Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 44–49

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Texting/iPod dependence, executive function and sleep quality

in college students
F.R. Ferraro a,⇑, B. Holfeld b, S. Frankl a, N. Frye a, N. Halvorson a
a
University of North Dakota, United States
b
University of Victoria, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Participants were classified as ‘‘good’’ sleepers (n = 70) or ‘‘poor’’ sleepers (n = 66) based on the Pittsburgh
Available online 9 March 2015 Sleep Quality Index (PSQI; Buysee, Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, 1989). Differences between good
and poor sleepers were examined on executive function, texting and iPod dependence, depression, and
Keywords: anxiety. Poor sleepers reported higher levels of depression, higher levels of state and trait anxiety, greater
Texting texting dependence and iPod dependence, and poorer executive function performance, as compared to
iPod good sleepers. Poor sleep quality among college students may contribute to a range of negative psycho-
Psychological health
logical, neuropsychological, and social consequences.
Executive function
Sleep quality
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Texting/iPod dependence, executive function and sleep
quality in college students
Poor sleep quality is a common problem among college stu-
dents (Byrd et al., 2014; Gellis, Park, Stotsky & Taylot, 2015;
Shochat, Cohen-Zion, & Tzischinsky, 2014; White, Buboltz, &
Igou, 2011) and has been linked to a host of negative outcomes
including poor psychological health (e.g., anxiety, depression)
and decreased academic performance (Do, Shin, Bautista, & Foo,
2013; Lund, Reider, Whiting, & Prichard, 2010; Telzer, Fuligni,
Lieberman, & Galvan, 2013). However, the impact of sleep quality
on technology use among college students is not completely
understood and is necessary as technology continues to develop
and become a larger part of our society. For example, text messag-
ing is one of the most popular methods for college students to stay
connected with their friends at any time of the day or night
(Derbyshire et al., 2013). As the average number of text messages
that are sent and received increases, along with increases in cell
phone usage, concern from medical and psychological profession-
als is also growing (Sansone & Sansone, 2013). Accumulating
research suggests that greater dependence on texting and other
forms of technology (e.g., iPod usage) can negatively impact college
students’ behavior and psychological functioning (Ferraro,
Wunderlich, Wyrobek, & Weivoda, 2014; Ferraro et al., 2012;
Sansone & Sansone, 2013).
⇑ Corresponding author at: Dept. Psychology, Univ. North Dakota, Grand Forks,
ND 58202, United States. Tel.: +1 701 777 2414 (O); fax: +1 701 777 3454.
E-mail address: f.richard.ferraro@email.und.edu (F.R. Ferraro).
1.1. Texting and iPod dependence
A shortened version of the self-perception of text messaging
dependency scale (SPTMDS; Igarashi, Motoyoshi, Takai, &
Yoshida, 2008) has been used frequently to assess individual’s tex-
ting dependency. The instrument includes four subscales that
assess sensitive responses to text messages, self-perception about
compulsive usage of text messaging, fear of disrupting relation-
ships without text messaging, and psychological/behavioral symp-
toms concerning the heavy usage of text messaging. Using this
scale with a sample of Japanese high school students, Igarashi
et al. (2008) found that texting self-perception and texting depen-
dence was associated with compulsive use of texting, inability to
control texting behavior, and neglect and isolation from friends
who do not immediately respond to their text messages. In turn,
this may lead to increases in anxiety about being ostracized.
More recently, Ferraro et al. (2012) found that higher scores on
each of the four subscales of the SPTMDS were associated with
higher levels of anxiety (e.g., state and trait) and depression among
204 college students. These researchers also found a negative asso-
ciation between SPTMDS scores and a global measure of executive
function, the Executive Function Index (EFI; Spinella, 2005).
