and the planets sweeps out equal areas in equal
times.
3. The square of the period of the revolution of a planet about the Sun is propor-
tional to the cube of its mean distance from the Sun.

𝑹𝟑
Kepler Á s  Constant − 𝑲 =  where  K  is  the  same  for  any  planet  in  the  Solar  System
𝑻𝟐
Newton expanded on Kepler’s work and discovered that all objects are innately attracted
to each other by a force called gravity. He also discovered that the strength of this gravi-
tational field is inversely proportional to the distance between the objects.

There are two varieties of potential energy: positive potential, which tend to repel, and
negative potential, which tends to attract. These attractive potentials are often called po-
tential wells. In order to escape these potential wells, one must have enough energy to
overcome the negative potential.

Escape velocity is the speed necessary to overcome Earth’s potential well (or negative
potential energy) and immediately come to a stop once the object has exited its gravita-
tional field. Orbiting satellites never achieve escape velocity; they are simply in a constant
state of free-fall where they keep falling past Earth.

Binding Energy
𝐹" = 𝐹r 𝐸i»im• = 𝐸Ž + 𝐸r To maintain a stable orbit, you only
𝑚𝑣 M 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M need to provide enough kinetic energy
= 𝐸i»im• = − to overcome half of the Earth’s poten-
𝑅 𝑅M 2𝑅 𝑅
𝐺𝑀 T 𝑀M 1 tial energy at that distance, R, from
𝑚𝑣 M = 𝐸i»im• = 𝐸r the center of the Earth. If you want to
𝑅 2
𝑚𝑣 M 𝐺𝑀T 𝑀M break completely, you have to provide
= T
an additional 𝐸r . This remaining en-
2 2𝑅 M
1 ergy barrier is called the binding en-
𝐸Ž = − 𝐸r
2 ergy barrier.
 SPH4U

Example #1: Launching from a Given Latitude

A geostationary satellite is a satellite that has the same period of revolution as Earth.
Determine the altitude of such a satellite (if its mass is 597,241 kg), as well as the chem-
ical energy required to make it reach that altitude AND the chemical energy necessary to
make it reach that altitude if it is launched from Cape Canaveral (Latitude: 28.4556o).
Given RTF Solution
𝑇 = 24ℎ = 86400  𝑠 a) 𝐴 a) Find altitude
Mt
𝑚• = 5.972×10  𝑘𝑔 b) 𝐸"§•l 𝐹" = 𝐹r 𝑅 = 𝑅• + 𝐴
𝑚/ = 597241  𝑘𝑔 c) 𝐸"§•l 𝑚𝑎" = f
•€l
𝐹r 𝐴 = 𝑅 − 𝑅•
]
𝑅• = 6.37×10  𝑚 taf P
P
•€
𝐴 =  4.22×10Ÿ − 6.37×10]
= f 𝐴 = 3.58×10Ÿ  𝑚
zf P
ž •€z f
𝑅=
taf
ž (].]Ÿ×T^¢gg )(h.sŸM×T^f )(b]t^^)f
𝑅=
taf
Ÿ
𝑅 ≅ 4.22×10 𝑚
b) Find 𝐸"§•l Substitute expression for 𝐸Žˆ
𝐸z‡ = 𝐸zˆ 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐸Žˆ + 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡
𝐸Ž‡ + 𝐸"§•l‡ + 𝐸r‡ = 𝐸Žˆ + 𝐸"§•lˆ + 𝐸rˆ T
𝐸"§•l‡ = − 𝐸rˆ   + 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡
𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐸Žˆ + 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡ T
M

