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Engineering Ethics

Ethics is the study of the characteristics of morals, and involves the moral choices made by individuals as
they interact with other persons. Engineers need to be aware of ethics as they make choices during their
professional practice of engineering.
Engineering ethics will be defined as the rules and standards governing the conduct of engineers in their roles
as professionals

The Engineering Profession


Engineering practice can be defined as a “profession,” as opposed to an “occupation” or “job.” A profession
has the following attributes:
Work requires sophisticated skills, judgment, and exercise of discretion (work is not routine)
Membership in the profession requires formal education
Special societies (controlled by members of the profession) establish standards for admission into the
profession and conduct of its members
Significant positive public service results from the practice of the profession

Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct. The branch of philosophy axiology comprises the sub-
branches of ethics and aesthetics, each concerned with values.

Basic & Essential Concepts in Ethical Studies


Normative Ethics
1. Ethical standards are principles by which we judge whether a moral action is right or wrong; they include
statute law, religious authority, public opinion, and conscience.
2. Teleological ethical theories are those that judge conduct as right or wrong in relationship to some end
or goal considered good.
3. Hedonism, Epicureanism, and utilitarianism consider pleasure or happiness to be the highest goal.
John Stuart Mill denies the criticism that utilitarianism encourages selfishness; he maintains the greatest
happiness of the greatest number is the standard of right conduct.
4. Kant proposes a moral philosophy in which principles are either right or wrong, regardless of the situation.
This position is sometimes called formalism.
5. Self-realization, often referred to as humanism, promotes the development of humans to the highest
possible degree. Platonic humanism and Aristotle’s view of self-realization are historically significant.
6. Classical moral philosophy proposes that moral absolutes can be determined rationally.

7. Natural law ethics is based on natural law, which can be discovered by reason. i.e. by empirical analysis
of phenomena.
8. Religious ethical ideals, as found in Judaism and Christianity, include two major views:
(a) The will of God is sufficient justification to obey traditional maxims, and
(b) The love of God inspires people to do the best to live as caring individuals – based on religious
teachings.

Situation Ethics
According to Joseph Fletcher, the doctrine contending that truly moral actions produce the greatest amount of
love possible in each situation; love is the only moral absolute. A version of teleological ethics.
Teleological Ethics
The theory that the consequences of a moral act determine its rightness or wrongness.

Utilitarianism
An ethical theory that claims that utility, in the sense that whatever increases pleasure and decreases pain,
should be the aim of acts and the criterion by which we judge them.

Benevolence
It is the active pursuit of the enormous value that we can get from relationships with other people.
Benevolence, as a major virtue, is key to living by the trader principle. i.e. trade creates enormous value, both
material and non-material. Benevolence is the commitment to create trade and trading opportunities.

Courage
Courage is the ability to act in the face of danger and uncertainty. Although it is more of an emotion or state of
mind, it is an important part of one’s life. This is because the future is always uncertain.
Life is not just about avoiding death. It is about achieving values and happiness. Courage must overcome
both the fear of danger and uncertainty.

Caring and Sharing


Caring for other persons and sharing their sorrows and happiness is the heart of the moral life. Morality of
care leads to refreshingly new picture of morality as centering on relationships, feelings, and connectedness
rather than impartiality, justice, and fairness.

Duties
Duties can be positive, such as the duty to look after one’s children, or negative, such as the duty not to
murder another human being. When people use the language of duties, they usually do so in a way that
implies that the duty is universal to all human beings (or at least to all adult humans of sound mind).
We should treat people as an end, never as a means to an end. This means that people should be treated
with dignity.

The Decision Making


The avoidance of disputes and conflicts requires careful and willing collaboration between the parties
involved, at the outset of any collaborative effort. There must be a clear understanding of the aim of the
project - what need is being met, and what are the surrounding circumstances. Physical, financial and
temporal restraints need to be clearly defined, and the nature of the contribution required from each member
of the team, established and recorded as understood.

Deontological Ethics
It refers to theories which hold that right and wrong is determined by truth and binding, formal rules of
conduct, independently of any consideration of consequences.

Descriptive Ethics
The study of the ingredients of a moral situation, of the actual conduct of individuals, groups, and peoples.

Epicureanism
The doctrine that pleasure (as understood by Epicurus) or freedom from pain is the highest good in life.
Ethical Monotheism
The belief in one God who has revealed moral standards which all must follow.

Ethical Relativism
The view that there are no fixed, universal moral values; also called moral relativism.

Ethical Standards
Principles or norms by which moral actions are judged right or wrong.

Free Will
Every existent acts causally in accordance with its identity from electrons to brain neurons to conscious
minds. The world is entirely determined in a physical sense, but the question of free will boils down to a
question of context.

Formalism
Adherence to prescribed forms. In ethics, formalism means that certain types of acts follow fixed moral
principles, apart from consideration of any particular situation or probable consequences.

Fundamental Values
Indians have developed four fundamental values about human life, which they have been practicing
throughout the ages:
(a) Essential divinity inherent in all life
(b) Presence of divine motherhood in all women
(c) Religion is the manifestation of the divinity already in man. The plurality of religion is only on the
surface. At the spiritual core, there is an essential unity of all of them.
(d) Civilization is the manifestation of divinity in human. That society is the most developed where the
highest truths becomes practical.

Hedonism
The doctrine that the chief good in life is pleasure.

Honesty
Honesty is the recognition of the fact that the unreal is unreal and can have no value, that neither love nor
fame nor cash is a value if obtained by fraud.