Ferraro and colleagues concluded that the increased dependence
on texting appeared to disrupt basic emotional, behavioral, and
psychological processes. However, the impact of this dependency
on sleep quality is unclear and may shed further light on the nega-
tive consequences associated with texting dependency. It is also
possible that increases in texting and the need to stay connected
with friends may also contribute to sleep deficiencies.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.043
0747-5632/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F.R. Ferraro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 44–49
The usage of iPods have also grown dramatically over the past
decade such that college students now listen to their iPod more
than traditional radio (Ferguson, Greer, & Reardon, 2007). Like tex-
ting, it is believed that iPod usage can result in a similar form of
dependence and may relate to problems in hearing (Danhauer
et al., 2009). However, little attention has been given to examine
the potential negative effects associated with iPod dependence.
One exception is a study by Ferraro et al. (2014) who used a mod-
ified version of the SPTMDS (i.e., iPod usage substituted for text
messaging) and found that iPod dependence was not only common
in college students but was positively associated with texting
dependence. Moreover, the researchers found that higher levels
of texting and iPod dependence were related to higher levels of
anxiety and depression. Since texting and iPod dependence are
related, it may also be the case that some aspects of executive
function may be negatively impacted by increases in iPod
dependence.
1.2. Technology and sleep quality
These are important issues because technological advances are
occurring more rapidly in our society and are having more negative
impacts in the social lives of individuals, especially as it relates to
individual’s everyday functioning including their sleep quality. For
instance, shorter overall sleep duration and excessive Internet
usage has been shown to dramatically (and negatively) impact
measures of health (e.g., depression, suicidal ideation, obesity),
suggesting a link between poor sleep quality and psychological
functioning (Do et al., 2013). Furthermore, shorter sleep duration
has been referred to as a form of social jet lag, resulting in poor
sleep quality, fatigue, poor academic achievement and many
behavioral and social problems (Touitou, 2013). It is also important
to realize that while technology (in the form of social media,
texting, etc.) can hinder behavior, it can also be used to reduce
sleepiness and improve performance (Teixeira et al., 2013).
1.3. The current study
The current study extends past research with a more compre-
hensive examination of the impact of poor sleep quality on college
students’ behavior and psychological functioning. We know that
texting and iPod usage is high among college students and is
negatively related to psychological (e.g., anxiety and depression)
and executive functioning. How texting and iPod dependence are
impacted by sleep quality has not been empirically examined,
although specific predictions can be made based on past research.
Specifically, if texting and/or iPod dependence is high, and that
continues to negatively tax executive function, one would expect
a difference between ‘‘good’’ and ‘‘poor’’ sleepers (as defined by
scores on the PSQI), such that good sleepers would outperform
poor sleepers across a number of psychological domains. That is,
good sleepers were expected to reported lower levels of depression
and state/trait anxiety, higher levels of executive function, and
report lower dependence on texting and iPod usage compared with
poor sleepers.
2. Method
2.1. Participants and procedure
Participants included 136 college students (Mage = 19.0 years of
age, SD = 1.08, range = 18–21; n = 55 males) from a Midwestern
University who participated in the study in exchange for extra
credit in their psychology classes. All participants first read and
signed an informed consent form. Next, participants were given a
45
background information questionnaire that asked general demo-
graphic information (e.g., education level, self-rated health,
medications taken, etc.) followed by a packet of questionnaires
that included the measures described below. The entire experi-
ment lasted 60 min and all participants were thoroughly debriefed
as to the purpose of the experiment upon completion. The study
was approved by the University’s Institutional Review Board (IRB).
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Sleep quality
Participants’ self-reported quality and patterns of sleep was
assessed using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI; Buysee,
Reynolds, Monk, Berman, & Kupfer, 1989). Consistent with past
research (Carney, Edinger, Meyer, Lindman, & Istre, 2006; Clegg-
Kraynok et al., 2011) participants were classified as either ‘‘good’’
or ‘‘poor’’ sleepers based on their responses to seven domains of
sleep behaviors including sleep quality, sleep latency, sleep dura-
tion, habitual sleep efficiency, sleep disturbances, use of sleep
medication, and daytime sleep over the past month. Scores in each
domain ranged from 0 (not during the past month) to 3 (three or
more times per week) with higher scores reflecting greater distur-
bances in sleep quality (a = .83). Responses to each item were
summed with scores of 0–5 representing ‘‘good’’ sleepers (n = 70)
and scores of 6 or more representing ‘‘poor’’ sleepers (n = 66).
