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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 980789

Modelling the Influence of Fuel

Injection Parameters on Diesel Engine
Emissions
D. K. Mather, R. D. Reitz
University of Wisconsin-Madison

International Congress and Exposition

Detroit, Michigan
February 23-26, 1998

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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980789
Modeling the In uence of Fuel
Injection Parameters on Diesel Engine
Emissions
D. K. Mather and R. D. Reitz
Engine Research Center,

University of Wisconsin-Madison

Abstract to improve engine performance. Zolver et al.[1] 1 success-

Rate shaping of the fuel injection process is known to signif-
icantly impact emissions production in diesel engines. To
demonstrate the ability of multidimensional engine model-
ing to quantify and explain the eect of rate shaping and in-
fully used 3-dimensional modeling to help assess the eects
of piston bowl shape for a turbo-charged direct-injected
diesel engine. Some other recent examples of the applica-
tion of multidimensional modeling to the understanding of
direct injected diesel engines include the study of Han et
jection duration, three injection proles typical of common al. [2] where multidimensional modeling was employed to
diesel fuel injection systems were investigated for three in- identify the mechanism by which pulsed fuel injection is
jection durations and injection timings. The present study able to reduce soot while maintaining low NOx . Senecal
uses an improved version of the KIVA-II engine simulation
code employing the characteristic time combustion model,
the Kelvin-Helmholtz and the Rayleigh-Taylor spray atom-
ization mechanisms, the extended Zeldovich thermal NOx
ow. Another aspect of the study of Senecal et al.
production model, and a single species soot model. To-
et al. [3] explained the benets on combustion and emis-
sions of a novel engine design utilizing many fuel injectors
directed tangentially to the piston bowl in order to induce
swirling
[3] was to use the detailed information about the location of
gether, these models satisfactorily reproduce the known soot from their simulation to propose modications to the
trends in engine behavior with respect to injection rate combustion chamber geometry. The benets of the modi-
shaping and injection duration for a representative high- ed engine geometries were demonstratead by simulation.
load high-speed operating condition at a xed fueling rate;
namely, increased NOx with decreased injection duration;
uence of injection characteristics on diesel
decreased soot production with decreased injection dura-
tion. At high injection pressures, the falling injection pro-
In the present work multidimensional modeling is used to
explore the in
engine performance and emissions. The results could be
useful to suggest injection parameters for improved engine
le produces more NOx and less soot than either the square performance.
or rising injection prole. The rising injection prole pro-
duces more soot and less NOx than the square prole. The
computational results are also used to explain the origin Model Description
of anomalous soot-NOx tradeo trends where soot minima
are seen as the injection timing is varied. The numerical calculations were performed using a mod-
Introduction
In a compression ignition engine the injection velocity, du-
ration, and timing in
uence the atomization, vaporization,
mixing, distribution, and combustion of the injected fuel.
These injection characteristics dominate the ignition be-
havior, emission levels, and power output of a particular
engine. As pollutant emission regulations have become
more stringent it has become increasingly more dicult
to meet emission targets with an economical and ecient
engine. One of the tools that is becoming more useful
for investigating engine phenomena is multidimensional en-
gine modeling. These models are able to reproduce the
global behavior of the engine (e.g., pressure, heat release,
engine-out emissions) and provide insight into the under-
lying causes and mechanisms responsible for the trends to
increase our understanding of diesel engines.
There has been much progress in using CFD modeling
ied version of the KIVA-II code [4] with improvements
for the turbulence, gas-to-wall heat transfer, ignition, and
combustion models as described in Han et al. [2] A recently
improved soot model and spray model were also included.
The models used in the present study are summarized be-
low.
Ignition Model
In the study of Kong and Reitz [5], the `Shell' auto-
ignition model [6] was adapted for diesel ignition and imple-
mented into KIVA-II. This model introduces three generic
species with reactions to represent hydrocarbon ignition.
The eight reactions comprising this model are given below:
Initiation:
RH + O2 ! 2R (1)
1 Numbers in brackets denote References listed at the end of the
paper.
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Propagation: accurate predictions of combustion heat release. A sim-