Find expression for 𝐸Žˆ 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡

M
𝐹" = 𝐹r T •lÐ lÑ •lÐ lÑ
B 𝐸"§•l‡ = − +
f M PÏ PÒ
leÏ •€g €f
= f 1 1
PÏ PÏ A 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐺𝑚• 𝑚/ −
𝑚𝑣ˆM =
•€g €f 𝑅‡ 2𝑅ˆ
PÏ T T
𝐸"§•l‡ = 6.67×10STT 5.972×10Mt 597241 −
f
leÏ •€g €f ].\Ÿ×T^Ó   M(t.MM×T^Ô )
= 𝐸"§•l‡ ≅ 3.45×10T\ 𝐽
M MPÏ
T
𝐸Žˆ = − M 𝐸rˆ
c) Cape Canaveral Find 𝐸Ž‡ Find 𝐸"§•l
𝑅’ 𝑅• 1 𝐸z‡ = 𝐸zˆ
𝐸Ž‡ = 𝑚/ 𝑣‡M 𝐸Ž‡ + 𝐸"§•l‡ + 𝐸r‡ = 𝐸Žˆ + 𝐸"§•lˆ + 𝐸rˆ
𝜃 2
M T
𝜃
𝜃 T MaPÐ ˜™o ` 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐸Žˆ − 𝐸Ž‡ + 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡  but  𝐸Žˆ = − 𝐸rˆ
𝐸Ž‡ = 𝑚/   M
M zÖצ 1
M 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐸rˆ − 𝐸r‡ − 𝐸Ž‡
𝐸Ž‡ = 2𝑚/
aPÐ ˜™o `
  2 2 M
zÖצ •lÐ lÑ •lÐ lÑ aPÐ ˜™o `
𝐸"§•l‡ = − + − 2𝑚/  
MPÏ PÒ zÖצ
2
𝑅’ = 𝑅• cos 𝜃 𝐸"§•l‡ = 𝐺𝑚• 𝑚/
T
−
T
− 2𝑚𝑠
𝜋𝑅𝑒 cos 𝜃
 
Distance=circumference PÒ MPÏ 𝑇𝑑𝑎𝑦
" T\
𝑣‡ = 𝐸"§•l‡ ≅ 3.45×10  𝐽
∆i
MaPÕ
𝑣‡ =
∆i
MaPÐ ˜™o `
𝑣‡ =   1
zÖצ
 SPH4U

NOTE: When rockets are launched, space agencies want to profit from the Earth’s natural
rotation, effectively giving rockets a kinetic energy boost. This occurs because rockets
will have a tangential velocity at the surface of the Earth due to its rotation. To profit from
this, however, the rocket must be launched toward the east, Earth’s direction of rotation.

By launching from Cape Canaveral, Florida, rockets will fly over oceans rather than pop-
ulated areas, giving space agencies two advantages; safety and a kinetic energy boost
due to the Earth’s rotation (which reduces fuel consumption and atmospheric friction).

Spacecrafts launched from the Equator achieve greater tangential velocities because the
Earth’s speed there is ~40,000 km in 24h (463.0 m/s).

Example #2: Finding Impact Velocity with Density

Determine the impact velocity and energy released upon impact of an ice comet that
enters Earth’s gravitational field from 500 Re away, travelling at 50,000 km/h, if it is 500
m across. Assume the comet is spherical and has the same density as water.
Given RTF
𝑅" = 250  𝑚 𝑣M
𝑅T = 500  𝑅• 𝐸ŽM
𝑅M = 1  𝑅• (enters  EarthÁ s  atmosphere)
𝑅• = 6.37×10]  𝑚
𝑣T = 50,000 𝑘𝑚 ℎ = 13889 𝑚 𝑠
𝑚• = 5.972×10Mt  𝑘𝑔
Solution Find mass
Find 𝑚" 𝑚
𝜌=
Density: 𝜌 = 1000 𝑘𝑔 𝑚 \ 𝑉
4 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑅"\ 𝑚 = (1000)(6.545×10Ÿ )
3
4 \
𝑚" = 6.545×10T^  𝑘𝑔
𝑉 = 𝜋 250
3
𝑉 ≅ 6.545×10Ÿ  𝑚\
Conservation of Energy Find 𝑣M
𝐸zT = 𝐸zM 2 1 1
𝐸ŽM = 𝑚" 𝑣MM
𝐸rT + 𝐸ŽT = 𝐸rM + 𝐸ŽM 2
𝐸ŽM = 𝐸ŽT + 𝐸rT − 𝐸rM 2𝐸ŽM
1 1 1 𝑣 M =
𝐸ŽM = 𝑚" 𝑣TM + 𝐺𝑚• 𝑚" − 𝑚"
2 𝑅M 𝑅T
1 1 1 2(1.04×10Ts )
𝐸ŽM = 𝑚" 𝑣TM + 𝐺𝑚• 𝑚" − 𝑣 =
2 𝑅• 500𝑅• M
6.545×10T^
1 499
𝐸ŽM = 𝑚" 𝑣TM + 𝐺𝑚• 𝑚" 𝑣M ≅ 17,827  𝑚/𝑠
2 500𝑅•
1 499
𝐸ŽM = 6.545×10T^ 13889 M
+ 6.67×10STT 5.972×10Mt 6.545×10T^  
2 500 6.37×10]
𝐸ŽM ≅ 1.04×10Ts  𝐽
 SPH4U
Electrostatics
Electricity is the flow of electric charge. The Greeks first observed electrical forces when
early scientists rubbed amber with fur. In the Renaissance period, it was discovered that
two objects rubbed by an identical third material would cause the two to experience re-
pulsion. Conversely, if they were rubbed by two different objects, an attractive force could
be observed. This is where the concept of positive and negative charges surfaced.

