Material Scionce and Metallurgy is means that, the initial tightening stress of 75 MPa in the steel bolt used for clamping trig plates has eased (releaxed) to 16.17 MPa after a duration of | year. Problem 6 A member is subjected to tension of 14 MPa and relaxation of stress ovcurs at clevated temperature, Find the time required for the stress to become 12.5 MPa given 8.0, E= 210 GPa, Min. creep rate = 7.2 * 10° mmimmiday at a stress of 7 MPa (VTU Jan 2006 - 08 Marks) at Dua: fy = 12.5 MPa = 8, F=210.GPa=210> 10° MPa o niimum cweprate = =Bor=72. 10" mmnmidey sess tsteady rsp = = 7 MP To find : time (t) é # A b0 Taking lag on ot sides k ae) otu( 2) = tay mee log,,(7.2* 10%) = log,,B + 8 log,,.(7) 1 og = 189 B 248 « 10-5 1 wk. stress relaxation = Sart BE I).t i = Ther + (1.248 x 10°") (210 109 (8-1) (12.5) aay 2.097 * 10 = 9.486% 107+ 1.83 «1070 1 = 6.2 days Unit < 4 SOLIDIFICATION & PHASE DIAGRAM - I - 4.1 INTRODUCTION - SOLIDIFICATION Solidification isthe provess by which a substance undergocs a phase transformation from liquid _ Siac toa solid saieThe process is most often observed when water tums jee, Pure metals Gopper, aluminum, iron, et.) solidify at a fixed (constant) temperature, while alloys (steel, cast iron, brass, bronze, ec. solidify overa range of temperatures. The change from liquid to solid does nat occur all at once, instead, proceeds through a series of events. It i important to study the various changes that occur when a molten metal solidifies. A few reasons for the need to know bout the solidification phenomenon are discussed below. Solidification isa useful process. One of the earliest and most widely used applications of proper solidification came about when steel was invented. Iron with just the right amount of carbon can make steel. When different amounts of other elements like manganese, nickel, chromium, et, are ‘added and solidified, steel can be made to have different favourable properties. Steel, if suitably cooled, takes tie ductile form, but when rapidly cooled, it takes the britle form: The rate of solidification thus forms critical factor. ‘When a material undergoes a phase transformation, the atoms or molecules in the material are rearranged. Inother words, there a change in the microstructure ofthe material. The change in the microstructure results in changes in the properties of the material like strength, toughness, ducility, ete. Hence, by controlling the solidification provess suitably, the properties can be altered asdesired, “The mechanism of solidification of castings an¢ fs control for obtaining sound castings is the most important problem for foundrymen. We ksiow chat all metals shrink during change of phase from, liguidto soli state. Hence the proper understanding of the solidification mechanism is essential in preventing shrinkage, which is a common defect in cast parts. Welding processes also involve solidification phenomena. Alloy powders are often atomized*, and rapidly solidified. Thus itis, ‘important for one to know the mode of solidification, as it offers a wealth of information for many practical applications. + Atomization isthe process used commercially to produce the largest tonnage of metal powders. A ‘ream of air orwaier ses the molten raw material, causing it 10 disintegrate, and in turn solidify to ‘form small sized particles (powder particles).120. 4.2 SOLIDIFICATION OF PURE METAL, When a pure meta is alowed to solidify under equilibrium conditions (slow cooling) the change of state from liquid to solid occurs at a fixed temperature known asthe freezing point or solidification Point, ifthe temperature of the metal is recorded at various time intervals during the cooling process, a cooling curve may be obtained as shown in figure 4.1 . Formation wen Fy Growth of dlendcites incle) eran Keown Tene Point & ~ Freezing begins Point © = Freezing compat Figure 4.1. Cooling curve for pure metal during casting Referring to figure 4.1(a), the point A on the curve represents the pouring temperature. Al this point, the liquid rretal starts giving up its superheat upon cooling. Ata particular temperature as indicated by point 3, the iquid mett begins to solidity, Inother words, the liquid crystallizes (crystals starts to grow), and in this condition, thee isa two phase mixture consisting of partly liquid and partly solid. As time progresses, a state of point is reached as indicated by point C, wherein the liquids enticely coaverted to solid. Inother words, crystallization completes at point C. Solidification begins and completes at constant temperature, because ofthe evolution of latent heat of fusion® by the solidifying crystals. From point C to D, the solid metals cools to reach roam temperature. * Atoms in a material have both kineic and potential energy: Kinetic energy is related to the speed at whic the aioms move and i sirieily @ function of temperature. Righer isthe temperature, higher is their kinetic energy and atoms are more active, Potential energy on the other hand is related 0 the distance berween atoms (energy due to position). The greater isthe distance bersecn the atoms, the greater is their potential ener: ‘Now consider « pure metal atts freczing point where both the liquid and solid state are ot the same temperature Since temperature is constant, the Kinet enery ofthe atoms inthe liquld and solid state ‘must be the sane, but there is significant difference in potential energy In ease of liquid. its potential ‘energy is higher than shar of sold as distance berween aioms in liguid sate is more than thet in solid stare Thus, solidification occurs witha release of energy. This energy, the difference i potential ‘energy between the liquid and solid state is known as the latent heat of fusion. Solidification & Phase Diagram - | eizi {nis important to not that, when a pure métal is cooled ata faster rate (rapidly cooled), it experienc considerable difficulty in commencing solidification. In such case, quid melt coos slightly below \ its freezing temperature, and actual solidification starts at B’ instead of B. Reefer figure 4-1(b).. ‘This is known as urdercooling or supercooling. Thus, undercooling can be defined asthe point or ‘temperature below the normal freezing point a material will stay liquid and further forms nuclei and crysializes wheat cool. 43 MECHANISM OF SOLIDIFICATION [tis interesting to examine the metalic grain growth and formation during the solidification process. Ingeneral, the solidification of a metal or alloy takes place in two stages: + Nucleation - formation of stable nuclei inthe melt. + Grain growth - nuclei grows to form crystals resulting in grain structure. a) Nucleation ‘Whena liquid cools below its freezing point, it starts to solidify, forming very small sized crystals called nuclei. Refer figure 4.2(a). The moment a crystal begins to grow is known as nucleation and the point where it occurs is the nucleation point, SPD] crvstaiarin ore Figure 4.2 Mechanism of solidificationo Metallurgy {tis very interesting to know the formation of nuclei inthe molten metal. At higher temperatures, she atoms inthe liquid melt vibrate increasingly, and the bond between the atoms will be broken. sing the atoms to move freely from their fixed positions. As te liquid metal cools, is temperature decreases and hence atoms lose their energy. This results in atoms coming closer to each other re tstablishing atomic bonds between them, Asmall cluster of atoms, usually around 2-3 atoms are formed at several places in the molten metal and are known as nuclei. ‘These nuclei, which have solidified, act as centers for further crystallization b) Crystal growth, ‘As cooling continues, more atoms tend to freeze, and they may attach to themselves to already ‘existing nuclei or form new nucle oftheir own, Each nucleus grows by the attraction of atoms from the liquid melt as shown in figure 4.2(b). Crystal growth continues in three dimensions, the ‘atoms attaching themselves in certain preferred directions, usually along the axes of the crystal “This gives rise to a characteristic tree like appearance, and is known as dendrite, The dendrites grow in different directions in each crystal, and finally when one dendrite impinges upon the adjacent ‘growing dendrite, a grain boundary is formed as shown in figure 4.2(c). Bach crystal or grainhas Pertectoid type ete: . - Fora 2-component or binarysystem, the maximum number of variables is 3: pressure, emperature and concentration (composition). A graphical representation of such a.system requires athree-dimensional diagram. This however is nor well suited for illustration, and consequently separate 2-coondinate diagrams suchas pressure vs temperature, pressure vs compesition, and temperature v/s composition are mostly used, Solid/ligud systems are usuallyidvestigated at constant pressure, and ths, only wo ‘variables need 1 be considered: the vpour pressure for such systems can be negleced An isomorphous stem is one in which there is a complet inter-solubility Between the two components in the vapour liguid and solid phases. 