Harmony of Interests
The harmony of interests bring men together in peaceful cooperation to benefit their lives. This is the bedrock
of society. It is why people choose to live in a society.
Although the desires of men may be opposed, their interests are not. Living in a peaceful society is of
incalculable benefit to man.

Integrity
Integrity is the virtue of practicing what one preaches. Or more importantly, practicing what one believes is
right. A ‘man of principle’ is not a man who understands a principle, but a man who understands, accepts, and
lives by a principle. There are many reasons why integrity is a virtue.

Independence
Independence, or self-reliance is the virtue by which you are self-supporting in the sense that you consume
nothing that you haven’t earned. The virtue of independence is to provide one’s own means of subsistence.
This means either producing it directly, or indirectly by creating something that someone else wants.
Dependence, in this case, would mean relying on charity or favors from friends or family. Or worse, theft in the
form of direct stealing from others, or indirect theft through benefits by government.

Justice
Justice is the virtue of treating people in accordance with their actions. It is applying the law of identity to
people. All people are not equal. Some are good and some are evil and they must be treated accordingly.
Acting justly requires the willingness to judge.

Living Peacefully
When there is peace in the individual, there will be peace in the family. In order to learn how to lead a
peaceful living, self-esteem, calmness and freedom from anxieties are must otherwise; consequence is
generally found to be negative.

Means
An agency, instrument, or method used to attain an end.

Meta ethics
The study of the meaning of terms and language used in ethical discourse and the kind of reasoning used to
justify ethical statements. Differs from normative ethics, which is the study of the principles underlying the
moral forms of human conduct.

Moral agent
The individual who is participating in a moral situation.

Moral ought
Used to express duty or moral obligation.

Motive
Whatever it is that prompts a person to act in a certain way or that determines volition (willing).

Moral Judgements
1. The question of morality may be the central issue of our time; there is a renewed interest in rethinking
goals and values in contemporary society.

2. Kohlberg’s levels of moral development are the preconventional, conventional, and post conventional.

The Moral Situation


1. The moral situation involves moral agents with both rights and duties.
2. Other ingredients in the moral situation are virtues and vices, agreements and laws, and change.
3. In assessing morality we have to consider motives, means, and consequences.

Normative Ethics
In normative ethics there are different theories as to how criteria of moral conduct should be defined. The
three main theories can be sketched as follows:
1. Deontological, i.e. duty theories locate the basis of morality on specific, foundational principles of duty
and obligation. These principles are binding regardless of the consequences that acting on their basis
might bring.

2. Consequentialist theories on the other hand determine the value of an action on the grounds of a cost-
benefit analysis of its consequences. If the positive consequences outweigh the negative ones then the
action is morally proper.

3. Virtue theories focus on a given set of rules like “do not steal” etc. But instead of defining them merely
as obligatory duties, the emphasis lies on the individual to develop good habits of character based on
these rules (and avoid vices). Thus virtue theory emphasizes moral education.

Productiveness
Productiveness is the virtue of achieving values. It is the fullest use of one’s mind in seeking and achieving
those values. Its primary use is in the creation of wealth.

Pride
Pride is the virtue of respecting oneself. It is a human need to think highly of oneself. Without it, one would
have no reason to trust one’s ability to live. One would have no reason to accept that one’s life is worthy of
living. Pride is often confused with arrogance.

Rationality
Rationality is the habit of acting by reason, which means in accordance with the facts of reality. The only
alternative is acting by whim, which because reality is absolute, will result in undesired consequences. This is
because an action based on a belief in a particular cause-effect relationship will not occur if that relationship is
invalid.

Respects for Others


People should always be respected as autonomous (self-directing) moral agents. We use people merely as
things when we do not let them make their own decisions and when we harm them for our own benefit without
respect for their rights e.g. domestic work servant.

Rights
Rights theory is one particular duty-based theory of ethics. A right is a justified claim against another person’s
behaviour. So rights and duties are related in that the rights of one person imply the duty of someone else to
uphold that right.

Service and Learning


Service is an act of help or assistance when somebody is in distress. May be social service or any assistance
at personal level. For some people service oriented attitude is in-born and others can learn to serve (service).
Learning means the act of gaining knowledge by study, instruction or scholarship.

Self-Interest
Man’s interest is defined as that which benefits his life. It is an evaluation of the facts of reality. Since the
nature of man’s life has particular, objective requirements, determining whether something promotes his life is
a statement of fact. One’s interests should not be confused with one’s desires.

Universal Values
There are five systems values or virtues that come from these. They contain all that makes a human being
noble, caring and kind.

(a) Right conduct: Right conduct is concerned with maintenance of the body to serve us in performing the
tasks of life.
(b) Peace: Strong will power is sufficiently strong to discern the differences between real needs and super-
fluous desires; we cease to be driven by the urge to own more and more things. Inner agitation stops
and we remain peaceful.
(c) Non-violence: Non-violence can be described as an act to restrain from violence. It sign of a well-
integrated and well-balanced personality.
(d) Truth: Learning to speak the truth is a first and vital step in the formation of a strong character. Telling
lies hurts ourselves and others in a subtle but real way.
(e) Love: Love is a spontaneous reaction of the heart. It is the power of love which causes one person to
wish happiness for another and take pleasure in his or her well-being.
Values
Values are that which we seek to achieve or maintain. Values are the motive power behind purposeful
action. They are the ends to which we act. Without them, life would be impossible. Life requires self-
generated action to sustain itself. Without values, one could not act, and death would follow.