Ben Franklin was credited with naming the charges positive and negative. He believed
electricity was a fluid; objects that absorbed this fluid would have a surplus of this fluid,
and hence a positive charge (and vice versa). This incorrect scientific assumption is the
reason for which electricity-related terminology pertains to liquid (current, electric pres-
sure, etc.).

Charles Agustin de Coulomb discovered a relationship between force and electric

ŽÝ Þ ‚∙l
charge (𝐹• = Ñf ß , where k is a constant with a value of 9.09×10s ).
_ C

Electric fields are analogous to gravitational fields; though the force of gravity varies
depending on the mass of the falling object, the acceleration due to gravity is constant for
ŽÝ ¨
all objects caught in the field. As such, 𝑔  is  comparable  to  𝜀 (𝜀 = fÑ = Ð ). Electric fields’
_ Þß
strengths are independent of 𝑞i . Positive charge sources emit electric fields as lines of
force outward from the source. The opposite is true of negative charge sources. In addi-
tion, the force of the field is stronger as the density of the field lines increases.

The ONLY exception to this behavior occurs with parallel plates. The field density of the
parallel plates is constant throughout the entire system except at the edges. As a result,
they are useful in accelerating particles. The parallel field lines are credited to symmetry.

Voltage (electric potential) is a measurement of energy density. The two varieties of par-
allel plates have different properties based on voltage. Decoupled plates have a fixed
amount of charge on each. Because electric field strength remains constant, as distance
increases, so does voltage.
Coupled plates have a fixed voltage, and as a result, electric fields strength is NOT in-
dependent of plate separation. For coupled plates, closer proximity results in a stronger
electric field.
 SPH4U

Example #1: Determining Charges with Trigonometric Ratios

Determine the charge in each of the 1g pith balls in the diagram below.
Diagram FBD A 𝐹~•i = 𝐹r + 𝐹• + 𝑇 Find relationship for 𝜃
𝑇 0 = 𝐹r + 𝐹• + 𝑇
5M = 3M + 𝑥 M
𝐹• 𝜃 𝑥 = 5M − 3M 𝑥

𝑇 𝐹r 𝑥 = 4
𝐹r 3
∴ tan 𝜃 =
𝐹• 4

Find an expression for 𝐹• 3𝑚𝑔𝑑 M

𝐹• 3 𝑞M =
tan 𝜃 =  but   tan 𝜃 = 4𝑘
𝐹r 4
3𝑚𝑔𝑑 M
3 𝐹• 𝑞=±
= 4𝑘
4 𝐹r
3 𝑑 3𝑚𝑔
𝐹• = 𝐹r 𝑞=±
4 2 𝑘
𝑘𝑄/ 𝑞T 3
= 𝐹r
𝑑M 4 0.06 3(0.001)(9.8)
𝑘𝑞M 3 𝑞=±
= 𝑚𝑔 2 9.09×10s
𝑑M 4
𝑞 ≅ ±  5.40×10Sb  𝐶

Example #2: Problems Involving Single Parallel Plates

A dust particle of mass 7.5×10ST^  𝑘𝑔 is being suspended by two horizontally placed par-
allel plates that are separated by 20.0 cm. If the electrical charge on the dust particle
is−5.5×10SŸ  𝐶 , determine the voltage on the power supply connected to the plates.
Given RTF
ST^ ∆𝑉
𝑚 = 7.5×10  𝑘𝑔
𝑞 = −5.5×10SŸ  𝑘𝑔
𝑑 = 0.020  𝑚
Solution FBD Solve for 𝑉ˆ
Diagram ¨
𝜀 = Ð but 𝜀 =
SƏ
Þ _
+++++++++++++++ 𝐹• ¨Ð S∆è
B =
𝐹• Þ _
_∙¨Ð
𝐹r 𝐹r ∆𝑉 = −
Þ
A _∙¨Ð
−   −   −   −   −   −   −   −  −   −   𝑉ˆ − 𝑉‡ = −
Þ
𝐹~•i = 𝐹• + 𝐹r (¡_)(¡lr)
𝑉ˆ = −
𝑉‡ = 0  𝑉  (negative  plate  is  the  ground) 0 = +𝐹• − 𝐹r Þ
(^.^M^)(Ÿ.h×T^¢gé )(s.b)
𝐹• = 𝐹r 𝑉ˆ = −
Sh.h×T^¢Ô
𝐹• = 𝑚𝑔 𝑉ˆ ≅ 2.67×10S\ 𝑉
 SPH4U