4Material Science and Metallurgy ©) Three - Component or Ternary phase diagram Terary phase diagrams are drawn for 3-component systems. A two-dimensional depiction of teary phase diagram s shown in igure 5.3. The side of the equilateral trianle represen the three binary alloy systems: 4 and B Band C, & Cand A. The tvee components 4, Band Care concentrated atthe apex (3 comers) of the wiangle Ofallthe thee types of phase diagrams discussed above, the binary phase diagrams ae extensively used, since itis relatively easy to construct and interpret Ly \A\ oe ar ANN ANNAN tar LVVYVYA ox 00 YYVYVWV VA LIV YDX2X4EAY DTT TTS 00 100% 20% «© <6O% «© «40% +«—«20% «= O% O% 80% 40H OH BOK TONKS A,B & Care components of an alloy Figure $3. Temary (or) 3-component phase diagram ~ 32° COOLING’CURVES i aa Equilibrium phase diagrams, also called constitutional diagrams, are usually constructed fom the data obtained from cooling curves. The present section deals withthe cooling curves, which helps tostudy the changes that occur during the solidification of alloys. Cooling curves are diagrams obtained by plotting temperature measured at equal time intervals during the cooling period of liquid melt to solid Figure 5.4 shows the cooling curves for different systems, and is commonly used in plotting phase diagrams. Phase Diagram - 1! i Laud 5 re | BAZ gre lemme ; oo ; ns {2) Cooling curve for pure metal Phase chonge FINISH tomp | Phase change START temp 2 — | sire (©) Cooling curve fr Binary sold solation {c) Cooling eure for Binary eutectic system Figure $.4 Cooling curves40. Material Science and Metallurgy ) Cooling curve of a Pure metal (One-component system) Figure 54 (a) shows the cooling curve forthe solidification ofa pure metal. The liquid metal cools Uuniformiy along the curve PO at a decreasing rate until point Q is reached. At point Q, the fis crystals begin'o form. As freezing continues, the melt liberates latent heat of fusion in such amounts that the temperate remains constant from Q to R, until the whole mass has entirely solidified (at point). Between Q and R, the mass is partly iquid and partly solid. Further cooling from poi Fito S the sold metal cools and tends to reach room temperature. Thus itis clear thot, there is only one phase present, either liguid in the region PO, or solid phase inthe region RS, [Number of phases ‘Number of component Applying Gibbs phase rule, 1+F= +l ews Thus, theres only one degree of freedom (univariant) in regions PQ and RS. Hence, temperature is the only variable that can be varied independently without the disappearance or appearance of a phase. However, inthe region OR, there are -phases present: liquid and soli. P= 2andC=1 Applying Gibbs phaserule, P+F = C+1, 2+F= 141 or F=0 ‘Therefore, the system is in-variant, Consequently, the temperature must be constant s long as two phases are present ) Cooling curve of a Binary solid solution Soli solution is solution in the solid state, which consists of two types of atoms combined in one typeof ery atce. Figure 5.4 (b) shows the cooling curve fora binary system consisting of two metas forming a solid solution. I igure 54 (), the portion PQ is similar in character to that ofa pure metal, However, during the freezing period from point Q to, the temperature docs not remain constant, but drops along the line QR, until the whole miss is completely solids point & ‘The dropping trend of OR indicates that alloy does not solidify at constant temperatures; rahe, itpossesses a melting or freezing range, which is due tothe changes inthe composition ofthe solid and liquid phases and naturally results in variable freezing or melting pont The solid cools along RS toattain room temperature. ©) Cooling curve of a Binary Eutectic system Figure 5.4 (¢) shows the cooling curve ofa binary eutectic system, Inthis system, the two components are completely soluble in the liquid state, but entirely insoluble in the soli state, The liquid cools Phase Diagtam - I along the ine PO until temperature Q is reached. At point Q, one component thats in excess inthe system will crystallize andthe temperature will fllalong line QR. At point R, the quid composition reaches a state at which both the components crystallize simultaneously from the solution. The femperature remairs constant until the whole mass is entirely solid at point S, This reaction is known as eutectic reaction, and the point on the curve is called as eutectic point. The solid cools along ST to attain room temperature, vai 53 CONSTRUCTION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS The data forthe construction of phase diagrams are determined experimentally by a variety of methods the most common methods include © Metallographic methods + X-raydiftation technique and + Thema analysis, Ofallhetizee methods mentions above, thermal rays isthe most widely used method, and the same is discussed inthe present section for the construction of binary solid solution® phase aga Construction of Binary Solid Solution Phase Diagram (Isomorphous Binary Phase Diagram) The consti of sold solution phase diagram can be best understood by considering (binary) elements: copper and nike tat forms soli solution, Experimental Details Inthe thermal analysis method, the two elements: copper and nickel are mixed at different composition, melted, and then allowed to solidify to room temperature. The temperature of the mixture is measured at equal time intervals while cooling back to room temperature. A cooling, ‘curve (diagram) for cach mixture is constructed, and the initial and final phase change temperatures ‘are determined, These temperatures are used for the construction ofthe phase diagram, Plotting the Binary Solid Solution Phase Diagram ‘Alot (araph of equilibrium diagrar orphase diagram a series oF Soting euves obtained Tor diferent alloycompostons is showin figure 5.5 (a). carve, called the liquidus lin is drawn by joining al the upper points CQ, - 0, ~Q, = Q,-.Non the cooling curves. Refer igure 5.5 (b) ‘Another curve, called the solidus lin is drawn by joining the lower points C- R, -R,~ R,-R,-N ‘nthe cooling curve, The solidus line represents the melting points ofthe different solid solutions, whereas, the liquids line represents the freezing point curve. Points Cand N corespond to the ‘melting points of pure elements: copper and nickél respectively. Above the liquidus line, there is * Solid soluion - Completely soluble in both liquid and sold states. ee eee142 “Material Science and Metallurgy ‘only liquid phase present, whereas, blow the solidus line, there is only one solid phase present The region beween the liquidus and solidus is 2-phase region in which solid cystals ofhomogenous sold solution ae in equilibrium with liquid of suitable composition. 20%Nh AOKNI SON Pure Cs a0%cu 60%CU 40%Cu 100% cu 1400 + o% ne 9, 1300 o. 1200 a, F 1100 ale R 1800 F owen 455°C Mating of Nket Temperature’ 1020 : (0) Coling cures for Cu- Nisa slsion 00g oe Melting Temperature 2 00 2 1200 : 1100: Soi (5) 1009 - - too%cu 80 60 40. 20 O%Cu O%NI 20. 