R ! R + P (2) plication that had been previously made is that c;i was
R ! R + B (3) assumed to be constant for all of the six reactive species
considered: fuel, O2 , H2 O, H2 , CO , CO2 . The basic
R ! R + Q (4) assumption in the above formulation is that chemical re-
R + Q ! R + B (5) actions and mixing processes are identical for each of the
species. In a more general case for the six species and three
Branching: atom-balance system, it can be shown that each species
B ! 2R (6) approaches its respective equilibrium density at a rate de-
Linear Termination: termined by one of three distinct characteristic times [10].
According to the present characteristic time combustion
R ! non-reactive species (7) model, the rates of change for the densities of fuel, CO,
and H2 are given by
Quadratic Termination:
@fuel = , fuel , fuel (12)
2R ! non-reactive species (8) @t c;fuel
where RH and P are the hydrocarbon and the products of @CO = , CO , CO (13)
combustion, respectively. The generic ignition species are @t c;CO
R , B and Q which represent the radical formed from the
fuel, the branching agent, and a labile intermediate species, @H2 = , H2 , H2 (14)
respectively. In the present implementation, the heats of @t c;H2
formation of the generic species are neglected. Thus, the Then, the rates of change of the species CO2 , H2 O , and
only reactions that consume or produce thermal energy are O2 can be determined from the atom conservation equa-
Eqs. 1 and 2. tions,
It has been found that the formation rate of the labile
species, Q, of Eq. 4 is the rate limiting step in the kinetic @CO2 = , @CO , n @fuel (15)
path. The formation rate of Q is given by @t @t @t
rateQ;formation = f4 Kp (9) @H2 O = , @H2 , (n + 1) @fuel (16)
@t @t @t
where  ,E 
f4 = Af 04 exp f4 x4 y4  
<T [O2 ] [R] (10) @O2 = 1 @CO + 1 @H2 + 3n + 1 @fuel (17)
@t 2 @t 2 @t 2 @t
and Ef 4 = 3:0  104 , x4 = ,1 , y4 = 0:35 , and the
rate Kp is given by Theobald and Cheng [7] and Kong where n indicates the carbon atom number of a straight
et al. [8]. The sensitivity of the ignition delay to the Q chained hydrocarbon fuel molecule.
formation rate was investigated by Theobald and Cheng In the standard implementation of the characteristic
[7] who found that the total delay is sensitive to the pre- time combustion model, the characteristic time, c;i is the
exponential factor Af 04 . The value used in this present same for all species and is the sum of a turbulent-mixing
study is 6:5  105 which is similar to that used by Kong et time-scale and a laminar chemical-kinetics time-scale given
al [8]. by
Combustion Model c = c;i = laminar + fturbulent (18)
Combustion was simulated using the characteristic time In the multiple time-scale combustion model a similar
combustion model, initially developed for spark ignited en- formulation is used where the time-scales for CO and H2
gines by Abraham et al. [9] and adapted to diesel combus- conversion are assumed to be 10% of the fuel time-scale
tion by Kong et al. [8], [10].
In Eq. 18, the longer of the two time-scales has more
@i = , i , i (11) of an in uence on the conversion rate. The laminar time-
@t c;i scale for diesel combustion is based on a correlation for the
where i is the local instantaneous thermodynamic equi- laminar ame speed of a single burning fuel droplet given
librium value of the species' partial density [10] assuming by
that the local temperature remains constant, and c;i is the  
characteristic time for the ith species to reach that equilib- laminar = A [Cn H2n+2 ] 4 [O2 ], 2 exp <ET
3 3
(19)
rium density. The computations were limited to only the
major chemical species, whose inclusion is necessary for