Virtue
A virtue is a moral habit which generally results in the gaining or maintaining of your values. Your values are
based on your moral standard which should be your own life. Virtues are pre-thought out methods for
achieving your values. This means that with rational virtues, acting virtuous leads to a happy and successful
life.

Vice
Vice is a practice, behaviour or habit of an individual which is generally not accepted in associated society.
This is generally considered as sinful, immoral, rude, taboo, deprived, criminal activities and degrading
activities

Work Ethics
Organizational environment should foster ethical decision making by institutionalizing ethics. This means
applying ethical concepts in daily action.

This can be accomplished in three ways:

(a) Establish code of ethics


(b) Appointing formed ethical committee in organization to look after ethical issues
(c) Teaching ethics in academic institute in training programmes

“Ethics” or “morals”
Means those habits or customs that are standards of good conduct or character.
Ethics is a discipline we freely embrace that regulates our baser instincts so as to promote a harmonious
community and thereby reduce conflict and disorder.

Ethics is Not Religion


Many people are atheist or agnostic but may adhere to high ethical principles.

Ethics is not following the law

Immanuel Kant distinguished that in law, a man is guilty when he violates the rights of another. In ethics, he is
guilty if he thinks of doing so.
Scope of ethics
The scope covers the questions of where duties are owed and in what circumstances they arise.

A different aspect of the gap between legal and ethical duties concerns the engineer’s duty to act with
reasonable skill and care. Such a duty is required necessity to the immediate client, but how is the duty to be
extended to cover the public at large? It is easy to envisage circumstances in which engineering projects and
the actions of engineers may be seen as adversely affecting the public interest.

Areas of Ethical Study


There are three broad areas of ethical study:

Meta-ethics: Meta-ethics is therefore concerned with the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes
and judgments. Meta-ethics examines such themes as what moral questions mean, and on what basis people
can know what is ‘true’ or ‘false’.
Normative ethics: Normative ethics is concerned with questions of what people ought to do, and on how
people can decide what the ‘correct’ moral actions to take are.
Applied ethics: it is concerned with the philosophical examination of particular – and often complex – issues
that involve moral judgments.

Ethical Paths in Western Philosophy

Virtue-Ethics Framework

Virtues are good habits that are acquired by repetition which must follow the rule of right reason (prudence).

Engineering in Practice
Ethical principles should influence much of the day-to-day functions and activities of engineers, as is the case
in many professions.

Ethics and the law


There is also a distinction between what is legal and what is ethical. Many things that are legal could be
considered unethical.

Psychological Selfishness and Ethical Egoism


Psychological selfishness explains that all human actions are motivated by selfishness and we largely justify
our actions (immoral or corrupt) also.

Ethical egoism advocates that self interest is the exclusive obligation, the duty of man. In other words, our
only duty is to promote our own interests.

Ethical and Cultural Relativism


Different cultures have different rules of behavior. There are no universal values and there is no universal
ethic.There are no universal truths. There are no moral truths accepted by all, at all times and places. i.e.
rules & behaviours differ from society to society.

Ethics and Religious Faith


For many people, ’morality and religious faith go hand in hand’. Rather than relying on rational arguments,
some people view actions as being right or wrong in terms of whether they are commanded by a god.

Development and Environmental Ethics


Development ethics, emerged as a field of study in the second half of the 20th century. It questions and
looks at the ethical implications of ideas such as ‘progress’ and at the implications of various types of social
change.
Environmental ethics emerged as a separate area of philosophical study during the 1970s. The approaches
of environmental philosophers are varied, but most take as their starting point the belief that we are facing a
critical point in our relationship with the non-human world, and that in order to avert (or reverse) an ecological
crisis, we need to reassess the ways in which we value the non-human world.

In 1992, governments at the Rio Earth Summit made a historic commitment to sustainable development that
promotes the maintenance and wellbeing of both people and ecosystems.

Ethics
Ethics is often used in connection with the activities of organizations and with professional codes of conduct:
for instance, medical and business ethics, which are often formalized in terms of exhaustive sets of rules or
guidelines stating how employees are expected to behave in their workplaces (such as in respect of a duty of
care or confidentiality that health-care workers owe to their patients; or the medical ethical principles of
beneficence, non-maleficence, respect for autonomy, and justice).

Morality
Morality, on the other hand, is more often used in connection with the ways in which individuals conduct their
personal, private lives, often in relation to personal financial probity, lawful conduct and acceptable standards
of interpersonal behaviour (including truthfulness, honesty, and sexual propriety).
It restricts their personal discretion in decision making

Though codes serves the purpose to an extent the real life situations are different and more complex. Many
technical decisions may not be ethical and moral in themselves.

Engineering Ethics
Engineering ethics is the set of rules and standards of conduct, which defines the role and responsibilities of
engineers. It is a philosophical framework, which provides the basis for the conduct and public behaviour of
engineering professionals.

Aim of ethics in engineering:


To help engineers understand complex problems and provide the best possible ethical solutions.
The Engineering professionals need the following important skills for improving their overall performance:

Comparison of Ethics with Standard Experiments


Before delivering any project, the engineer must ensure that their product is subjected to best safety
standards. Even when the product is delivered, its continuous monitoring is needed, to ensure that if does not
creates risk for the users or consumers.

Experiential Learning
Engineering as a Social Experiment
Engineers as leaders and administrators
Being Accountable

Role and Responsibilities of Engineers


Engineering professions demand safe products and services because we do not wish to be threatened by
potential harm, but we also realize that we may have to pay for this safety.