4060-8 100% ——— Alloy Composiion wt) (b) Plotting equilibrium (phase) diagrams from cooling curves for Cu-Nisolid solution FigureS.5_ Plotting phase diagram pase Diagram = Ih 143 ‘pss Degen ce ‘Not tai figure 5.5(),the alloy composition i plated onthe xis instead time. By removing Jpatime axis (x-axis) ftom the curves, and replacing it with composition, the cooling curves ie atethe temperazures ofthe solidus and liquidus fora given composition, Weight percentages ing enused to speci the proportions of thelloying elements, On the phase diagram, compestons arsffom 100% clement copper on hele though al possible mixtures to 100% element nickel ‘abe right. Forexample, athe extreme left, wehave 0% nickel and 100% copper. As wemove ‘wards the next pont onthe graph, we have 20% nickel and 80% copper, and o.on Note Inrecent times, ithas become necessary to mix several elements in order o improve properties be materials. Itis therefore useful to create phase diagrams that involve three elements, called femary diagrams. These are more complicated than the 2-clement binary phase diagrams, but ‘Slow improved optimization, and hence can produce better results. However, fom the sylabus point of view, the discussion inthis text book's confined to binary phase diagrams ony. 54 INTERPRETATION OF PHASE DIAGRAMS, Consider the phase diagram drawn for the binary alloys: copper and nickel, which are soluble in cach other in both the liquid and soli states. The phase diagram is as shown in figure 5.6. 1600 —_— [ Lquidus Mating Temperature oo} Umi ore 8 vl E+ 1200 i sbi 1109 Solid (S) Ta=s0eate rn 100%Cu BO 6 40-20 OCU [O%Ni 20 40-60 8O_TO0KKNI ‘lly Composition (eS) Figure 6 Phase diagram for Cu-Ni system Fora binary system of own composition and semperature which is at equilibrium, we can draw three useful conclusions which are the only rules necessary for intenpreting phase diagrams. These include:and Metaugy {a) the phases that are present i {b) the chemical composition ofeach phase, and (©) tae amount of each phase (Lever rule) 1 Prediction of Phases Present romany has digran,inrmaion resading ithe temperatreand compostion especie Consider example denting the phases pres fr anally of composition 6 cope 40% ok! at 1400, 1200, and 100% nts ese, aw 2 vr ine oor representing the ally compositon of 60% coper and 40% kel. ele igue 37 Dass boron ines fm the specif tempers, AGC, 200°C, an LGD-Cas ae Ver eat poi 1,2, and 3 espe. Point 1 For 60 % copper and 40 % nickel alloy at 1400°C, only one phase, ie, liquid solution s present. Point 2 For 60 % copper and 40 % nickel alloy at 1200°C, two phases are present, ic, liquid solution and slid station. Point3For60 %copper and 40 % nickelalloy at 1100°C, only one phase, ie, solid solution s present, ‘Similar analysis can be made with any other alloy compositions and temperat the different phases present can be obtained only co from the pase 1500 aa Liquid) Liauidug maa 1485%C otting Temperature of Neket Solidus Solid (9) 1000 ——A_,___| Woxcu 80 60 40 20 ow GY O%N 20° 40 60 8D. to0%N —— Alloy Composition gts) FigureS.7 Predicting phases in Cu-Ni diagram © ptiage Diograrm Mt [Rule 2 Composition of each phase Fe first step to determine the composition of phases isto locate the temperature-composition iit on the phase diagram, Different methods are usd for single and 2-phase region. Single phase region For example itis required to determine the composition of phase for 20% copper and 80°% nickel at 1100°C. Locate point Aa the given condition as shown in figure'S 8. Atthis point, only ‘one phase s present (solid phase), andthe composition ofthis phase is simply the same asthe ‘overall composition of the alloy, ie., 20 % copper and 80 % nickel 2phase region Forexample, itis required to find out the composition of cach phase for 60 % copper and 40% nickel at 1150°C. Draw a horizontal line through the required temperature 1150°C. The line intersects the quidus and solidus at points P and Q respectively. This line ina 2-phaseregion {sknownagfe line™) The points where the ends oftie line (P and Q) intersect the two adjacent solubility burves dicate the composition of the two phases that exis in equilibrium at this temperature. Perpendicular lines are dropped from point Pand @ to intersect the horizontal composition axis at and S respectively, from which the composition of each ofthe respective phases is read. In other words, the liquid phase (point P) has the composition approximately ‘90% copper, andthe remainder 10 % being nickel, Similarly the solid phase at point Qhas the ‘composition approximately 45% copper, andthe remainder $5% nickel 1800 wid Ty=1485¢C Motting Temperature 1400 of Nickel = E rooxcu 80 60 “840 20 o%ce ‘O%NI 2040-60. BO. 100%NH toy Composition (wt) FigureS8 Determining composition ofeach phase at a given temperature * The ine iscated ie lne, because it connects o ies together lines ofone fold satwation, i.e, the sold is saturated wath respect o nickel, and the Tq i eaturaed with respect fo copper146. Material Science and Metallurgy ule 3 Amount of each phase - Lever rule To determine the amount or quantity ofeach phase aa given temperature, say 1250°C, draw en horizontal linet 1250°C to intersect te liquidus and solidus lin at and P respectively as shown in figure 5.9. Erect a vertical line at 60% Cu and 40 % Nion the composition axis to obtain poim M, which gives the total or overall composition of the alloy. The line OMP represents the te line [ Gebebbce Figure $.9 Lever rule - To determine amount of each phase Itis possibiéwo determine the amount or quantity of each phase a a given temperature using the leverrule or inverse leverrule. The lever rule can be explained by considering a simple balance as shown in figure 5.10. 2 60% Cu 40% Ni Figure 5.10 Simple balance to demonstrate lever rule ‘phase Diagram 147 Conan esi es wide ase darn i gue hb cortege tie line (OMP) represents the lever, the total composition of the alloy (60% Cu and 40% Ni) | represents the fulcrum, and the compositions ofthe two phases represents the weights (wl & w2) at the ends ofthe lever. Ifthe lever isto be balanced, or be in equilibrium without moving up or ‘down oneither side, ‘weight (wl) * distance (el) = weight (92) x distance (2) we) In metallurgy, the relative amounts ofthe two phases present are determined ina similar way to | thatofthe weights needed to balance the lever, ic, the amount ofa given phase multiplied by ts lever arm s=to the amount ofthe other phase multiplied by its (i.e. other) lever arn, Applying lever rule tothe copper - nickel ally system shown n igure 5.9, we have oyprt_tise a By Tot . om () amount = MF x10 © amount of sold phase at = TF 100 =30,95 % s+ Amount of solid phase at M = 30.95% MP. ii) amount of haseata = MP 109 (@ amountof liquid phase at = FF _ 0-31 73-31 ‘+ Amount of liquid phase at Mf = 69.04% Note that, in the above equations th right side ofthe te lin gives the proportion ofthe phase.on the left. liquid phase, and let side of the te line gives the proportion of the phase to the right ie, sold phase. : 100 =69,04% 55 BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS Binary phase diagrams ate classified according tothe appearance of the following seactions or ~ ansocmations in them. These in Sold solution or somorphous phase diagram. = Entectictype phase diagram + Peritectic system or Peritectic reaction = Butectoid system or Butectoid reaction + Peritectoid type or Pertectoid reaction, and = Monotectictype or Monotectic reaction148 Material Science and Metallurgy ‘ie eas egg slid solution phase diagrams havebeen proved in section 5 3andS4. The bssentsection provides a brief and basic information onthe other tyne ofbinay phase diagrams 55.1 Eutectic System ‘Aneutesde*spstem sone in which the two elements are completly soluble inthe lid state, but * Completely insoluble inthe solid state, ot * Partlysolube in the soid state Case 1 Completely Soluble in iquid state but completely insoluble’ inthe soid state Figure St shows th phase digram produced when the two alo components bismuth (3) nd Sagiium (Ca) are completely soluble in esc othe inthe qui stat, but completly insoluble, ach othe in the solid state. Each ofthe two elements (Bi and Ca) the eutectic temperature, which is about 140°C, the liquid changes change in temperature. (Refer section 5.2 (efor more information) The eutectic reaction i ofthe form: iid ES od pase (B+ pase (Ca craig actin volves tree phases (liquid mixture, soli pas Bi, and solid phase Cat cquibrium Heence, no. of phases = P ‘Number of components A 2 Biand Cay © Pererlegtetscomingsom he Grek meaning ay tom, has aifrnt bu reloted meaning “fact which sometimes causes considerable confsion iuwec means, the reversible, isothermal reaction ofa liguid which fore to diferent solid Phases a binary sstem) por coolig. ie L > at A * Batectc means, the temperature at wilch the eutectic reaction ies place, ie, the lowest iid / solid transformation trpperaturs ithe system Bucci also refers one ofthe specific mirastructares formed bythe ewectic reaction rena seskin, no to metals ae completely insoluble in eachother However in some casts, Bl i 0 reticle tht for practical purposes. hey maybe considered dle Eee, Tin~ Zine oF Bismuth Cadmium system pase Diagram = 7 _ 449. plying Gibbs phase rule, we have, a PeP=CH+1 Fa24+1-3 Degree of freedom F = 0 Inother words, the degree of freedom atthe eutectic point is zero. Hence the eutectic point is an ‘variant pont, and the eutectic reaction isan invariant reaction, | casa a Gite a 3 320°C @ z = @uiauid wy “ei tiarce € (Both metals Bi & Cd o in each other rowing in solution Pea — ueste Tw ecee co-sEutecs @ ea) “ es oom ah ooo (oaeee o%ca 20 40 «6080 Alloy Composition 1o0%Cd = Euteotc point E.