2.2.2. Texting dependence
Participants’ self-reported perceptions of their text messaging
behavior were assessed using the self-report Self-Perceptions of
Text Messaging Dependency Scale (SPTMDS; Igarashi et al.,
2008). The SPTMDS includes four subscales with five-items each
that assessed particular aspects of text messaging behavior.
Emotional Reaction (e.g., ‘‘I feel disappointed if I don’t get a reply
to my text message immediately’’), Excessive Use (e.g., ‘‘I spend
many hours on text messages’’), and Disruption of Relationships
(e.g., ‘‘I can’t form any new relationships without using text mes-
sages’’) that were rated on a Likert-type scale that ranged from 1
(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The final subscale,
Psychological/Behavior Symptoms was related to heavy texting
usage (e.g., ‘‘I sometimes worry that life would be boring and emp-
ty without text messages’’) and was rated on a Likert-type scale
that ranged from 1 (not true at all) to 5 (extremely true). Higher
scores on each subscale represented higher levels of texting depen-
dency (a range .70 to .85).
2.2.3. iPod dependence
A modified self-report iPod version of the SPTMDS (Igarashi
et al. (2008) was used to assess participants’ level of iPod usage.
The same four subscales of the SPTMDS with five-items each and
equivalent response options were used. The only difference was
that the ‘‘iPod’’ was substituted with ‘‘text messages’’ for each item.
Higher scores on each subscale reflected greater iPod dependency
(a = .79)
2.2.4. Depression
Similar to past research among college students, participants’
overall level of depression was examined using the self-report
Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form (Holfeld, Cicha, & Ferraro,
2014). The GDS-SF contains 15 dichotomous items that asked par-
ticipants about their feelings over the past week (e.g., ‘‘Are you in
good spirits most of the time?’’). ‘‘Yes’’ responses were summed to
create an overall level of mood for each participant in which higher
scores represented higher levels of depressive symptoms. Score of
5 of higher were indicative of probable depression.
46 F.R. Ferraro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 44–49
2.2.5. State/trait anxiety
Participants’ self-reported level of state/trait anxiety was
assessed using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI;
Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1983). Considerable evidence
attests to the construct and concurrent validity of the scale
(Spielberger et al., 1983). The State scale was comprised of 20-
items that asked respondents about their current emotional state
(e.g., ‘‘How are you feeling right now?’’). Participants’ rated each
item on a scale that ranged from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much
so). The Trait scale contained 20 items that asked respondents
about their typical emotional state (e.g., ‘‘How do you generally
feel?’’). Participants’ rated each item on a scale that ranged from
1 (almost never) to 4 (almost always). Higher scores indicate higher
levels of state and/or trait anxiety (a = .86 for state, a = .95 for
Trait).
2.2.6. Executive function
Participants’ self-reported level of executive function was
assessed using the 27-item Executive Function Index (EFI;
Spinella, 2005).The EFI has demonstrated good internal consisten-
cy (a = .82) and good convergent validity with other self-report
measures of executive function such as the Frontal Systems
Behavior Scale (FrSBe), the Barrat Impulsiveness Scale (BIS), and
the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). In addition to measuring
participant’s overall level of executive function, the EFI contained
5 subscales that were used to assess specific aspects of par-
ticipants’ executive function: motivational drive (four-items),
impulse control (five-items), empathy (six-items), organization
(five-items), and strategic planning (seven-items). Participants
were asked to rate each item in the EFI on a scale from 1 (not at
all) to 5 (very much so). After reverse scoring the negatively worded
items, an overall level of executive function was created by sum-
ming up the responses for each item so that higher scores repre-
sented higher overall levels of executive function. Similarly,
higher scores on each of the EFI subscales represented higher levels
of executive function on each respective scale (a range = .55 to .74).