Engineers Responsible for Safety Risk


1. Safety
This approach helps underscore the notion that judgments about safety are tacitly value judgments about
what is acceptable risk to a given person or group. Differences in appraisals of safety are thus correctly seen
as reflecting differences in values.
Working Towards Safety
How should safety be incorporated into the engineering design process?
1. Define the problem: This step includes determining the needs and requirements and often involves
determining the constraints.
2. Generate several solutions. Multiple alternative designs are created.
3. Analyze each solution to determine the pros and cons of each. This step involves determining the
consequences of each design solution and determining whether it solves the problem.
4. Test the solutions.
5. Select the best solution.
6. Implement the chosen solution.

2. Risk
Minimizing risk is often easier said than done. There are many things that make this a difficult task for the
engineer. For example, the design engineer often must deal in uncertainties.

Sample Code of Ethics for Engineers :


The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the importance of our technologies affecting the quality of life
throughout the world, and in accepting a personal obligation to our profession, its members, and the
communities we serve, do hereby commit ourselves to the highest ethical and professional conduct and
agree:

1. To accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public,
and to disclose promptly factors that might endanger the public or the environment;
2. To avoid real or perceived conflicts of interest whenever possible, and to disclose them to affected
parties when they do exist;
3. To be honest and realistic in stating claims or estimates based on available data;
4. To reject bribery in all its forms;
5. To improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate application, and potential consequences;
6. To maintain and improve our technical competence and to undertake technological tasks for others only
if qualified by training or experience, or after full disclosure of pertinent limitations;
7. To seek, accept, and offer honest criticism of technical work, to acknowledge and correct errors, and to
credit properly the contributions of others;
8. To treat fairly all persons regardless of such factors as race, religion, gender, disability, age, or national
origin;
9. To avoid injuring others, their property, reputation, or employment by false or malicious action;
10. To assist colleagues and co-workers in their professional development and to support them in following
this code of ethics.
Approved by the IEEE Board of Directors, February 2006

National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)


Code of Ethics for Engineers

I. Fundamental Canons

Engineers, in the fulfillment of their professional duties, shall:


1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
2. Perform services only in areas of their competence.
3. Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Avoid deceptive acts.
6. Conduct themselves honorably, responsibly, ethically, and lawfully so as to enhance the honor,
reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

II. Rules of Practice


1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
2. Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.
3. Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
4. Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
5. Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

III. Professional Obligations


1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty and integrity.
2. Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest
3. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the public.
4. Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning the business affairs
or technical processes of any present or former client or employer, or public body on which they serve.
5. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by conflicting interests.
6. Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement or professional engagements by
untruthfully criticizing other engineers, or by other improper or questionable methods.
7. Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly, the professional repu-
tation, prospects, practice, or employment of other engineers. Engineers who believe others are guilty
of unethical or illegal practice shall present such information to the proper authority for action.
8. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities, provided, however, that
engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out of their practice for other than gross neg-
ligence, where the engineer’s interests cannot otherwise be protected.

9. Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due and will recognize the
proprietary interests of others.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)


CSR has generally been a pragmatic response to consumer and civil society pressures. These have mainly
been focused on transnational corporations (TNCs) serving markets in the North, but often operating in
countries in the South.
The ethical framework should provide for prevention and guidance, investigation, disciplinary action and
prosecution.
Ethical Guidance should include training in ethics awareness and development of essential skill for ethical
analysis and moral judgment.
There is need to create an independent office of Ethics Commissioner, on the US pattern who should provide
leadership in ethics and values. The Ethics Commissioner should issue and interpret rules which govern
standards of conduct and conflict of interest.

Ethics, Values and Morals


Ethics can also be defined as prepositional statements (standards) that are used by members of a profession
or group to determine what the right course of action in a situation is. Ethics rely on logical and rational criteria
to reach a decision, an essentially cognitive process.
Values, on the other hand, describe ideas that we value or prize. To value something means that we hold it
dear and feel it has worth to us. As such, there is often a feeling or affective component associated with
values. Often, values are ideas that we aspire to achieve, like equality and social justice.
Morals describe a behavioral code of conduct to which an individual ascribes. They are used to negotiate,
support, and strengthen our relationships with others.

Morals vs. Professional Ethics


Morality usually implies a set of internally held values, quite often (but not necessarily) deontological. Many
moral belief systems center on what are held to be intrinsic or universal values-Truth, Honesty, the “golden
rule” or other measure of goodness. Ethics (in our sense of “professional ethics”) on the other hand, is usually
connected to a shared understanding of proper conduct guidelines among a group of people associated by
means of their profession.

What is Value?
Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should or shouldn’t, and good or
bad.
Values mean an in-built mechanism that distinguishes the right from the wrong. This should be interpreted in
the context of the social environment in which a person lives, moves and acts.