= Eutectic Composition (60% Bi & 40% Cal, Bi = Bismuth, Co E, = Eutectic temperature | —.—Figure $.11_Bi- Cd phase diagram a {Case 2 Completely Soluble in liquid state but party soluble in the sod state 1 i ‘complete liquid solubility wit patil solid ‘The lead - tn (Pb-Sn) system is the best example for complete liquid : solubility. This alloy system is the basis for the mast common alloys used for soldering, and its phase diagram is shown in figure 5.12. The melting points oflead (Pb) and tin Sn) are 327°C and 232°C respectively and are shown on the phase diagram.150 Material Science and Metallurgy aud Temperature? Sows ‘satd) so0%Lead 82 80 60 40 38 O%Tin 18 20° 40 seen aad 80 62 80 97 100% Alloy Composition Figure 5.12 Lead-tin (Pb - Sn) Phase diagram peat) (00) Laud (Lor Lia) Pilate iUasp On as Evtectc structure (ha + Eutectic (v1 Brest etch in ood) ‘ Bech in tn (Sn) i Figure$.13 Microstructures at diferent points as mentioned on the Phase diagram of Tin-lead system pose Dieta ; 181 {joe at-tinsysen, the solid solution phases are designated by cand. The symbol represes sad oltion of tn (Sn in ead (Pb, ora solid pas ih in ead (tn the solute and lead is the seta). Thesymbol epresetsa soli soliton of ea (Pini Si), orasolidphs hi tin Bhp aaver aed isthe slit). Inother words, inte solid-phase, avery smalamount 1 renis dissolved in lead, while in the sot - phase very smal quantity oflead i dissoved inti. Ghat components dissolve in each other suficenty in (2B) phase He evtetic invariant pont () is loated at approximately 62% in (Sx) and 38% lead (Pb) at TEC. Te compostion 62% tin Sn) and 38% lead (P) snow asthe eutectic composton and 1S enperature 183°C isknownas etetc temperature. Atte eutete post the liquid phase (Cy eanstorms 1 (a+ ) phase during cooling nd vice-versa during heating, The eutectic reaction isgivenby Ligid SSS, o+B ‘Note Phase diagrams are not just an abstract construction; they have application inthe rel world dndeciding which composition to use. The information gained from the phase diagrams helps in ‘election ofa particular alloy fora particular application. For example, consider the eutectics, which i of major use in solder (soldering). For many years, lead -tin(Pb-Sn) alloy has been used IS solder for oining two or more parts (thin parts) temporarily. The solder should melt atthe lowest temperature, anda the same time is required to solitify fst, Fortis reason, the solder containing 0 %tin (Sn) and 40 % lead (PB), which melts at about 185°C is found tobe attractive compared tpother range of compositions. However, in plumbing work, one may bave to adjust the joining thateral, and hence require a solder that retains its mushy state over a range of temperature. For this reason, the plumbers’ solder contains 65 % lead (Pb) and 35 % tin (Sn). 55.2 Peritectic System (Peritectic Reaction) Peritectic reaction isthe reaction that occurs during the solidification of some alloys, wherein the Tiquid phase reacts with the solid phase to give a solid phase of different structure. The reaction reverses on melting, &Peritectic reaction is actually just the opposite ofthe eutectic reaction Liisi 22 sola Figure 5.14 shows the Platinum - Silver (Pt-Ag) phase diagram in which apertectic reaction occurs “The melting point ofplainum is 1769°C, and that ofsilver i 961°C. The solid phase, quid phase, tnd the 2-phase regions are shown inthe phase diagram, The horizontal tie line PCK. denotes peritectic temperature (P,), which s about 1185°C, and the composition a the pertecti point Cis Called peritectic composition (P,) having 55 % Ptand 45 % Ag. Atthe peritectic point te solid liquid phase (cL) transforms fo a single soli phase (B) on cooling, and vice-versa on heating icy E44 (olidphasey SE 6 (ecw solid phase) “The peritectic reaction involves three phases at equilibrium, Le. Lig, cand fi - phase.—_ | Material Science and Metall a Hence, no. of phases = P = 3 - Nbr ofeomponents ~ 2(Pt and As) Applying Gis phase rule wehave, P+ F= C+ 1 Fe2+13 Degree of freedom F = 0 nother words, the degre of reedom atthe peritectic point is zero. Hence the pertectiepont i an invariant point, andthe peritectic reaction san invaviant reacts 1769) guia ' 1600 “O 1200F oe 1000 800 tow 88 806055 4020 O%AQ 12-202 4045 OBO ——— Atoy composition 0% Platinum) 100%Siver (Ag) (4) Platinum-silver (Pt—Ag) Phase diagram * gets ehtaes ro Dlg Wasa (©) Microstructure at different points as mentiiied oi te phase diagram ofPCAg ystgem a & Cooing Sey (©) Transformation from (L.+ a) 1 Bephase Figure 5.14 Platinum Silver (Pt- Ag) System age Diagram - I 4553 Butectod System (Eutctid Reaction (tring te ecto eset an pert tmstisclarha, bh tection iol Tuidtosobdtanstomatons, However execoidioNesa sol sc tasfomaton Ine ext ection sold phase (asl sold solution is wansrmed it vo or more inaely mise sols on ong he mmbe of sols formed being same asthe merck ens ie, sod piase S22 oid phase sol phase C Eutetoid reaction is found in many systems such as copper aluminum, copper 2ine, aluminum manganese, copper - beryllium, ec. Figure 5.15 shows the eutectoid phase diagram, 2&8 are 2aitforent alloys Er, = Eutoctold temperature ET, = Eutectoid Composition emp + ior Composition FigureS.18 Eutectoid phase diagram ‘Thi pha sol ptase nthe 2 phase regoes ae shown nthe phase diagram: The iota line BED denotes euetod temperate (27), and be compostion athe euscor pont E's cal he extetodcomposton (7), The eco reaction mvaves wansfomton fig fold phase (ito two ober sol ses on cooling and vice-versa cn heating ie lead phase) S22 (of sp hase Euetod structures are similar tothe ewes structures, but frase the stuture usually being fn pralel ples ofthe phase: The eutod enon yet another inven encton Snvahing tee pies tequibuMaterial Science and Metallurgy A eutevtoid reaction that takes place 727°C in the iron-earbon system (discussed in section 5.9.3) is very important inthe heat ofsteels 584 Pertetoid System (Peritetaid Reaction) The Periecoid reactions the wansfomatnf to slim a thi oid offre strate, ie, Said 4Saias SA, New sod oe Contrary to peritectic reaction, wherein a sold and liquid phase changes to another solid phase; we hhave in the peritectoid reaction, two different solid phases transforming into another solid phase Figure 5.16 show the Peritecoid phase diagram, which canbe explained on lies similar to those of ceutectoid diagram, Tempera Aioy Composition A&B are 2 aittrentaloys Pls Paritetoid composition Figure $.16. Peritectoid phase diagram ‘The pertectoid reaction as per the phase diagram shown in figure 5.16 s given by: eating (+0) solid phase SESE p (sod phase) pase Diagram I! 555 Monotectic System (Monoteetic Reaction) ‘As known, substanoes that are not soluble in each other, such as oi) and a miscible. But, substances that are patly soluble in each other are said ko show 2 miscibilty gap y being classified as a Monotecic type. For example, copper and lead form Monotectic Figure 5.17 shows the phase diagram involving the monotectc reaction. tn the Monotestic ty the two quid solutions are not soluble in each other over a certain composition range. Inoiher words thore is a miscibility gap inthe liquid state between the two metals. In such cases, one liquid decomposes into another liquid, plus a solid on cooling. The equation forthe Monotectc type can be written as: Liquid 1 SE liquid 2+ solid 4 00% Om A oe t00%8 —— ttloy Composition Figure 5.17 Partial monotectic phase diagram 56 SUMMARY OF BINARY PHASE DIAGRAMS. "Table 51 gives a bret Summary ofall he different iypes of binary phase diagrains with he reactions involved. Continued,enn ERENT pe eae 2 M aoe ANE = stl Soerce and Metalugy pase Dagam-t_ GS pe 4%, System or eee a 5 -OBLEMS. “ . s s. Stoner [Eaton pape 87 PR Ce [se] _Nameor Characters proiem 1 , YBa ‘The solidus and igus temperatrcs Sn alley system comtaing two metals 4 & | lavcompectinid | | ‘ch ave completely soluble inthe iguid and sold snes ave presses in abe Sao 1 Solubil | Coating Po \ tat Metal 4 melts at 1080°C, and metal B at 1450°C. eee See 4) Construct the phase diagram for this system and iabel each region. | ve oo 1) Predict the number, type, relative amounts and composition of phases present in an | solueltty + ailoy containing 60% A and 40% B at 1250°C and room temperature. 