Example #3: Problems Involving Two Parallel Plates

Four parallel plates are connected in a vacuum as shown below. An electron, essentially
at rest, drifts into the hole W, goes on through the hole Y, and then continues moving
toward plate Z. Calculate the velocity with which the electron passes holes W and Y and
the distance it is from plate Z when it comes to rest.
Given RTF Diagram
S\T
𝑚• = 9.11×10  𝑘𝑔              𝑑ê“ = 0.040  𝑚 a) 𝑣“
STs
𝑞 = −1.6×10  𝐶                        𝑑ê“ = 0.040  𝑚 b) 𝑣ë
c) 𝑑/
∆𝑉ê“ = 300  𝑉                                        𝑑ê“ = 0.040  𝑚
∆𝑉“ë = 0  𝑉
∆𝑉ëì = 500  𝑉

Solution Find 𝑣“ b) Find 𝑣ë

a) Diagram 𝐸zê = 𝐸z“

++++++
++++++
𝐸•ê + 𝐸Žê = 𝐸•“ + 𝐸Ž“
++++++
| | | | | | |

𝑉ê = 0𝑉 𝑉“ = 300𝑉 0 = 𝐸•“ + 𝐸Ž“

T M
0 = 𝑞𝑉“ + 𝑚• 𝑣“
M
SMÞèí
𝑣“ =
lÐ

SM(ST.]×T^¢gî )(\^^)
𝑣“ =
(s.TT×T^¢žg )
𝑣ë = 𝑣“ because the
Ÿ
𝑣“ ≅ 1.0×10  𝑚/𝑠 electron’s motion is not
accelerated by the charge
on plate Y
c) Diagram Find expression for 𝑎 Find expression for 𝐹•
𝐹~•i = 𝐹• ¨Ð S∆è
+++++

𝑉ì = −200𝑉 𝜀= but 𝜀 =
| | | | | | |

Þ _
𝑚• 𝑎 = 𝐹•
¨Ð S∆è
𝑣M = 0
𝑎=
¨Ð
  2 =
Þ _
𝑑/ lÐ ∆èÞ
Sub 2 into 1 𝐹• = −   4
_

−𝑣TM =
M¨Ð _Ñ Sub 4 into 3
𝑉ë = 300𝑉 lÐ ∆èÞ
𝑞𝑉“ = −   𝑑/
but 𝑣T = 𝑣ë = 𝑣“ _
∆è_Ñ
Find 𝑑/ −
MÞèï
=
M¨Ð _Ñ 𝑉“ = −
_
lÐ lÐ
𝑣MM = 𝑣TM + 2𝑎𝑑/ èí _
𝑞𝑉“ = 𝐹• 𝑑/   3 𝑑/ =
−𝑣TM = 2𝑎𝑑/   1 S∆è
300 +0.040
𝑑/ =
− −200 − 300
𝑑/ = 0.024  𝑚
 SPH4U

Light and Waves

A wave is a transfer of energy as a disturbance.
There are 3 varieties of waves:
Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves Matter Waves
Waves that are governed Waves that do not require a Waves that are defined by
by Newton’s Laws. They re- medium and that are both the movement of particles
quire a medium and can be magnetic and electric. which at some times be-
longitudinal, transverse or These are always trans- have as waves and at oth-
torsional. verse and travel at nearly ers like particles.
the speed of light.