2.2.7. Vocabulary
Participants’ knowledge and comprehension was assessed using
35 vocabulary items taken from the vocabulary subtest of the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Revised (WAIS-R; Wechsler,
1981). Each item was scored on a range from 0 (i.e., incorrect), 1
(i.e., demonstrated partial knowledge of the item), and 2 (i.e., correct)
based on the accuracy of the response (Wechsler, 1981). Since the
vocabulary subtest is strongly associated with overall intelligence,
higher scores on the subscale reflected higher levels of intelligence
(Thompson, 1987).
2.2.8. Speed of processing
The Crossing Off test (Botwinick & Storandt, 1973) was used to
assess participants’ processing speed. Participants were given a
sheet of paper (8.5  11 in.) with 96 horizontal lines (12 rows of
8). They were told to make a vertical or diagonal mark across each
horizontal line as fast as possible and work from left to right one
row after another. This test was scored by counting up the number
of lines crossed per second. A maximum of 3 min were given to
complete the task. The more lines crossed out, the faster the
response time.
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 provides the correlations between all study variables.
Age and gender did not correlate with many of the study variables.
PSQI correlated positively with both depression and anxiety, as
well as with many of the iPod, texting and executive function
variables.
Participants were classified as ‘‘good’’ and ‘‘poor’’ sleepers based
on their PSQI score. A total of 70 participants scored between 0 and
5 on the PSQI and were categorized as ‘‘good’’ sleepers (M = 3.73,
SD = 1.12). Alternatively, 66 participants scored between 6 and
16 on the PSQI and were categorized as ‘‘poor’’ sleepers
(M = 7.98, SD = 2.33). The difference between ‘‘good’’ and ‘‘poor’’
sleepers regarding their PSQI scores was significant,
F(1, 134) = 187.92, p < .001.
3.2. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA)
MANOVAs were used to examine differences between good and
poor sleepers on their behavior and psychological functioning (see
Table 2). Our 23 measures listed in Table 1 were grouped into 5
categories which included demographic (Self-Rated Health, #
medications, vocabulary, processing speed), psychological (depres-
sion, state and trait anxiety), iPod (iPod 1–4, iPod Total), texting
(Text 1–4; Text Total) and executive function (EFI 1–5, EFI Total)
to reduce the total number of comparisons to be made. Similar
constructs were grouped together and were validated by the corre-
lation estimates between items within each grouping. A Bonferroni
corrections table was consulted for calculations of the critical F val-
ue using 130 degrees of freedom and 3, 4, 5, and 6 simultaneous
comparisons.
Good and poor sleepers did not differ on any of the four demo-
graphic measures (critical F value = 6.42 for 4 comparisons). For
the three psychological measures (critical F value = 5.88 for 3 com-
parisons), poor sleepers reported higher levels of depression, and
higher levels of state and trait anxiety than good sleepers. For
the iPod dependence scale (critical F value = 6.83 for 5 compar-
isons), poor sleepers reported higher iPod dependence scores on
all four iPod subscales (iPod 1–4) and a higher iPod dependence
total score as compared to the good sleepers. Good and poor sleep-
ers differed significantly on iPod Total score. Poor sleepers reported
higher texting dependence scores on all four texting dependence
subscales and reported a higher texting dependence total score
(critical F value = 6.83 for 5 comparisons). Good and poor sleepers
differed significantly on texting total score. Finally, poor sleepers
reported lower scores on all 5 EFI subscales and also reported a
lower EFI total score (critical F value = 7.18 for 6 comparisons), as
compared to good sleepers. Poor sleepers reported poorer EFI per-
formance on the EFI-4 subscale and the EFI Total score, as com-
pared to good sleepers.
4. Discussion
The present study investigated the role of sleep quality in col-
lege students’ behavior and psychological functioning.
Participants were categorized as good or poor sleepers using the
PSQI and compared across a range of demographic, psychological,
and technology related factors. Overall, poor sleepers reported
decreased levels of functioning including higher depression and
anxiety (state and trait) scores, greater overall texting and iPod
dependence, and poorer overall executive functioning compared
to good sleepers.