1 Coemplete Liquid ['SLNo] Alloy composition | Solidus temperature] Liquidus temperature! 1! Sobity with cooling | ae ei Panial solid So } = bs) a an ' Heating 30% A 1100 1195 L oe 60% A 1160 1290 I —__ La | awa 110 1400 | Coating _ | 2 rere we SBy < solution: | \ + a) Figure 5.18 shows the phase diagram for the given system with all the regions marked thereon. | Dy Far 60% 4 anad0% Bat [250°C ome nthe aia 6% and 40% Bereta eric ine untlitinterttsthe violin deen — fem yan a 250°. The erento po epeentedby a Coneaiaane epoca _ > ape © Number of ghas { — — Gi) Type of phas=s= Liquid and sotid «resis i ce, fy ay Gi) Retmive amounts opus: =? i et sae Consider the ti-line OMP. Applying lever ule, weave, | | fs Mes + “Amount ofliqid pase a = 100 votguaptaseanpon a= ME | cooing A . |S" Seating 231109 ) Percentage of eutectic in the alloy at room temperature = Corresponding to room temperature 25°C, draw the horizontal tie line and mark the points (OMPs shown inthe graph. Applying lever rule, we have om ‘eutectic (4+) at poi = 25100 %otewectic (4+ B)atpoin M = F (75~ 100) > (= 100)" 4% of eutectic mixture at point M 1.67% Note : Percentage of pure metal can be calculated using ever rule as shown below MP. jure metal at point 100 % of pure metal atpoint M = 5 (75-40) = oso)! ©). The percentage of solid in the alloy t 300°C Comesponding to 300°C, draw ate line O,4f,P, as shown in the graph. Using lever rule, we bave - Amount or % of sol in the alloy = BA ida< 166: Material Science and Metallurgy _ 5275 485~100 Amount or % of solid in the alloy = 51.45% Specific gravity ofthe alloy From data, Sp. gravity ofmetal 4 = 20 Sp. gravityofmetal B = 7.0 1.45% Weight wks. Sp. gravity = PoE Wei or Volume = tele Sp. gravity Forthe givenalloy system, we can write, (Volume ofthe alloy) = (Volume of metal 4) + (Volume of metal B) Weightof theallo WeightofmetalA_) ° | Sp.gravityoFthealloy ) ~ | Sp.gravityof metal ) Sparavityof meta Lerusassume the weightfte alloy a 10 grams, which contains 75% 4 and 25% ie, 100 grams ~ (75 grams ofmetalA) + (25 grams ofmetalB). Subst. uation (3) in (2), weave 100 8,25 Grawviyofiheation) ~ 20°70 100 Spgravityofthealloy ~ 41071 100 Sp. gravityofthe alloy = 7 =2.43 “Sp. gravityof the alloy. Problem 5 ‘Two metals A & B of melting points 1000°C & 800°C respectively have unlimited mutual liquid solubilities. The solid solubility of B in A is a maximum of 20% at the eutectic ‘temperature of S00°C, which reduces to 10% at O°C. The solid solubility of 4 in B is a ‘maximum of 10% at the eutectic temperature which reduces to 5% at 0°C. No solid state reactions other than those due to solubility changes occur in the series. The eutectic ‘composition is 70% B. Assume solidus, liquidus and solvus lines to the straight. 243 - 167 fpnase Diagram I 7 oy Draw the phase dlagram ofthe ei, cribs the mode of soldieation, sll tte reactions and room temperature 2 (Mirosrature of anally containing 4076 YIU uly 04-10 2 seta Data: Alygtem = 488 r= 1000%e 57, 800°C Sabai: 20% Bin dat 500°C attic emperatue, & 10% Bind a 0°C TOR in Bat SOO" at ewer, & 5%. in BatO°C utc composon = 70% 8; 30% 4 Figwe 5.23 shows the pase diagram forthe give allay system with al he regions mated T T Seale: scanis"on10% NE an Lem=100°C Figure5.23 Phase diagram for problem 5168 ) Mode of soli Corresponding to 40% B (or 60% 1~2~3~4as shown in figure B (or 60% A) allo A), erect a vertical line and mark the intersection point Seale: arsetomei0e wt c Pasiaten=t00%C At point’, the alloy will bein the liquid state, As time clapses, the temperature ofthe liquid melt reduees, and wt Point 2 is reached, ie. at about 720°C, the ally stars to solidify to produce soli Solution o. In other words, stats separating out ofthe the amount ofa increases, and this continues upto point 3, Atpoint3, solidification contin liquid. As the temperature decreases, 2, the eutectic temperature, wes et constant temperature, and the remaining liquid wll soldi alt formeutectic (at B) LB) Below point 3, the solubility ofa will decrease along the line PR, anc thatoff along he lne MN, Sora _| i This continues il room tm perature, ie, upto point 4, Hence, at room temperature, the microstructure ofthe alloy (407% B, 60%.) contains c-zrains and eutectic (0+ B) grains as shown on the phase diagram, Problem 6 Two metals 4 & B have their melting points at 900°C and 800°C respectively. The alloy pair forms an eutectic at 600°C of composition 60% B. They have unlimited liquid solubilities. The solid soliblity of 4 in B is 10% and that of B in A is 5% at eutectic temperature and remains constant tll 0°C. Draw the phase diagram and label all the fields. Find the liquid and solid phase percentages in an alloy of 20% B at 650°C. TU Jan 08-10 m Solution + | Data: Alloysystem = 4 & B T, = 900°C ;7,= 800°C E, = 600°C ; B= 60% Solid solubilities : 10% 4 in B at £, = 600°C 5% Bin A at E,~ 600°C and further remains constant tll °C Alloy composition = 20% B & 80%.4 Figure5.24 Phase diagram for problem 6 MP Amount of oid phaseat point M = “5,100 SAD%A = 880 10y ‘Temperature ~ 650°C 96-49 8) Figure 5.24 shows the phase diagram fr the given system with allthe regions marked thereon Amount of soli-phase atpoint.h = 65.95% by %ofliguid & solid phases =? At 20% B andl 80% 4, draw a vertical ine ill it meets point M corresponding to 650°C. Draw the Amount ofliquid phase at point = 2.100 or (100-65.95) ofliquidp a ( ) ic line & mark points O & Pas shown inthe graph. P. Amount ofliqud phase at point M = 34.01%, | alesis RL170. Problem 7 ‘Two metals 4 & B are alloyed in the proportion 60% is 650°C and that of B, 450°C. When alloyed to or intermediate phase, but they form an eutectic of composition 40% 4 and 60% B which, solidifies at 300°C. The maxi 1am and minimum solid solubilities of Bin A and A in B are respectively 10% 4 and 8% B which occur at 300°C and remain unaltered till room ‘temperature. Assume the solidus, liquidus and solvus lines to be straight, 8) Draw the equilibrium diagram for the alloy series 4B and find ») The temperatures at which the alloy starts and completes solidification, ©) The percentage of the eutectic in the alloy at room temperature, Solution Dat A and 40% B. The melting point of Alloysystem = 4 &B Alloy composition = 60% 4 and 40% B T, = 650°C ;T,=450°C Eutectic composition E = 40% and 60% B Eutectic temperature = 300°C ‘Note The present problem although similar othe previous problem, ‘in hich the value forthe solid solubilities should be considered. Solidsolubities: B in A= 10%A at 300°C Ain B= 8% B at 300°C | 4) Figure 5.25 shows the phase dia | thereon, ) Corresponding tothe alloy composition 60% 4 and 40% liqudus line at point Zand solidus line at point. Startof solidification = atpoint L=415°C end of solidification a point differs slightly in the manner gram for the given alloy system withall the regions marked B, erecta vertical line to meet the 300°C = Eutectic temperature ©) %of eutectic in the alloy at room temperature 7, (25°C) | ‘AtT, = 25°C, draw an horizontal line