2
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where A = 1:625  10,11 is a model constant, < is the Emissions Models

universal gas constant, and E = 30; 000cal=mole is the
activation energy [8].
Kuo and Reitz [11] studied the eect of residual gas
concentration on the laminar characteristic time in com-
putations of 2-stroke engine combustion with high levels
of residual gases and high EGR rates. They found that
the laminar characteristic time increases with residual gas
concentration. This eect was accounted for by dividing
the pre-exponential constant, A in Eq. 19 by a correction
factor, CF , given by
CF = 1:27 (1 , 2:1)
where  is the residual mass fraction (i.e.,  = massresidual
THERMAL NOx : The current approach to modeling NOx
emissions from diesel engines is to use the extended Zel-
dovich thermal NO mechanism and neglect other sources
of NOx formation. When comparing to experimental NOx
data, a scaling factor equal to the ratio of molecular weights
of NO and NO2 is applied to the NO predictions. The
extended Zeldovich mechanism consists of the following
mechanisms, as described by Bowman [13]:
O + N2 $ NO + N (24)
(20) N + O2 $ NO + O (25)
N + OH $ NO + H (26)
/ masstotal .) This modication was chosen to be consis- with the concentrations of H , OH , and O determined from
tent with Metghalchi and Keck's correlation [12] for the
retarding eect of residual mass fraction on laminar
ame O + OH $ O2 + H (27)
speed and is adopted in the present study.
The turbulent time-scale, turbulent , is assumed to be and assuming equilibrium. The concentration of N is as-
linearly proportional to the turn-over time of the charac- sumed to be at steady state (i.e., @N=@t = 0) in the rate
teristic turbulent eddy. For the k ,  type of turbulence equations resulting from the Zeldovich mechanism. This
model, the eddy turn-over time is the quotient of the tur- mechanism can be rewritten as an explicit expression for
bulent kinetic energy, k, and the turbulent dissipation rate, the rate of change of the concentration of NO [14]:
, and the turbulent time-scale becomes 0 1
@ [NO] = 2k [O][N ] @ 1 , K12[NO ] 2
[O2 ][N2] A (28)
turbulent = C2 k @t 1f 2 b [NO ]
(21) 1 + k2f [Ok21]+ k3f [OH ]
where C2 = 0:1 is a model constant [8]. where K12 = k1f =k1b  k2f =k2b , and the subscripts 1,2 and
Finally the function f that appears in Eq. 18 is a delay 3 refer to Eqs. 24, 25, and 26 ,respectively. The recom-
coecient, that was found essential for adapting the char- mended rate constants are given by Bowman [13]:
acteristic time combustion model to diesel engines, given ,
k1f = 7:6  1013exp ,38T;000


by (29)
k1b = 1:6  1013
f = 11 , e,
(22)
,

k2f = 6:4  109Texp , ,3T;150

, e,1 k2b = 1:5  109 Texp ,19T;500 (30)
where
is a progress variable for the chemical reactions,
equal to the ratio of the mole fraction of combustion prod- k3f = 1:0  1014 ,
(31)
ucts to the total mole fraction of reacting species, k3b = 2:0  1014exp ,23T;650

