Electromagnetic Theory I

Lecture 4: Global Properties of Scalar and Vector Fields

Raghunath Ratabole

BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus

August 18, 2017

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Lecture Plan

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Gradient Theorem
The Divergence Theorem
The Stoke’s Theorem
Dirac Delta Function

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Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Theorem
df (x) ´b
If F (x) = dx , then a F (x)dx = f (b) − f (a)

Geometrical Interpretation

Figure: Area under a curve

A(x + ∆x) − A(x) = f (x)∆x + ∆a0 where ∆a0 is the excess area.
In the limit of ∆x → 0, f (x) = A0 (x)
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Gradient Theorem
Theorem
The line integral of the gradient of a scalar field V (r ) along a path
C starting at a and ending in point b is given by the difference in
the value of the scalar field at the boundary points of the path.
ˆ b
∇V · dl = V (b) − V (a)
a

Geometrical Interpretation

Figure: Along a curve

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Consequences of Gradient Theorem

Corollary
´b
(1) a ∇V · dl is independent of the path taken from a to b
¸
(2) ∇V · dl = 0 for a closed path

Example
(1) Verify gradient theorem for V (r , θ, φ) = k cos
r2
θ
along a
longitude on the surface of a sphere of radius a starting at the
north pole and ending on the equator.

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Divergence Theorem

Theorem
The volume integral of the divergence of a vector field is identically
equal to the net flux of the vector field through the boundary
surface. ˆ ˛
∇ · E dτ = E · da
V S

Geometrical Proof
Divergence is defined as flux per unit volume, which implies
X
X
∇ · E (x)∆τ = ∆F
∀∆τ ∆S

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Divergence Theorem - Geometrical Proof
Geometrical Proof
Divergence is defined as flux per unit volume, which implies
X
X X
∇ · E (x)∆τ = ∆F = E (x) · n̂(x)∆a
∀∆τ ∆S ∆a∈S1 ,S2

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Stokes’ Theorem

Theorem
The flux integral of the curl of a vector field through a surface S is
identically equal to the net circulation (line integral) of the vector
field along the boundary curve (path) C
ˆ ˛


∇ × A · da = A · dl
S C

Geometrical Proof
Curl at a point is defined as the circulation per unit area at that
point pointing in the direction normal to the infinitesimal area
element at the point. This implies
X
X
∇ × A (r ) · n̂∆a = ∆C
∀∆a ∆a

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Stokes’ Theorem - Geometrical Proof
Geometrical Proof
Divergence is defined as flux per unit volume, which implies
X
X X
∇ × A (r ) · n̂∆a = ∆C = A(r ) · ∆l
∀∆a ∆a ∆l∈C

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Case of Inverse Square Radial Vector Field

Inverse Square Radial Vector Field

rˆ
V (r ) =
r2
(1) Calculate is its curl?
(2) Calculate its divergence?
(3) What is its flux through the surface of a volume element
enclosing the origin?
(4) What is its flux through the surface of a volume element which
does not include the origin?
(5) How do you reconcile this with the divergence theorem?

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 rˆ
Divergence of V (r ) = r2

∇ × V = 0 identically everywhere including at the origin!

∇
¸ · V = 0 almost everywhere, except at the origin!
¸ S V · da = 4π for S which contains the origin!!
S V · da = 0 for S which does not contain the origin!

∇ · V = 4πδ 3 (r )

Definition
Dirac Delta function at the origin in three dimensions is defined as
(
∞ for r = 0
δ 3 (r ) =
0 for r 6= 0

with ˆ (
1 for V containing origin
δ 3 (r ) =
V 0 for V not containing origin

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