and mark points OMP to obtain the te line. om Se ieee Yt euisis at point iy ~ “S100 60~ 92 = Oo 100 = 61.539% 32 =40 ina % of eutectic ~ 61.53% Material Science and Metalurgy $ gether, A & B donot form any compound PTT ‘Sales ace Lo a m Figure 5.28 Phase diagram for problem 7wm Material Science ond Metatungy Problem 8 Lead (Pb) melts at 323°C and Tin (Sa) melts at 232°C. Additions of. ‘melting point of Pb and addition of Pb to Sn also lowers the melting p: Liquid of compos phase of comp Sn to Pb lowers the oint of Sn. At 180°C, {61.9% Sn, alpha (c) phase of composition 19.2% Sn and beta (p} mn 96.2% Sn are in thermal equilibrium, The solubilities of Pb in §p and Sn in Pb at room temperature are negligible. a) Draw the Pb-Sn phase diagram ») Identify the reactions occurring at 180°C ©) Calculate the amount of phases in an alloy of composition 40% Sn at 179°C Old seheme VTU MQP. Solution Alloy system = Lead —Tin (P5 Sn) Dat Tyg = 323°C 5 T,,=232°C Eutectic temperature = E,= 180°C Eutectic composition E, = 61.9% Sn Compositionofaephase = 19.2% Sn Composition of B-pluse = 96.2% Sn Solid solubilities at room temperature are negligible: hence the lines should be connected tothe origin ofthe composition axis as shown inthe phase diagram. Refer figure 5.26 8) Figure 5.26 shows the phase diagram of the Pb ~ Sn alloy system with all the regions marked thereon, ») When the eutectic temperature of 180°Cis reached, the two solid solutions o and B precipitate ‘simukaneously from the liquid melt the final structure wll bea eutectic consisting of alternate layers of cand B solid solution, ©) Amount of phases for 40% Sn at 179°C ‘At 40% Sn onthe x-axis, draw a vertical linet intersect at point M, comesponding toa temperature of 179°C. A tie line is drawn with points O and P marked as shown inthe graph. At point M, the ‘microstructures of the alloy contains c grains and eutectic (c-+B) grains, MP Amount of atin thealloy at 179°C= “2 x 109 Amount of inthe alloy at 179°C = 619 ~40 “4855619 Amount of cin the alloy at 179°C = 50.46% 0.46%. oM Amount ofeutetic(ar+p) = 4.100. or (100-— Amountofeuetic (ap) = 2H (100-5046) 185~40 1S = 10 100 49.53% 185~619 170 = 49.53% + Amount of eutectic (a+ Bin the alloy at 173°C= 49.53% 73 | bud, Figure $.26. Phase diagram for problem 8 bas ,14 Material Science and Metallurgy Problem 9 Accooling curve is shown in figure below. Determine the following (3) The pouring temperature (b) The solidification temperature (c) The superheat (8) The cooling rate, just before solidification begins (e) The total solidification time (f) The local solidification ime. San 2010-06 m Solution + The given cooling curve is drawn to approximate scale as shown in figure below. However for such problems, stents should conclude the answers from the original graph given inthe question paper Pouring temperature Temperature (20) Tine (900) 4) Pouring temperature= 475°C ) Solidification temperature =350°C ©) Supetheat implies degree of superheat= 475 —350= 125°C 4) Cooling rate before solidification begins Draw a slope at upper portion liquid state) because solidification begins at 350°C Phase Diagram I 175 ar _ 85 Cootngrate = SE = 2 =1.13°Csee «) Total solidification time = 300 seconds 1) Local solidification time =300~ 100 =200 seconds Problem 10 Caleulate the amounts of cand L at 1250°C and 1175°C in the Cu = in figure below. 1% Nialloy shown Jan 2010-06 m Solution : The given phase diagram is redraw to approximate scale as shown below. However for such problems, students should conclude the answers from the original graph given in the question paper. = 5 304046 we % Ni Draw borizontlines fom temperatures 1250 & 1} 75 o intersect the solidus and liquids as shown inthe above figure. The solutions are obtained by tracing the arrows drawn onthe graph. (@)At1250°C, thee is a -phase mixture (Point A), where liquid (L) contains 30% Ni (Point C), and 45% Ni, solid Point D). (@)At1175°C, there only solid ce (Point B) consisting of 40% Nickel.176 Material Scion 58 INTRODUCTION TO IRON - CARBON DIAGRAM “phase Diagram - i ‘Steels the most widely used material inenginecring applications when compared o other materia, Stee! may be defined as refined pig iron, or an alloy of iron and carbon with other elements lke . sulphur, manganese, phosphionss, etc, added in smal quantities o impart certain favourable properties E=Eutectie point to siel, Today, there are nearly more than 1000 types of steel each npe having its own stot = Eutoctod port propeties and applications. However, more than 90 % of al sees ae carbon steel (pain carbon ‘tyson ont steels) with varying percentage of carbon and other alloying elements. The amount of carbon eco presenti stel as direct influence on the various pysial properties of steel. For instance, when the carbon content inreases, steel becomes harder and stronger, but less ductile. Also, higher osoxc carbon coatent lowers stels melting point and its temperature resistance Its found that, i ‘eau when the carbon content exceeds 2 % at a particular temperature, steel is transformed te pee as irom ~ a brite material, which is also one ofthe important materials used in engineering oS onan applications. Henceitis important to understand the behaviour ofsteel for diferent combination, rataee Piary austenite c of earbon concentration and temperature. The iron-carbon diagram (Fe-C) forms the basis for rm beget shy \V buchundestning, where phase changes at cer Gishe Reagan > / nature and amount the strutual component that exist at any temperature are Spiced. Besides e Piece poind ‘testablishes a corelation between the microstructure and properties of steel an cast ron, and g presence) Lee Provides a basis forthe understanding ofthe principles of heat weatment. ; Asin “pe nurec isang ‘austenite pi 59 IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM (Fe-C) or ate SBiente | IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM (Fe Fe,C) or | Figure 5.27 shows the simplified iron-carton (Fe-C) phase equilibrium diagram for carbon content | 727 727°C ‘upto 66.7%, whichis ploted on x-axis. The carbon concentration, usually expressed as weight Peattes Percentage is represented onthe horizontal x axis, and temperature onthe vertical y-axis. The carer creatine B! Comenite origin ofthe x ~ axis extreme lft hand) represents 100% iron (pure iron) and 0 % carbon Me Moving towards right side from the origin indicates inereasing percentage ofearbon. The extreme 3 je07%c right end ofthe x—axis stops at 667 % carbon instead of 100 % carbon concentrations. Thiss I because, a maximum amount of 6.67 % carbon can only be added to molten iron at which it becomes saruated. Any further addition ofcarbon will not make dissolve inion, but eather ats oF get blown away owing tots very low density ron continng 6.67% carbon forms a phase called cementite or iron carbide (Fe,C),anditis for {his reason the iron-carbon diagram (Fe-O is alsoknownasro-iron carbide (Ee-F,Chequlbiam ‘iagram with pure iron (Fe) and iron carbide (Fe,C) forming the extremities ofthe phase diagram | outhe.xcenis, Thediagram is also knowns metastable Fe-Fe C diagram, Figure5.27_Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) phase diagramwicensiect 178. Material Science and Metallurgy 5.9.1 Comments on Iron-Carbon Diagram = Following i brie information onthe iron ~ carton diagram shown in igure 5.27 2) FerAl drm presen te mengpoakotptenvhisauh IS ) The curve ABECis cae the igus. The alloy represented by a particular temperature and ‘composition above the region ABEC are completely in the liquid phase. : )_uon containing carbon content from about 0.008 % to sbout 2% called ste, nd betwen? Scand approximately 657%, wermed aca 6 istomedas cation, Parte, stees and cs ons the carbon content are classified as follows: *Sectsandcastfon sedan Steels: + Hypo-eutectoid steels: Carbon content ranges from 0,008 % 0.83 %. ‘+ Hyper-eutectoid steels: Carbon content ranges from 0.83 % ~2 %, Castiron: Hypo-eutectic cast iron : Carbon content ranges from 2% ~ 4.3%. . Hyper-cutectic east iron: Carbon content ranges fom 4.3% ~ 6.67 % bon san interstitial impurity in ron. It forms a solid solution vith o, y, and 8 phases of ron. (Iron is known as 0 -ferite or just