Classification of Human Values


Human values can be classified as follows:
1. Values relating to an individual (good or bad) that is related to the person
2. Values where there is normally an element of consensus implied as in terms, such as fair, decent and
tolerant
3. Values relating primarily to things in the sense of ‘fitting’, such as good pen or good computer

Universal Values
There are five systems values or virtues that come from these. They contain all that makes a human being
noble, caring and kind.
Right conduct: Right conduct is concerned with maintenance of the body to serve us in performing the tasks
of life.
Peace: When the will power is sufficiently strong to discern the differences between real needs and
superfluous desires, we cease to be driven by the urge to own more and more things. Inner agitation stops
and we remain peaceful.
Truth: Learning to speak the truth is a first and vital step in the formation of a strong character. Voicing untruth
is an anti-social act and causes confusion in the minds of both the speaker and listener. Telling lies hurts
ourselves and others in a subtle but real way.
Love: Love is a spontaneous reaction of the heart. It is the power of love which causes one person to wish
happiness for another and take pleasure in his or her well-being. Love is unconditional, positive and regard for
the good of another. Love is the unseen undercurrent binding all the four values.
Non-violence: Non-violence can be described as a universal love. This creates harmony with the
environment. That is living in a way that causes as little harm as possible to one-self, other people, animals,
plants is a sign of a well-integrated and well-balanced personality.

Fundamental Values
Indians have developed four fundamental values about human life, which they have been practicing
throughout the ages:

1. Essential divinity inherent in all life


2. Presence of divine motherhood in all women
3. Religion is the manifestation of the divinity already in man. The plurality of religion is only on the
surface. At the spiritual core, there is an essential unity of all of them.
4. Publication is the manifestation of divinity in man. That society is the most developed where the highest
truths becomes practical. The end of all work is to bring out the divine in ourselves by serving the divine
in others.

Attitude
Attitude encompasses long-standing evaluations of people, places, and ideas, and may influence a range of
behaviors, including those that directly impact political behaviour, intergroup relations, and health behaviors,
among other consequences.
Since in Indian society children are very close to their parents and grandparents so many a times, they
acquire behavior from the parents.

Aptitude
An aptitude is a component of a competency to do certain kind of work at a certain level, which can also be
considered “talent”. It is the ability to deal with aspects of the environment and to perform a particular
behavior. Aptitudes may be physical or mental.

Attitude v/s Aptitude


Attitude is the manner, disposition, feeling, position, etc., with regard to a person or thing. it is the way you
think about any particular person or thing. ‘Aptitude’ is a capability or talent innate or acquired for performing
some particular task. If you have an aptitude for languages, for instance, you can learn them faster than other
people.

Attitude has to do with the character and aptitude has to do with competence. Character is relatively
permanent whereas aptitude can be changed and developed.

Integrity
Integrity indicates soundness of moral principles, the character of uncorrupted virtues, uprightness, honesty
and sincerity. According to Ministry of Personnel, “Consistently behaves in an open, fair and transparent
manner, honours one’s commitments and works to uphold the Public service values.” Integrity in public affairs
and administration is essential; and therefore there must be an insistence on it in every branch of public
activity.

Intellectual integrity: Intellectual integrity is defined as recognition of the need to be true to one’s own
thinking and to hold oneself to the same standards one expects others to meet. It also means to honestly
admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in one’s own thought and action, and to be able to identify
inconsistencies in one’s own thinking.

Perception
Perception is defined as our recognition and interpretation of sensory information. It is a process of taking the
sensory input from the environment and using the information in order to interact with our environment.

The Perceptual Process


Gilmer thinks that perception is a mental process which enables human beings or living beings to organize
and interpret their sensory impressions to give a meaning to their environment. In fact, it is a mental process
which can be comprehended by splitting it into following six stages of sensory stimulation:

1. Receiving 2. Selecting 3. Organizing


4. Interpreting 5. Checking 6. Reacting

Broadly, a perception process involves:


1. Intellectual selection,
2. Cognitive acceptance or rejection, and
3. A subjective analysis of the data received.

Emotional intelligence is the ability to monitor one’s own and people’s emotions, to discriminate between
different emotions and label them appropriately and to use emotional information to guide thinking and
behavior.

Types of Emotions
There are five types of emotions according to the researchers. These emotions are transmitted to the next
generation through reproduction.
These are conception, sensations, and reflexes, involuntary and voluntary expressions.

1. Conception is the positive and negative mental effects that are triggered by conclusion. Conception directs
your behavior. Maternal love is positive emotion, whereas maternal grief is a negative one triggered by
conclusion like my child is in problem.

Conception Emotions like: maternal love & grief, infatuation, heartbreak jealousy, adulterous guild revenge,
criminal guilt compassion, selfish, guilt, pride, humiliation, humor, envy
2. Sensation also can fall under both the categories of positive and negative emotion. It directs the behavior
but triggers no physical effects.
Sensation Emotions like: Pleasing taste, hunger, disgust usual pleasure, lust, repugnance affection, cute,
loneliness excitement, boredom
3. Reflexes trigger a mental effect that suppresses conception and sensations. Reflexes are the only
emotions that trigger mental effect.
Reflexes Emotions like Startle fear
4. Involuntary expressions also direct behavior of others and are triggered by conception, sensation and
reflex.
Involuntary Emotions like: horror, momentary, frowning, prolonged frowning, momentary smiling, crying,
prolonged smiling, blushing
5. Voluntary expression also direct behavior of others and are triggered by conception, sensation and reflex.
Voluntary expressions also direct behavior of others and triggered by habitual decision.

Voluntary Emotions like: anger laughter

Skills for Developing Emotional Intelligence [EI]


There are 5 main skills that need to be developed
1. Reduce Stress: The first key skill of emotional intelligence is to reduce the amount of perceived stress.
There are three ways to reduce stress.
Realize when you are stressed
Identify the stressors
Discover stress-bursting techniques

2. Connect to your emotions


3. Non-verbal communication

Social Capital

Human capital is invested in people and social capital is investment in relationship. When public
administration invests in social capital in return the govt is always benefitted with good amount which is in the
form of trust.