The findings highlight the negative impact of poor sleep quality
among college students and are consistent with recent studies that
demonstrated negative behavioral and psychological consequences
of poor sleep quality among adolescents and college students
(Lund et al., 2010; Shocat et al., 2014; Telzer et al., 2013). It also
extends the work of Ferraro et al. (2012) and Ferraro et al. (2014)
by showing that poor sleep quality is associated with greater
 F.R. Ferraro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 44–49 47

Table 1
Correlations.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 Age – .01 .01 .05 .02 .27 .07 .14 .12 .01 .01 .12 .06 .04
2 Gender – – .22 .01 .17 .06 .04 .04 .09 .04 .02 .03 .08 .03
3 SRH – – – .11 .06 .06 .18 .13 .16 .01 .02 .03 .01 .01
4 #Meds – – – – .05 .01 .08 .15 .05 .03 .10 .05 .08 .08
5 Intelligence – – – – – .04 .11 .11 .02 .06 .01 .03 .03 .00
6 Processing Speed – – – – – – .03 .17 .14 .12 .02 .01 .03 .04
7 Depression – – – – – – – .49 .72 .18 .09 .04 .10 .12
8 State – – – – – – – – .67 .17 .13 .03 .18 .17
9 Trait – – – – – – – – – .29 .16 .11 .26 .27
10 iPod 1 – – – – – – – – – – .58 .37 .61 .85
11 iPod 2 – – – – – – – – – – – .34 .56 .83
12 iPod 3 – – – – – – – – – – – – .41 .61
13 iPod 4 – – – – – – – – – – – – – .83
14 iPod Total – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
15 Text 1 .05 .18 .02 .08 .08 .07 .23 .31 .35 .26 .16 .09 .36 .29
16 Text 2 .04 .29 .05 .11 .16 .07 .01 .15 .12 .01 .16 .19 .07 .04
17 Text 3 .18 .07 .00 .14 .10 .04 .12 .27 .24 .21 .24 .27 .31 .32
18 Text 4 .12 .13 .01 .06 .13 .04 .12 .22 .24 .11 .06 .19 .21 .17
19 Text Total .16 .15 .00 .12 .18 .05 .18 .35 .35 .14 .23 .12 .34 .27
20 EFI 1 .00 .11 .21 .17 .13 .01 .55 .34 .49 .11 .01 .11 .11 .09
21 EFI 2 .08 .13 .03 .19 .01 .06 .16 .17 .16 .13 .18 .12 .18 .19
22 EFI 3 .05 .16 .18 .12 .02 .01 .10 .14 .11 .04 .06 .18 .13 .11
23 EFI 4 .11 .13 .16 .07 .09 .07 .32 .18 .29 .27 .14 .15 .24 .26
24 EFI 5 .06 .06 .20 .12 .05 .01 .28 .24 .27 .24 .10 .11 .24 .22
25 EFIT .08 .14 .19 .18 .04 .01 .40 .32 .39 .25 .15 .21 .25 .27
26 PSQI .03 .10 .21 .10 .05 .08 .37 .32 .42 .24 .17 .07 .07 .18
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
15 Text 1 – .36 .19 .29 .68 .13 .15 .12 .10 .20 .20 .05
16 Text 2 – – .17 .25 .68 .07 .21 .02 .01 .18 .13 .12
17 Text 3 – – – .39 .64 .16 .08 .09 .07 .15 .16 .03
18 Text 4 – – – – .69 .11 .15 .07 .05 .04 .15 .08
19 TextT – – – – – .16 .25 .12 .10 .23 .27 .11
20 EFI 1 – – – – – – .09 .36 .27 .30 .57 .13
21 EFI 2 – – – – – – – .21 .33 .31 .61 .24
22 EFI 3 – – – – – – – – .18 .42 .66 .05
23 EFI 4 – – – – – – – – – .44 .67 .28
24 EFI 5 – – – – – – – – – – .74 .19
25 EFIT – – – – – – – – – – – .28
26 PSQI – – – – – – – – – – – –

Note: iPod Total indicates iPod Dependence Scale total score; Text Total indicates Texting Dependence Scale total score; EFI indicates Executive Function Index; PSQI indicates
Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; p < .05; p < .01.