ferrite ‘y-Ironis known as y austenite or just austenite, and $S-lron isknown as 8—ferrte, The structure of ferrites similar to Yat of o—ferite Point Eis knows as eutectic point, a the corespond and the corresponding temperature and tarbon concentra are 1147°C and 43% carbon respectively me tnpentuc ad “es 9 2 . Point P, represents the peritectic point, and point E, represents ewecto point Ay Ay nd, represent hectic by Agiada, crcl temperatures of tel At thecal ger ‘changes occur during heating or cooling of the alloy. a 59.2 Phasesin Iron-Carbon Diagram hase ‘The possible phases existing in the Iron-Carbon diagram shown in igure 5.27 are: + ferrite: solid solution of carbon in BCC iron * Y- austenite: sold solution ofcarbon in FCC ion + 5 -feste: solid solution of carbon in BCC iron ‘Iron carbide (Fe,C) or Cementite an intermetallic ipod! + Ledeburte:y+ Fe,C * Peatite a Fc N a) a-ferrite(o-tron) ert also known as ion alpha iton),o jst frites an interstitial soi solution ofa small ‘of carbon dissolved in iron having a body centered cubic (BCC) erystal structure. ‘The 1" 179 maximum solubility of carbon in ironis 0.025 %C at 727°C, and 0,008 % at room temperature. eter figure 5.27. a- ferrite isthe softest structure on the iron ~ carbon phase diagram. Iis the component which gives stel and cast iron their magnetic properties, and is the classic example of ferromagnetic material 1) austenite (riron) ‘yavsenite™isalso knownas iron (gamma ion), which is aninterttalsolidsoltion of carbon Tsolved in ton witha fice centered cubic structure (FCC), The maximum sokbilty of carbon in ion i approximately2.0% carbon at 147°C _Austeite is normally unstable at room temperature, and hence willnot be normally presen inthe ‘microstructure at room temperature. However, austenite can be made to be present at room temperature (make stable) by rpid cooking. Austenit, which ishaving an PCC structure, i non- magnetic in nature ©) Sferrite Giron) 8 ferrite is also know a 8 -iro (deta iron) has the same structure as o- ferrite, ie, BCC structure, Itis magnetic, and stable only athigh temperatures, say above 1394°C. 4 Iron carbide or Cementite Iron carbide (Fe,C) ot cementite containing 6.67 % C by weight is atypical hard and bite istermetallic contpound of ow tensile strength, but igh compressive strength. Itis the hardest structure that appears onthe fon ~carbon phase diagram, Ledeburte (7+Fe,0) Ledeburte isthe eutectic mixture of austenite () and cementite (Fe,C). The eutectic reaction takes place at 147°C (eutectic temperature) and 4.3 % carbon (eutectic composition). [Ledeburite exists when the carbon contents approximately greater than?.0%, which represents the dividing line on the phase diagram between see! and cas iron. «) Pearlte (a*+Fe,C) Peart isthe eutectoid mixture containing 0.83 % C, ands fomed at 727°C. When austenite containing 0.83 % Cis coled very slowly below 727°C, ittransforns into Pearite, The stucre is called pearlie, because it has the appearance of mother-of pearl when viewed under the microscope at low magnifications. ~-Peart is a very fine plate-like or lamellar (or layered) structure consising of altemating ayers of. ferrite (0) and cementite (Fe,C). The structre of pearite includes a white matrix (ferrite background, which inches thn plats of cementite [Note A fixed amount of carbon and iron are needed to form cementite (Fe,C). Peaite neds fixed amounts of cementite (Fe,C) and fete (a) for its formation. However, if there is net + Named fer Sir Wiliam Chandler Roberts - Austen + Named after th metals Karl Heinrich Adolf Ledebw80 Material Science serial Science and Meta ‘enough carbon, tc ess than 0,83 %, ion and carbon will combi allthe carbon is consumed. This cementite will combine withthe required am r 0 ay Gon Proeut = eset 10 as hypo-eutectoid steel. Ihowever, th — ‘carbon, ic, above 0.83 % in the austenite, pearlte will form, an oe known as proeutectoid cementite. _— cess carbon above ain boundaries, ands 59.3 Invariant Reactions nt ioo-) Atpoint2, the sold solubility of carbon in iron decreases. Hence, excess carbon separates out to form c.- ferrite (iron), and occurs along with austenite (7), ©), Whenthe alloys cooled below point2, ie, to point3, crystals of ferrite tends to grow atthe ‘nrain boundaries ofthe austenite grains as shown schematically in figure 5.28 (b). 4) At727°C, corresponding tothe cutectoid temperature (E,), the remaining austenite changesto the eutectoid structure, ie. pearit The microstructure below this temperature, say atpoint 4 is anctworkof ferrite along the grain boundaries, surrounding the areas of peatlte as shown in figure5.280) ) Curportion of austenite) hase diagram 1000 g 92 E727 ta 5 210 ° 1025 4 TS 20 ts Berm % Carbon {2} Fe-C phase diagram for 0.49% earbon ste! e 6 & atpoint@ y= Austente @ ay iFennte +Austenite) @ aPearite (©) Microstructure of 0.4% ctl corresponding to points 1,9 and 4 Figure 5.28 Phase diagram of steel containing 0,4%C hase Diagram - I feel To find the relative amount of the constituent phases “Applying lever rule tthe eutectoid temperature, we have, %6 of a ferrite % Austenite() = Qg3-0.008 46.58% Since the austenite tums to pealite when the temperature drops below 727°C, the composition becomes 53.41% 0. ferrite and 46.58% peatlte. 5.10.2 Steel Containing 0.83 % C Figure 5.29 isan enlarged view of the phase diagram showing the cooling ofan alloy containing (0,83 %C, an eutectoidstel, from the austenite phase to roam temperature. Themode of soiification isexplained briefly as under. 8) Atpoiat the microstructure consis entirely of pins othe phase (austenite) as shown schematically in figure 529(b). b) When the alloys cooled to point, i. al eutectod temperature of PC, neato ection takes place, wherein austenite transforms to c- ferrite (a iron) and cementite (Fe,C). ‘ylaustenite) SESE oy ferrite + cementite (FeO) ©) This structure formed is called pearl, which consists of altemating layers or lamellar mixture of ferite (a) and cementite (Fe,C) as shown in figure. 5.29(b. To find the relative amounts of the constituent phases Applying lever rule atthe eutectoid temperature, we have, : so =083 te of a-fente = Bras 100 = 12% |rial Science and Metatrgy Asteria! Science ond Metalngy isgram 05 £41033 Steel Containing 12 % € Figure 5.3048 patil enlarged view ofthe iron-carbon phase diagram showing the cooling ofan” ‘ihostenit ey comaining 1.2 % C, abyper-eutectod ste! from the austenite phase to oom temperature. ‘mode ofolfication is explained briefly a under. 4) Atpont I, the microstructure consists entre of grains of the phase (austenite) 2s shown 2 scheratically in figure 5.300), +9) Wren he alloys cools to point 2, wherein the temperatures slightly below 900°C austenite cannot hold all the carbon, and asa result, the excess carbon separates out to form cementite (Fe,C). Cementte tends to grow atte grain boundaries of the austenite grains as shownin figure 5.300). "¢) Atpoint3, whichis slightly below the eutectoid temperature of 727°C, the remaining austenite ‘hangesto the cutectoid structure i. pealte. The microstructure below this temperatureis ‘a network of cementite along the grain boundaries surrounding the areas of pearlte. Refer © Sigure5.300b). cuter ar Pearite + ato Het _ cago ot ribet) aeetiges 1000 7 com oeene 2 parece 7 ea Hee Lom (a) Fc phase oiaram fr 0.89% carbon steel i Ar) 210 Ca SME OHS TE EBB TE Gorm = se catton At point © Austenite (7! solid solution @ Pearlite - Dark bancs are Fe,C . Light bande tite rogionl are e-farite {o} Fe-C phase diagram for 1.23% carbon stl FeiC (Cementitet Fe,C-{Cementite) (b) Microstructure of 0.83%C steel correspondirg to points 1 and 2 ch & @&) eo Figure .29 Phase diagram of sel consining 083% at point Dy (Austeritel —@ yiAawbnite) +Cementite —_ @ Peariite + Comentite (b) Microstructure of 1.2966 steal corresponding to points 1,2 and 3 q FigureS.30 Phase diagram of steel containing 1.2%C196 Materat Science and Metalar To find the relative amounts of the constituent phases Applying lever rule tthe euteciod temperature, we have, % pearlte = S67=12 , 199 667-083, 93.66% 83 % of cementite = 100 667-083 = 633% Since the austenite tums to pearlite when the temperature drops below 727°C, the composition becomes 6.33 % cementite and 93.66 % pearite 5.10.4 Cast Iron Containing 3 %C Figure 5.31 isan enlarged view ofthe iron-carbon phase diagram showing the cooling ofan alloy containing 3% C, a hypo-eutectic cast ron, fom the liquid phase to room temperature. The mode ‘of solidification is explained briefly as under. 