Longitudinal waves are waves in which the direction of the propagation is parallel to
the direction of the disturbance. The wave is broken up into compressions and rare-
factions. An example is sound.
Transverse waves are waves in which the disturbance is perpendicular to the wave di-
rection. The wave is broken up into crests and troughs. An example is a radio wave.
Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) is achieved when the restoring force in an oscillating
system is proportional to the displacement from equilibrium. In SHM, acceleration is al-
ways 0 when the net force is 0 N. SMH works similarly for most systems, but with a few
variations:

In a typical wave, SMH is For a mass suspended by •

; a spring, a similar relation- For a pendulum, 𝑇 = 2𝜋 r
expressed by 𝑇 = 2𝜋
m l where ‘l’ is the length of the
ship applies: 𝑇 = 2𝜋
where ‘x’ is the displace- Ž pendulum. N.B: A pendu-
ment from equilibrium and where ‘m’ is the mass and lum’s speed is fastest at the
‘a’ is the acceleration of ‘k’ is the spring constant. equilibrium point, but its ac-
the oscillating object. celeration is highest at the
extremes where 𝑣 = 0  𝑚/𝑠.
Mai
Waves experiencing SHM are sinusoidal with the general equation 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin , where
z
‘A’ is the amplitude of the wave at any given time, ‘t’, and ‘T’ is the period in seconds.
Polarization
Polarization occurs in transverse waves in three forms:

Random Polarization is exhibited when the waves oscillate in several planes all at once.
This is the result of multiple sources generating waves simultaneously.

Vertical Polarization is exhibited when waves only vibrate in the vertical plane.

Horizontal Polarization is exhibited when waves only vibrate in the horizontal plane.
 SPH4U

Fixed-End vs. Free-End Reflections

In free-end reflections, waves will reflect at the bound-
ary of a medium in the same orientation as it approached
the boundary.
In fixed-end reflections, waves will reflect at the bound-
ary of a medium upside-down.

Waves travelling from a fast medium to a slow medium

will see the boundary as a fixed-end and react accord-
ingly.
Waves travelling from a slow medium to a fast medium
will see the boundary as a free-end and react accordingly.

Refraction
Refraction occurs when waves pass from one medium to
another. It is important to note, however, that the fre-
quency of the wave will not change, though its wavelength
opq k ðg eg
will. The refraction of a wave can be determined using Snell’s Law: = = .
opq P ðf ef
However, waves travelling from a slower medium to a faster medium may experience
total internal reflection, which occurs when the critical angle is exceeded. An altered
ð e
form of Snell’s Law must be used: sin 𝑖 = g = g .
ðf ef
Two-Point-Source Interference
When two point sources are placed adjacent to each other, an interesting interference
pattern will be generated. Crests will meet crests and troughs will meet troughs, creating
constructive interference, but where destructive interference occurs, nodal lines will
become visible. The number of nodal lines will increase when either the frequency in-
creases OR the distance between the point sources is increased.

Destructive interference occurs when both frequencies are the same yet A and B are 180o
T
out of phase. The path difference is given by 𝑃. 𝐷. = (𝑛 − )𝜆, where ‘n’ is the nodal
M
line’s number.

The problem with path difference is that it is often difficult to measure. The following for-
mulae aid in mediating that problem.
‡² ;
sin 𝜃~ = g  𝑎𝑛𝑑   sin 𝜃~Á = ó Since 𝜃~ = 𝜃~Á :
_ ’
(Incorrectly) assuming ∠𝑆T 𝐴𝑆M = 90» 1 1
𝑥~ (𝑛 − 2)𝜆 (𝑛 − 2)𝜆 𝑥~
and also 𝐴𝑆T = 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ  𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒: sin 𝜃 = = = ∙
1 𝐿 𝑑 𝑑 𝐿
(𝑛 − )𝜆 and
sin 𝜃~ = 2 𝑥~ 𝑑
𝑑 𝜆= ∙
𝐿 (𝑛 − 1)
2
 SPH4U

Corpuscular Theory and its Postulates

There were two theories surrounding the nature of light: wave theory and the once popu-
larized corpuscular theory, which suggested that light was a particle. These were its pos-
tulates:
1. Rectilinear Propagation-light appears to move in straight lines and not bend
2. Reflection-light reflecting behaves as predicted for particles in elastic collisions
3. Refraction-it was falsely believed that light travelled faster in optically dense media,
and Newton believed that the denser the material, the stronger the force of attraction
between the light and the material
4. Partial Reflection and Partial Refraction-it was believed that light partially reflected
because particles would have “fits” of refraction and “fits” of reflection
5. Dispersion-it was thought that the differences in angles of refraction for different col-
ours were different particles’ masses
6. Diffraction-it was thought that light diffracting was the result of collisions between cor-
puscles

Huygen’s Principle
Christiaan Huygens found that every point on a wavefront can be considered as a point
source of tiny secondary wavelets that spread out in front of the wave at the same sped
as the new wave itself. The tangent to all the wavelets constitutes the new wavefront.