= 1Y,COY2 ;R + Y+HY2 O;R + +YCO;R + YH2 ;R (23) SOOT FORMATION : Hiroyasu et al. [15] developed a
CO2 ;r H2 O;r YCO;r + YH2 ;r simple soot model which was later applied to multidimen-
where the subscripts R and r indicate whether the source of sional diesel combustion by Belardini et al. [16]. The
the chemical species is either chemical reaction or residual model predicts the soot mass production rate, @Ms =@t, by
gas, respectively. a single-step reaction composed of a soot formation rate,
Physically, f accounts for
uid that is already mixed Msf , and a soot oxidation rate, Mso , according to
on a large scale comparable to the turbulent scales, and @Ms = M , M
mixing on the molecular level that is responsible for the sf so (32)
laminar
ame speed. Early in the combustion, the chemi- @t
cal time-scale is dominated by the laminar time-scale. As The Arrhenius formation rate is proportional to the fuel
the reactions progress, more products of combustion are vapor mass, Mfv , given by
present and the chemical time-scale becomes dominated Msf = Kf Mfv (33)
by the turbulent time-scale. Without f , the characteristic
time combustion model is not able to capture the premixed where the formation coecient is a function of both pres-
portion of diesel combustion adequately. sure and temperature
 ,E 
Kf = Asf P exp
1
2
sf (34)
<T
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with Esf = 12500, and Asf is a model constant. We is the Weber number for the gas (We = g u2r r0 =) with
ur the relative velocity between the gas and the drop, and
SOOT OXIDATION : The Hiroyasu soot model has been p is the surface tension. Z is the Ohnesorge number (Z =
modied in the present study by employing the Nagle Strick- Wel =Rel), where Wel is the Weber number based
p on the
land - Constable (NSC) soot oxidation model. In this liquid density. T is the Taylor number (T = Z We.)
model, soot oxidation occurs by two surface reaction mech- The breakup time,  , is tted to two regimes: bag
anisms: at more reactive `A' sites and at less reactive `B' breakup at low We, and stripping breakup at high We.
sites. Three reaction equations are formulated to describe The breakup time is expressed as
the oxidation process with the net rate given as
 =
3:788B1ro (38)
M = 6 (MWs ) M R
so s Ds s total (35) K ,H K ,H
where MWs is the molecular weight of soot (carbon 12 with B1 = 60 a constant chosen to match experimental
g/mole), s is the soot density (2 g/cc), Ds is the soot di- data, which re ects initial disturbances to the drop surface
ameter (3.0e-6 cm), and Ms is the soot mass. The details caused by ow within the nozzle [19]. The drop size shed
of the net reaction rate Rtotal are given by Patterson et al. during breakup, rshed , is assumed to be proportional to the
[17]. Other soot oxidation models are available that are wavelength of Eq. 36
based on mixing rates (e.g., Hampson and Reitz [18]). The rshed = B0 K ,H (39)
NSC soot oxidation model used in the present study has
the characteristic of predicting lower soot levels in diesel where B0 is an empirical constant taken to be 0.61. Finally,
engines at retarded injection timings than are observed ex- the rate equation governing the change in the parent drop
perimentally. This characteristic has been traced to the size, r, is expressed as
model's sensitivity to the given value of the soot diame- @r = r , rshed
ter, an ostensibly unknown quantity for diesel combustion. (40)
The soot diameter aects soot oxidation by determining @t 
the surface area of the soot mass available for oxidation. The R-T breakup mechanism [20] is employed to ac-
Computational results employing the NSC model with a count for the eect of rapid deceleration of the drops on
smaller soot diameter (0.6e-6 cm) predicts higher soot lev- the atomization process. This mechanism is cast in the
els at retarded injection timings than the NSC model in same form as the K-H mechanism. The fastest growing
the present study, but still predicts lower soot levels than wavelength is given by
are observed experimentally. r 3
Spray Model  = 2 R,T al (41)
Spray atomization is a complicated phenomenon to model. and the fastest growing frequency is given by
It is very sensitive to fuel properties and ambient conditions r r

R,T = 2a al
as well as to the details of the fuel injector nozzle design and
operating conditions. As the spray is the dominant feature 3 3
4
(42)
of the ow within a diesel engine combustion chamber, ac-
curately resolving the spray atomization is a prerequisite where the drop acceleration is given by
for diesel engine simulation. The approach to modeling at- 2
omization in this study is to assume that the mechanisms a = 83 Cd g urr . (43)
responsible for the breakup of the spray are classical uid l
dynamic instabilities which act at the interface between The breakup time is found by taking the reciprocal of the
two uids of dierent densities: the Kelvin-Helmholtz (K- frequency of Eq. 42, and the drop is assumed to break into
H) inertia instability and the Rayleigh-Taylor (R-T) accel- two drops of equal size. The K-H and R-T mechanisms
erative instability. For both of the instabilities, the time compete with each other to break up the spray. More de-
that the spray droplet breaks up is determined from the tails of the breakup mechanisms are described in Su et al.
growth rate of the fastest growing wavelength predicted by [20], and Patterson and Reitz [21].
the classical instabilities. For the K-H mechanism the wave Another aspect of modeling the spray atomization pro-
length, K ,H of the fastest growing wave is given by Reitz cess is the modeling of the intact core found close to the
[19] as nozzle. In the present study, the intact core is accounted
p for by delaying the onset of breakup by the R-T mecha-
K ,H = 9:02r0(1 (1 + 0:45 Z )(1 + 0:4T 0:7) (36) nism until the spray droplet has moved beyond the intact
+ 0:865We1:67)0:6 core length, L. An expression for L is found by applying
and its frequency,
K ,H , is given by the theory of Levich [22] as
1:5 r  r
0 : 34 + 0 : 385 We