4) Atpoint I, solidification begins wit y—ion (austenite) precipitating out ofthe Fiquid phase. In other words, austenite (7) forms inthe liquid phase. The amount of precipitation increases with the fallin temperature (during cooling), and the liquid phase completely solidifies at point 2 Refer figure 5.31(b) ') Atpoint2, solidification is complete, an further cooling fst cooling) results inthe formation of austenite and cementite. Refer figure 5.31(b). ©) On further cooling (maintaining fast cooling rate) ill 727°C, ie. at point 3, a structure of cementite and pearit is formed. This structure is known as white east iron, because ofthe ‘white appearance ofits freshly fractured surface, White iron, because of ts high cementite content is hard and britle, and hence difficult to ‘machine. Its specially used in applications, where a wear resistant surface is required, However, if there is avery slow cooling from point 2, cementite will notbe stable, and this results in the formation of graphite flakes. At 727°C, ie., at point 3, the remaining austenite changes 10 .- ferrite and the result at room temperature isa structure of pearlite + graphite flakes as shown in figure 5.32, instead of pearite+ cementite obtained with fast cooling.-This ype of cast iron is known as gray cast iron, because ofthe gray appearance ofits freshly fractured surface, Note Malleable cast ion and S.G (spheroidal graphite) cast iron are the other types of eat iron Information regarding the different types of cast ion is provided in chapter 7 of this book, pas iro 187 aa ee 7 & : s oo d 2) crm | | tom To. ° 0.83 20 43 6.67%C — tsps dum of ct ton ating 3% con -yWhustnitl Fee OO eS on Qyeme recs sort on tet ‘Avstente + cementite (0) Microstructure of east ron with 396 carbon during fast cooling Figure$.31 Part of Irqn-Carbon phase diagram with 3%C pearite | 374 SS} craphite fakes S ee] SesUnit - 6 Heat TREATING Or METALS The effect of time on phos transformation iss important as phas diagrams forthe kent enon oes Tonsoni ase ‘lin this regard and ecpecal benef msec te conn Steel and processing roe 1 achieve a gin set ef propertes Thee CF to in pes of rancormaton dgrans. me Tempers Lomeli (70 ad Cons Cong Daretn C1 st portion of the present chapter deals nite feclerals of PT and CCT diagrams wilh leterprt den te various heat treatment “onder o obtain Processes carried out im One to cbrona Favorable properties in maeras (especialy see), Me” °° en -aon pase dans : cone bon he its eae tae pn eos micros julibrium* conditions (stable conditions achieved by slow cao! ut eal tl mopeio a els cane btn! une mncaainee coool {to know the eflec ofime on phase transformations ITansfona idee ek geltionship between temperature and time taken for a décompostt transformation to take place in a metal when ransform: i owmiral ane stiri ti ese ee te files seed te ‘ts named in honowr of E.C. Bain ture Bainite resulting from rapid cooling of austenite 61 TIME—TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION (E-T-1) DIAGRAMS... 49 = ect Treating of Metals iteina teat ‘TTT diagram is used more particularly in the assessment of decomposition of aust ‘reated steel. In other words, it gives information on, when transformation begin and end fer ax isothermal heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy. I also shows what percenta transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is achieved. 62 CONSTRUCTING T-F-T DIAGRAMS Following arothe steps involved in constructing a TTT diagram: ‘Step 1A number of'small specimens of steel are cut from the same bar and made ready according tothe test conditions. Step 2. Thesamples are heated in a furnace to a temperature above the eutectoid temperature of TIPC at which austenite is stable, ie., complete austenite phase is formed in the microstructure. Refer figure 6.1 (2). Step 3 One cf the specimen is then kept inthe molten salt bath at some eonstnnt temperature (Gsothermal) below 727°C; say 700°C, and for a certain time duration. Refer figure 6.1 (b). The more the time is given toa specimento react isothermally, the more peat js formed. The specimen is withdrawn ftom the bath and rapidly quenched incold water. Refer figure 6.1 (¢). This converts any untransformed austenite into martensite, the volume of which can be estimated microscopically Step 4 The above steps are repeated for the remaining specimens, at different consteut ‘temperature, say 650°C, 60°C, 500°C, et. and time durations. Finally the microstructure is examined atroom temperature Ste specimen ~ Motta sat bath cold water tank Furnas$-for heating maintsined below 727°C sument_ (2) Guenehing at oom (0) Inotheemel nest remperature (0) Austniting Arrangement for determining the microscopic changes that occur during the ‘isothermal transformation of austenite in a cutectoid plain carbon steel. Figure190. Material Science and Metllugy eee 8, 8 B, = Start of tanstormation cove fr 500°C AEA, = End of transtormation 100 ae [af lothermat transformation curve med 0 pea z : —— tine le 106 soa | semnnes E8727 é aad cr 8 0 é L200 t | 400 200 2 : 3 ee ee ‘Transformation tne (seconds) -log Seale «nec temperate, Mt ‘A+PeAustenite +Pesrlite, A+B=Austenite + Bainite - fash (0) Construction of TTT diagram Figure 6.2 TTT diagram for plain carbon steel 191 is zat Treating of Met — sep Wothermaleacion cures, aso knows as S-shaped ewes drawn by plotting TtnngeWasfoamation onthe y-axis and logrtn®oftimeat dierent enpenine aor Figure 6.2 (4) shows the plotofS-curve for only two diferent empsraners Frat shaped curve givesinformation onthe tine fr the beginning and comlesion ofthe transformation of the austenite, step 6 When he data obtained fom a series ofS-turves over te whole temperature range of ane naablty fora given composition ofsteas summarized te resis the TTT diagram for that steel. Refer figure 6:2 (6), tnsigure 6.2 (0), the areaon the eof he transformaton curve Freer the austenite region. teenies stables temperatures above the lower ential temperature (LCT), but unstable below a Left curveindiates the start ofatransfomation and the et owns Pre the finish of i transformation. The area between the two curves indicates the transformation of austenite to aa et types of yal structures ~autrite oper, austenite to mariensie, of austenite to bait transformation. ‘The TTT diagram is most useful in presenting an overall pita of transformation behaviour of Tete, This enables te metallorgist 0 interpret the response of ie! 19 specified heat austen toplan practical beat restment operation and to conrol inte hardening softening, and the time of soaking. 63. EET DIAGRAM FOR EUTECTOID STERIL Figure 6.3 shows the TT diagram fora cuectoid sts containing about 0.83 %C. “Themicrostuctres obtained at different cooling rate is explained briefly as under 2) Austeniteis stable above 727°C, but unstable below 727°C, kei can transform into pearite, bainite ormartensite structure, 6) Aterperatures between T27°C and approximately 80°C, trasfoneation sO produce a sarees ercoructureofpentite. At temperatures just below 727°, mucleaenof coment eae nite willbe very slow, but difusion and growth of ace wll proceed ata menishOt speed to produce a coarse pels, As the transformation emPeTa Towered to about Rem ih ste nase or Kee of the TTT curve, perlite changes frm a coarse {0 afine structure. _c)_Atatemperatuejustbelow 550°C diisionis vary slow and as S06 the transformation time are he slower rte of ffsion of earbon atoms in austenite at lower ‘empeTeS ie seit to 2 new product called bane, The microstructure consists Of & er entotoidsucture of ferrite and cementite (Fe,C). Bite, which Orme et Telow 350°C is caled upper bani, and consists of typically open feathery Sssle ‘Onthe ae nd aint that forms at ower temperatures scaled lower bani, and is Sucre somewhat similar to lightly tempered martensite +The logarihmie scale of time i used condense ress it a smal space