THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

Motivation is the characteristic that helps you achieve your goal. It is the drive that
pushes you to work hard. It is the energy that gives you the strength to get up and keep
going - even when things are not going your way.

1. Content Theory – mainly focuses on the internal factors that energize and direct
human behavior.
a. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

 We each have a hierarchy of needs that ranges from "lower" to "higher." As

lower needs are fulfilled there is a tendency for other, higher needs to
emerge.”
 Maslow’s theory maintains that a person does not feel a higher need until
the needs of the current level have been satisfied.

 If the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no
longer concerned about the maintenance of our higher order needs.

 Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between 1943

an 1954, and first widely published in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At
this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs. This original
version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.

Theories of Motivation
 b. Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory
 Frederick Herzberg performed studies to determine which factors in an
employee's work environment caused satisfaction or dissatisfaction. He
published his findings in the 1959 book The Motivation to Work.
 According to Herzberg: The job should have sufficient challenge to utilize
the full ability of the employee.
 Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given
increasing levels of responsibility.
 If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm
should consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one
who has a lower level of skill. If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there
will be a motivation problem.

Satisfiers (motivators) Dissatisfies (hygiene)

 Achievement  Company policy

 Recognition  Supervision
 Work itself  Relationship with the boss
 Responsibility  Work conditions
 Advancement  Salary
 Growth  Relationship with peers

c. Alderfer's ERG theory

 The psychologist Clayton Alderfer developed a new model to explain the
simultaneous nature of Maslow's five needs. Called the ERG Theory of
motivation, he first published it in a 1969 article titled "An Empirical Test of
a New Theory of Human Need."
 In his theory, Alderfer compressed Maslow's hierarchy of needs from five to
three: Existence, Relatedness and Growth. (Hence "ERG")
 At the most basic level, people have existence needs. This map to
Maslow's physiological and safety needs.

Theories of Motivation
  Next, we experience relatedness needs, where we fulfill our need for satisfying
interpersonal relationships. This level relates to Maslow's social needs and to the
external part of self-esteem needs – we feel good about ourselves based on
what others think about us.
 Finally, we reach the growth needs level. Here, we are looking for personal
growth and development by doing work that is of high quality, and meaningful.
This equates to the internal part of Maslow's self-esteem needs and to his self-
actualization needs.
 However, Alderfer's theory goes further than simplifying the number of needs and
broadening what each covers. While he still maintains that there is a general
order for pursuing needs, he claims that this order is not as fixed as it is in
Maslow's hierarchy. Even though existence needs generally have a higher
priority than relatedness and growth needs, priorities can change, depending on
the person and the situation.
 ERG theory has three key differences from Maslow's theory:

1. It suggests that people can be motivated by needs from more than one level
at the same time. There is not necessarily a strict progression from one level
to the next.

2. It acknowledges that the importance of the needs varies for each person and
as circumstances change. Some people might put a higher value on growth
than relationships at certain stages of their lives.

3. It has a "frustration-regression" element. This means that that if needs remain

unsatisfied at one of the higher levels, the person will become frustrated, and
go back to pursuing lower level needs again.

d. McClelland's three-needs theory

 David McClelland built on this work in his 1961 book, "The Achieving Society."
He identified three motivators that he believed we all have: a need for
achievement, a need for affiliation, and a need for power. People will have
different characteristics depending on their dominant motivator.
 According to McClelland, these motivators are learned (which is why this theory
is sometimes called the Learned Needs Theory).
 McClelland says that, regardless of our gender, culture, or age, we all have three
motivating drivers, and one of these will be our dominant motivating driver. This
dominant motivator is largely dependent on our culture and life experiences.
These characteristics are as follows:

Theories of Motivation
Dominant
Characteristics of This Person
Motivator

 Has a strong need to set and accomplish challenging goals.

 Takes calculated risks to accomplish their goals.

Achievement  Likes to receive regular feedback on their progress and

achievements.

 Often likes to work alone.

 Wants to belong to the group.

 Wants to be liked, and will often go along with whatever the

rest of the group wants to do.
Affiliation
 Favors collaboration over competition.

 Doesn't like high risk or uncertainty.

 Wants to control and influence others.

 Likes to win arguments.

Power
 Enjoys competition and winning.

 Enjoys status and recognition.

2. Process Theory – provide an opportunity to understand thought processes that

influence behavior.

a. Adams' equity theory

 Adams' Equity Theory is named for John Stacey Adams, a workplace and
behavioral psychologist, who developed his job motivation theory in 1963.
Much like many of the more prevalent theories of motivation (such
as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs and Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory), Adams'
Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect an
employee's assessment and perception of their relationship with their work
and their employer.