texting and iPod dependence and poorer overall executive function
performance among college students (see also Byrd et al., 2014; Do
et al., 2013; Gellis et al., 2015; Touitou, 2013; White et al., 2011). It
also extends work by Anderson (2001) who showed that Internet
use negatively affected sleep patterns in college students (Do
et al., 2013; Touitou, 2013). Likewise, our results are consistent
with recent work by Adams and Kisler (2013) who showed that
sleep quality was a mediator between technology usage (texting,
phone calls) after the onset of sleep and the rise in depression
and anxiety. Derbyshire et al. (2013) have also shown that moder-
ate to severe Internet usage was associated with lower GPA, less
frequent exercise, more depressive symptoms and higher stress.
Clearly, staying connected to various social media (texting, iPod,
Internet) adversely impacts a broad range of social, psychological,
and behavioral domains in college students, resulting in a range
of associated problems in the short- and long-term. These issues
are especially relevant to college students, as the vast majority of
them are connected to the Internet and various other social media,
on what often seems like a 24/7 time frame (Derbyshire et al.,
2013), even interrupting sleep and other necessary activities (e.g.,
eating, hygiene, performing school work, non-academic work) to
continually participate (Adams & Kisler, 2013). While a later school
start time (as little as 25 min) has shown promise with regard to
alleviating some of the sleep problems associated with adolescents
and college students (Boergers, Gable, & Owens, 2014; Lund et al.,
2010), a more integrated approach which requires college students
to set limits and boundaries on their social media usage may be in
order (Adams & Kisler, 2013). For instance, Teixeira et al. (2013)
has shown that newer technologies (bright light therapy) can
reduce sleepiness in college students, thereby increasing their
sleep quality. In turn, this increase in sleep quality would poten-
tially result in a reversal of the many negative behaviors and con-
ditions that often accompany individuals who exhibit poor sleep
quality. Our data and those of others clearly show the downside
regarding the lack of adequate sleep quality across a wide range
of activities and behaviors.
4.1. Limitations and conclusions
While our results are both unique and troubling, there are some
shortcomings in the present study that need to be addressed. First,
our design was cross-sectional and a cause and effect relationship
with sleep quality and our selected variables could not be deter-
mined. Longitudinal studies conducted over multiple semesters
48 F.R. Ferraro et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 49 (2015) 44–49

Table 2 of the last week, while some questionnaires had no temporal

Descriptive Statistics of good and poor sleepers. window).
Measure Good Poor df F p Power Despite these shortcomings, our study expanded on past
Self-Rated Health 2.30 (.77) 2.50 (.73) 1134 2.42 .12 .268 research to demonstrate the combined impact of sleep quality on
(M(SD)) social media dependence and executive function. Clearly, college
# Meds. .81 (.98) 1.09 1132 2.67 .105 .312 students in our sample who are experimentally defined as poor
(1.02) sleepers are suffering from a range of psychological (depression,
Intelligence 43.57 42.09 1134 .71 .40 .125
(10.60) (9.82)
anxiety), neuropsychological (executive function) and social media
Speed of 46.09 45.33 1134 .09 .77 .073 dependence issues (texting and iPod dependence). Collectively,
Processing (15.32) (15.06) these experiences may be particularly detrimental to the academic
Depression 1.06 2.39 1134 14.44 .00 .948 performance of college students. As Shochat et al. (2014) highlight,
(1.45) (2.54)
interventions need to be developed and implemented that aid col-
State Anxiety 28.77 34.71 1134 18.75 .00 .989
(6.72) (9.16) lege students suffering from poor sleep to promote more healthy
Trait Anxiety 32.73 40.08 1134 21.38 .00 .993 sleep patterns and practices.
(8.35) (10.14)
iPod 1 9.74 11.48 1134 5.93 .016 .657
(3.88) (4.46)
iPod 2 10.46 12.30 1134 6.60 .01 .729
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