Distinction between private and public institution


Public sector is usually composed of organization and operated by the Govt. It includes state, central and
federal, municipal Govt.. In India public sector used to be the dominating one
Private sector is a part of the economy sometimes referred to as the citizen sector which is run by private
individuals or groups as a man of profit and is not controlled by the state.

What is Decision Making?


Decision-making is an essential aspect of modern management.
It is a primary function of management.

A manager’s major job is sound/rational decision-making. He takes hundreds of decisions consciously and
subconsciously.
Decision-making is the key part of manager’s activities. Decisions are important as they determine both
managerial and organizational actions.
A decision may be defined as “a course of action which is consciously chosen from among a set of
alternatives to achieve a desired result.”

Characteristics of Decision Making


Decision making implies choice: Decision making is choosing from among two or more alternative courses
of action.
“Decision-making is fundamentally choosing between the alternatives”.

Advantages of Decision Making:


1. Decision making is the primary function of management:
2. Decision-making facilitates the entire management process:
3. Decision-making is a continuous managerial function:
4. Decision-making is essential to face new problems and challenges:
5. Decision-making is a delicate and responsible job:

Steps Involved In Decision Making Process


1. Defining / Identifying the managerial problem,
2. Analyzing the problem,
3. Developing alternative solutions,
4. Selecting the best solution out of the available alternatives,
5. Converting the decision into action, and
6. Ensuring feedback for follow-up.

Reasons Why Rational and Right Decisions may Not be Possible?


1. Inadequate information, data and knowledge:
2. Uncertain environment:
3. Limited capacity of decision-maker:
4. Personal element in decision-making:
5. A decision cannot be fully independent:

Fundamental Virtues Essential for any Ethical Decision-Making:


1. Prudence (also called wisdom, good judgment, competence, practical reasoning) is the habit of recog-
nizing good ends and choosing the most effective and efficient means of achieving them.
2. Justice (also called as fairness) describes a situation or a habit in which one constantly gives others
what is their due so they can fulfill their duties and exercise their rights, and at the same time, one tries
to see that others do likewise.
3. Courage (also called as fortitude) is the habit moderating the emotions of fear or boldness to achieve a
rational goal.
4. Self-mastery (also called as temperance or discipline) is the ability to have control over our
tendencies to laziness, anger, complacency, procrastination, and reluctance to fulfill our responsibility.

What is Probity?
Probity is a mandatory and vital organ of governance. An important prerequisite for the probity is absence of
corruption.
Disadvantage: A full switch to Govt. to Customer e-Governance will cost a large amount of money in
development and implementation. In addition, Govt. agencies do not always engage citizens in the
development of their e-Gov services or accept feedback.

National e-Governance Plan (Content of National Portal of India)


The National e-Governance Plan (NeGP) has been formulated by the Department of Electronics and
Information Technology (DEITY) and Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG).
The Union Govt. approved the NeGP, comprising of 27 Mission Mode Projects (MMPs) and 10 components.
The NeGP aims at improving delivery of Govt. services to citizens and businesses with the following vision:
Make all Govt. services accessible to the common man in his locality, through common service delivery
outlets and ensure efficiency, transparency & reliability.

Implementation Strategy, Approach and Methodology of NeGP. Implementation of e-Governance


Common Support Infrastructure: Governance:

Centralized Initiative, Decentralized Implementation: Public-Private Partnerships (PPP):

Programme Approach at the National and State levels: Facilitator role of DEITY:

Corruption
Corruption is the abuse of bestowed power or position to acquire a personal benefit. Corruption includes may
activities like bribery and embezzlement. Corruption is in close proximity with the development of the nation.

Causes of Corruption

Lack of transparency in affairs and deals: Low job opportunities:


Multiple Political Parties: Low pay scales/wages:

Lack of power to the judicial system: Lack of Hard and fast rules:

Encouragement of Unhealthy Competition: Lack of accountability:

Modes of Corruption
1. Bribes
2. Conflict of Interest
3. Nepotism
4. Patronage
5. Procurement

Ways to Curb Corruption

1. Rules at departmental level


First step to curb corruption is education.
Government of India has an elaborated framework of conduct of public servants in a variety of public service
categories. There are five mega detailing documents which are as follows:

All India Services (Discipline and appeal) Rules (1969) Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules, 1964
Railway Servants (Conduct) Rules, 1966

Central Civil Services (Classification, Control and Appeal) Rules, 1965 All India Services (Conduct) Rules
(1968)

Whistle blower protection act


This is the act of parliament of India which equips a person, to report against corrupt and illegal activities in
the Govt. or private organization to the higher authorities concerned.

Globalization
In recent years there have been global summits on topics such as:
1. The Environment, 1992
2. Human Rights, 1993
3. Population, 1994
4. Social Development, 1995
5. Women, 1996
Western Moral Thinkers:
Socrates (469-399 BC)
Socrates, was a Greek philosopher whose way of life, character, and thought exerted a profound influence on
ancient and modern philosophy. Although Socrates himself wrote nothing, he is depicted in conversation in
compositions by a small circle of his admirers—Plato and Xenophon first among them. He is portrayed in
these works as a man of great insight, integrity, self-mastery, and argumentative skill.
While Socrates was alive, he was, as noted, the object of comic ridicule, but most of the plays that make
reference to him are entirely lost or exist only in fragmentary form—Clouds being the chief exception.
Socrates was anti-sophist.
“Sophists” was a philosophical school in the Greek society.
They promoted a corrupted society, namesake democracy, might is right, full of moral corruption.
So, Socrates promoted ideas of Moral virtues against ideas of Sophism. Subsequently, he fell out from
the eyes of the government.