Theories of Motivation
  The theory is built-on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in
relation to their job and their employer, if they feel as though their inputs are
greater than the outputs. Employees can be expected to respond to this is
different ways, including de-motivation (generally to the extent the employee
perceives the disparity between the inputs and the outputs exist), reduced
effort, becoming disgruntled, or, in more extreme cases, perhaps even
disruptive.
 It is important to also consider the Adams' Equity Theory factors when
striving to improve an employee's job satisfaction, motivation level, etc., and
what can be done to promote higher levels of each.
 To do this, consider the balance or imbalance that currently exists between
your employee's inputs and outputs. Inputs typically include:

1. Effort. 8. Flexibility.

2. Loyalty. 9. Acceptance of others.

3. Hard work. 10. Determination.

4. Commitment. 11. Enthusiasm.

5. Skill. 12. Trust in superiors.

6. Ability. 13. Support of colleagues.

7. Adaptability. 14. Personal sacrifice.

b. Vroom's expectancy theory

 Whereas Maslow and Herzberg look at the relationship between internal
needs and the resulting effort expended to fulfil them, Vroom's
expectancy theory separates effort (which arises from motivation),
performance, and outcomes.
 Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious
choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and
to minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is
based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge,
experience and abilities. He stated that effort, performance and
motivation are linked in a person's motivation. He uses the variables
Expectancy, Instrumentality and Valence to account for this.
 Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased
performance i.e. if I work harder then this will be better. This is affected by
such things as:
1. Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)
2. Having the right skills to do the job

Theories of Motivation
 3. Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor
support, or correct information on the job)
 Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome
will be received. The degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the
second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there is something in it for
me. This is affected by such things as:
1. Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and
outcomes – e.g. the rules of the reward 'game'
2. Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what
outcome
3. Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome
 Vroom's expectancy theory of motivation is not about self-interest in
rewards but about the associations people make towards expected
outcomes and the contribution they feel they can make towards those
outcomes.

c. Goal-setting theory
 In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This
theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It
states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback
contribute to higher and better task performance.
 Goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be
done and how much efforts are required to be put in.
 The important features of goal-setting theory are as follows:
1. The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of
job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goals are greater
motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals.
2. Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better
performance. Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals
accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids misunderstanding.
3. Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a
feeling of pride and triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for
attainment of next goal. The more challenging the goal, the greater is
the reward generally and the more is the passion for achieving it.
4. Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee
behaviour and contributes to higher performance than absence of
feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making
clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to
work with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.
5. Employees’ participation in goal is not always desirable.

Theories of Motivation
 6. Participation of setting goal, however, makes goal more acceptable
and leads to more involvement.
7. Goal setting theory has certain eventualities such as:

a. Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and faith

that he has potential of performing the task. Higher the level of self-
efficiency, greater will be the efforts put in by the individual when they
face challenging tasks. While, lower the level of self-efficiency, less will be
the efforts put in by the individual or he might even quit while meeting
challenges.
b. Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is
committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is
dependent on the following factors:
i. Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.
ii. Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated.

8. Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the organizational

goals and vision.

d. Reinforcement theory

 Reinforcement theory of motivation was proposed by BF Skinner and his

associates. It states that individual’s behaviour is a function of its
consequences. It is based on “law of effect”, i.e, individual’s behaviour with
positive consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behaviour with
negative consequences tends not to be repeated.

 Reinforcement theory of motivation overlooks the internal state of individual,

i.e., the inner feelings and drives of individuals are ignored by Skinner. This
theory focuses totally on what happens to an individual when he takes some
action. Thus, according to Skinner, the external environment of the
organization must be designed effectively and positively so as to motivate the
employee. This theory is a strong tool for analyzing controlling mechanism for
individual’s behaviour. However, it does not focus on the causes of
individual’s behaviour.

 The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of the
employees:

Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when

an individual shows positive and required behaviour. For example -

Theories of Motivation
 Immediately praising an employee for coming early for job. This will
increase probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again. Reward is
a positive reinforce, but not necessarily. If and only if the employees’
behaviour improves, reward can said to be a positive reinforcer. Positive
reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behaviour. It must be noted
that more spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement
value it has.

Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by

removing negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and
negative reinforcement can be used for increasing desirable / required
behaviour.

Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower

the probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future. In other
words, punishment means applying undesirable consequence for
showing undesirable behaviour. For instance - Suspending an employee
for breaking the organizational rules. Punishment can be equalized by
positive reinforcement from alternative source.

Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. In other words,

extinction implies lowering the probability of undesired behaviour by
removing reward for that kind of behaviour. For instance - if an
employee no longer receives praise and admiration for his good work,
he may feel that his behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence.
Extinction may unintentionally lower desirable behaviour.

 Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behaviour.

Managers who are making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that
they do not reward all employees simultaneously. They must tell the employees
what they are not doing correct. They must tell the employees how they can
achieve positive reinforcement.

Sources:

 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/herzberg-motivators-hygiene-
factors.htm

Theories of Motivation
  http://www.businessballs.com/maslow.htm

 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMM_78.htm

 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/human-motivation-theory.htm

 https://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_96.htm

 http://www.yourcoach.be/en/employee-motivation-theories/vroom-expectancy-
motivation-theory.php

 http://www.managementstudyguide.com/goal-setting-theory-motivation.htm

 http://www.managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory-motivation.htm

Theories of Motivation