Young’s Double Slit Experiments

Thomas Young determined that waves passing through a double slit apparatus behaved
identically to waves propagating from two point sources, and consequently that the two
point-source equations applied to double slit situations.

Young also determined why double slit diffraction and single slit diffraction will generate
a wave pattern with a central maximum (bright spot) followed by dark spots. In double
slit situations, a central maximum is the result of large amounts of constructive interfer-
ence. Dark spots result when one wave must travel further than another, causing the
waves to be out of phase and to exhibit destructive interference.

Single slit diffraction operates differently; it is the only instance where a full wavelength
path difference creates destructive interference. It also generates a modulated sine
curve pattern, which is why the central maximum is twice the size of any of the weak
maxima. A central maximum occurs where the waves are most in phase, generating
large amounts of constructive interference. This is why the central maximum is so bright.
A dark spot occurs where most light arrives at the “screen” out of phase. The next half
wavelength, some light is out of phase, but more than there is at a dark spot—this creates
a weak maximum.
 SPH4U

Formula Sheet
Kinematics Energy Electrostatics
1 𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑑 = 𝑣T 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 M 𝑊 =𝐹∙𝑑 𝐹• = M
2 𝑑
1 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑 cos 𝜃
𝑘𝑄 𝐹• 𝑁
𝑑 = 𝑣M 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 M 𝐸r = 𝑚𝑔ℎ  (𝑜𝑛  𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ) 𝜀 = M =  𝑖𝑛
2 𝑑 𝑞 𝐶
1 1 𝑘𝑄𝑞
𝑑 = 𝑣T + 𝑣M 𝑡 𝐸Ž = 𝑚𝑣 M 𝐸• =
2 2 𝑑
𝑣M = 𝑣T + 𝑎𝑡 1 𝐸• 𝑘𝑄
𝐸/ = 𝑘𝑥 M 𝑉= =
𝑣MM = 𝑣TM + 2𝑎𝑑 2 𝑞 𝑑
∆𝑑 𝑊
∆𝑣 = 𝑃= 𝐸• = 𝑞∆𝑉
𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑉
∆𝑣 Momentum 𝜀=−
∆𝑎 = 𝑑
𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣
Light and Waves
𝑣M 𝐽 = ∆𝑃
𝑎" = #  𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 1
𝑅 𝑃T = 𝑃M 𝑓= =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
4𝜋 M 𝑅 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
𝑎" = Elastic Collisions
𝑇M 𝑣‡T + 𝑣‡M = 𝑣ˆM 𝑥
𝑎" = 4𝜋 M 𝑅𝑓 M 𝑚‡ − 𝑚ˆ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑣‡M = 𝑣 𝑎
2𝑣 sin 𝜃
𝑡= 𝑚‡ + 𝑚ˆ ‡T
𝑔 𝑙
2𝑚‡ 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑣 M sin 2𝜃 𝑣ˆM = 𝑣 𝑔
𝑑; = 𝑚‡ + 𝑚ˆ ‡T
𝑔 Planetary Mechanics 𝑚
Dynamics 𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑅\ 𝑘
𝐹~•i = 𝑚𝑎 𝐾= M sin 𝑖 𝑣k 𝜆k
𝑇 = =
𝐹~•i = 𝐹" 𝐺𝑀 sin 𝑅 𝑣P 𝜆P
𝑔= M
𝐹r = 𝑚𝑔 𝑅 𝑥~ 𝑑
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝜆=
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐸r = − 𝐿 (𝑛 − 0.5)
𝐹r = 𝑅 𝑛𝑤𝑦~
𝑅M 𝜆=
𝐺 = 6.67×10STT 2𝐺𝑀 𝐿
𝑣•/"mŒ• = 𝜆𝐿
𝐹8 = 𝜇𝐹‚ 𝑅 𝑤=
∆𝑦
𝐹/ = 𝑘𝑥 𝜆𝐿
Torque 𝑑=
Δ𝑥
𝜏 = 𝑟  ×  𝐹
𝜏 = 𝑟 𝐹 sin 𝜃
SPH4U