Plato (427-347 BC)


He was a disciple of Socrates and propagated his ideas further.
He was the first western thinker who wrote his works & whose works remained intact.
Socrates only discussed about moral problems whereas Plato discussed Moral as well as worldly
philosophical problems with equal importance. These also included Mathematics, nature etc.
Plato’s Just State: One of the purposes of Plato’s Republic is to put forth a conception of the ‘just state’.
Plato describes how such a state would be organized, who would govern it, what sort of education the
children would have, and so on. He goes into great detail, laying out ideas that may at times strike the modern
reader as wrongheaded, petty, or even immoral.
Philosopher king, idea according to which the best form of government is that in which philosophers rule.
The ideal of a philosopher king was born in Plato’s dialogue Republic as part of the vision of a just city. It was
influential in the Roman Empire and was revived in European political thought in the age of absolutist
monarchs. It has also been more loosely influential in modern political movements claiming infallible ruling
elite.

Aristotle (384-322 BC)


Aristotle was Plato’s best, most gifted & most famous student. He wrote ‘The Politics’ & ‘The
Nicomachean Ethics’ (named after his son, Nicomachus). Apart from values, ethics, politics, he also
focused on many optional subjects like zoology, logic, psychology, botany, astronomy, physics, poetry,
meteorology, economy, metaphysics, rhetoric etc.
He invented technical terms such as – energy, dynamics, induction, demonstration, substance, attribute,
essence, property, accident, category, topic, proposition and universal.
Even the title of the subject ‘Physics’ gets its name from Aristotle’s book with this title.
Aristotle rejected the idea of two worlds. He only gave recognition to this world. Anything beyond the
possibility of experience was nothing for him.
Aristotle gave primacy to Substance to be the binding agent for the cosmos instead of Time &
Location. Substance is something whose definition does not rely on existence of any other thing
besides the substance itself.
For Change & Motion, he emphasized that all changes & motions must have a cause & all causes must
themselves be caused. This Philosophy of his leads to an infinite regress that there would be no first
cause as there must be an antecedent cause for all the causes.
To answer this he says that there must be a First, unmoved, Perfect Cause & mover.

Virtue, Ethics & golden mean


Virtue is a disposition to act in certain ways and not others. Ethics is the highest goal.
We can develop Virtue by practicing it, as a skill.
So, if you live a good life, then you’ve developed the skill(/s) of acting virtuously.
In the book Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle has given ‘Table of Virtues & Vices’

TABLE OF VIRTUES AND VICES


SPHERE OF ACTION
EXCESS MEAN DEFICIENCY
OR FEELING
Fear and Confidence Rashness Courage Cowardice
Licentiousness/Self-
Pleasure and Pain Temperance Insensibility
indulgence
Getting and Spending
Prodigality Liberality Illiberality/Meanness
(minor)
Getting and Spending
Vulgarity/Tastelessness Magnificence Pettiness/Stinginess
(major)
Honour and Dishonour
Vanity Magnanimity Pusillanimity
(major)
Honour and Dishonour Unambitiousness/undue
Ambition/empty vanity Proper ambition/pride
(minor) humility
Lack of spirit/
Anger Irascibility Patience/Good temper
unirascibility
Understatement/mock
Self-expression Boastfulness Truthfulness
modesty
Conversation Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness
Social Conduct Obsequiousness Friendliness Cantankerousness
Shame Shyness Modesty Shamelessness
Malicious enjoyment/
Indignation Envy Righteous indignation
Spitefulness
Immanuel Kant (1724 –1804)
Kant was a German philosopher who is considered the central figure of modern philosophy. Kant argued that
the human mind creates the structure of human experience, that reason is the source of morality, that
aesthetics arises from a faculty of disinterested judgment, that space and time are forms of our sensibility, and
that the world as it is "in-itself" is independent of our concepts of it. Kant took himself to have effected a
Copernican revolution in philosophy, akin to Copernicus' reversal of the age-old belief that the sun revolved
around the earth. His beliefs continue to have a major influence on contemporary philosophy, especially the
fields of metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, political theory, and aesthetics.

Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory .


The theory, developed as a result of Enlightenment rationalism, is based on the view that the only
intrinsically good thing is a good will; an action can only be good if its maxim – the principle behind it – is
duty to the moral law.
Central to Kant's construction of the moral law is the categorical imperative, which acts on all people,
regardless of their interests or desires.
Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways.
His principle of universalisability requires that, for an action to be permissible, it must be possible to
apply it to all people without a contradiction occurring.
His formulation of humanity as an end in itself requires that humans are never treated merely as a
means to an end, but always also as ends in themselves.
The formulation of autonomy concludes that rational agents are bound to the moral law by their own will,
while Kant's concept of the Kingdom of Ends requires that people act as if the principles of their actions
establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom.
Kant also distinguished between perfect and imperfect duties.
A perfect duty, such as the duty not to lie, always holds true; an imperfect duty, such as the duty to give
to charity, can be made flexible and applied in particular time and place.
Indian Moral Thinkers:
Chanakya (4th century BCE)
Chanakya was an Indian teacher, philosopher, economist, jurist and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified
as Kauṭilya or Vishnugupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise, the Arthashastra. As such, he
is considered the pioneer of the field of political science and economics in India, and his work is thought of as
an important precursor to classical economics.
‘Arthashastra’ can be defined as ‘science and art of politics and diplomacy’.
This treatise is divided into sixteen books dealing with virtually every topic concerned with the running of
a state – taxation, law, diplomacy, military strategy, economics, bureaucracy etc.
The book is a masterpiece which covers a wide range of topics like statecraft, politics, strategy, selection
and training of employees, leadership skills, legal systems, accounting systems, taxation, fiscal policies,
civil rules, internal and foreign trade etc.
Arthashastra advocates rational ethic to the conduct of the affairs of the state.
The emphasis is on codification of law and uniformity of law throughout the empire.
In this essay we shall try to explore Kautilya’s views on legal systems, justice and king’s role in
maintaining law and order as discussed in Arthashastra by Kautilya himself.
Kautilya did not view law to be an expression of the free will of the people. Thus sovereignty – the authority to
make laws, did not vest with citizens. Laws were derived from four sources – dharma (scared law), vyavhara
(evidence), charita (history and custom), and rajasasana (edicts of the King). Kautilya prescribe that any
matter of dispute shall be judged according to four bases of justice. These in order of increasing importance
are:
– ‘Dharma’, which is based on truth
– ‘Evidence’, which is based on witnesses
– ‘Custom’, i.e. tradition accepted by the people
– ‘Royal Edicts’, i.e. law as promulgated.
In case of conflict amongst the various laws, dharma was supreme. The ordering of the other laws was case
specific. Rajasasana ordered the relationship between the three major social groupings — the citizen, the
association, and the state.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869 –1948)


Mahatma Gandhi was the preeminent leader of the Indian independence movement in British-ruled India.
Employing nonviolent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for civil
rights and freedom across the world. The honorific Mahatma (Sanskrit: "high-souled", "venerable") applied to
him first in 1914 in South Africa, is now used worldwide.
Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted. Of central importance is nonviolent
resistance. Gandhi dedicated his life to the wider purpose of discovering truth, or Satya. He tried to achieve
this by learning from his own mistakes and conducting experiments on himself.
According to Gandhi, "Poverty is the worst form of violence.

Mahatma Gandhi's Thoughts on Democracy:


Non-violence: Mahatma Gandhi's imagination of the democracy -fully encircled with non-violence -
exists in no nation of the world as up to now. Democracy of his imagination happens to be one, which
does not have any provision of punishment and even an organization like ‘State' happens to be obsolete
in it
Stateless democracy: Gandhi's ideal is a stateless democracy, in which there is a federation of
satyagrahi village communities, functioning on the basis of voluntary cooperation and dignified and
peaceful co-existence. Non-existence of state as cherished by Mahatma Gandhi is impossible instantly
or in near future.
Decentralization and equality: While in the present day democracy, there is a great deal of
centralization and inequality. In a stateless democracy there is decentralization and equality.
Village economy: Gandhiji was again highly centralized production and advocate decentralized
production. The idea was not to do away entirely with machinery as such, but to prevent the
concentration of power in the hand of few rich.
Swaraj: Gandhian concept of Self Rule means Swaraj is real democracy, where people's power rests in
the individuals and each one realizes that he or she is the real master of one's self. Thus people are
sovereign in a democracy but in a parliamentary democracy, party system has a vital role to play.
Sarvodaya is a Sanskrit term meaning 'universal uplift' or 'progress of all'. The term was used by
Mahatma Gandhi as the title of his 1908 translation of John Ruskin's tract on political economy, Unto
This Last, and Gandhi came to use the term for the ideal of his own political philosophy.
Although inspired by Ruskin, the term would for Gandhi come to stand for a political ideal of his own
stamp. The ideal which Gandhi strove to put into practice in his ashrams was, he hoped, one that he
could persuade the whole of India to embrace, becoming a light to the other nations of the world. The
Gandhian social ideal encompassed the dignity of labor, an equitable distribution of wealth, communal
self-sufficiency and individual freedom.
Seven Sins: Mahatma Gandhi said that seven things will destroy us. Notice that all of them have to do
with social and political conditions. Note also that the antidote of each of these "deadly sins" is an explicit
external standard or something that is based on natural principles and laws, not on social values.
Wealth without Work
Pleasure without Conscience
Knowledge without Character
Commerce (Business) Without Morality (Ethics)
Science without Humanity
Religion without Sacrifice
Politics without Principle

Amartya Sen: (1933-)


Amartya Sen is a Bengali Indian economist and philosopher.Sen has made contributions to welfare
economics, social choice theory, economic and social justice, economic theories of famines, and indexes of
the measure of well-being of citizens of developing countries. He was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in
Economic Sciences in 1998 and Bharat Ratna in 1999 for his work in welfare economics.
He argues that economic development entails a set of linked freedoms:
political freedoms and transparency in relations between people
freedom of opportunity, including freedom to access credit; and
economic protection from abject poverty, including through income supplements and unemployment
relief.
A state of poverty will generally be characterised by lack of at least one freedom (Sen uses the term
unfreedom for lack of freedom), including a de facto lack of political rights and choice, vulnerability to coercive
relations, and exclusion from economic choices and protections. From this, Sen concludes that real
development cannot be reduced to simply increasing basic incomes, nor to rising average per capita incomes.
Rather, it requires a package of overlapping mechanisms that progressively enable the exercise of a growing
range of freedoms.
Sen views free markets as an essential method of achieving freedom. His work has been criticized by those
who claim that capitalism and especially neo-liberal capitalism reinforce unfreedoms.

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