K ,H = (1 + Z )(1 + 1:4T 0:6)  r3 (37) L = C l do (44)
l 0 g

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where C is a model constant which accounts for the details

of the nozzle design and operating condition, l and g 1.0e+05

are the liquid and gas densities, respectively, and do is the

baseline
long
initial diameter of the intact core taken to be the nozzle 8.0e+04 medium
hole diameter. More details of this model are given by
short

injection velocity (cm/s)

Ricart et al. [23]. 6.0e+04

Combustion Modeling of Injection 4.0e+04

Rate Shaping 2.0e+04

Fuel injection characteristics have a signicant eect on the
performance and emissions of diesel engines. To demon-
strate the ability of multidimensional engine modeling to
0.0e+00
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25
quantify and explain the eects of rate-shaping and injec- crank angle (degrees ATDC @ 1600 rpm)
tion duration on the emissions from a heavy duty diesel en-
gine, three injection proles characteristic of typical diesel (a) falling
fuel injectors were investigated with three injection du-
rations. Figure 1(a) shows a falling injection rate, char- 1.0e+05
acteristic of accumulator-type common-rail fuel injectors. baseline
Figure 1(b) shows a rising injection rate, characteristic of long
medium
mechanical or electric jerk-type fuel injectors. Figure 1(c) 8.0e+04
short

injection velocity (cm/s)

shows a square injection rate, characteristic of common rail
fuel injectors [24]. (The solid line on Figures 1(a) - 1(c) is 6.0e+04
the measured injection prole for a common rail fuel injec-
tor installed on the engine for which the models have been 4.0e+04
calibrated [2].)
A range of fuel injection timings and injection durations
were simulated in the present study to generate soot-NOx 2.0e+04
tradeo curves for each modeled fuel injection system oper-
ating in the baseline engine. These injection proles were 0.0e+00
simulated for a mid-range diesel truck engine at a xed -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
equivalence ratio (i.e., a xed fueling rate.) The speci-
crank angle (degrees ATDC @ 1600 rpm)

cations of the engine are given in Table 1. The multidi- (b) rising
mensional model used has the demonstrated capability of
reproducing the experimental data for the engine with a
common rail injector. This is shown in Figs. 2(a), 2(b), 1.0e+05
and 2(c) for the cylinder pressure, heat release and soot- baseline
long
NOx tradeo, respectively. These data is included here for 8.0e+04 medium
comparison to the other injection proles. short
injection velocity (cm/s)

Figure 2(c) also shows the in uence of the choice of as-

sumed soot particle size in the NSC soot oxidation model, 6.0e+04

Eq. (35). The agreement between the measured and com-

puted soot emissions is good at advanced timings, but de- 4.0e+04
teriorates at retarded injection timings, as also discussed
by Hampson and Reitz [18]. 2.0e+04
The computational grid used in the present study is
shown along with a typical distribution of fuel droplets in
the combustion chamber in Figure 3 for the baseline injec- 0.0e+00
tion case at 6 degrees ATDC where the injection started
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25
crank angle (degrees ATDC @ 1600 rpm)
at -9 degrees ATDC. These calculations take advantage of
the six-fold symmetry from the six-hole centrally located (c) square
fuel injector by simulating only a one-sixth sector of the
combustion chamber. Figure 1: Three injection proles with three injection dura-
The predicted tradeo curves of the engine-out soot and tions: long (21.5 CA), medium (17.55 CA), and short (15.2
NOx for the various injection proles are shown in Fig. 4 CA). The solid line is the baseline experimental injection
with three injection timings: -10 CA ATDC, -5 CA ATDC, prole included for comparison.
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12
measured
10 computed
pressure (MPa)

2
Figure 3: Perspective view of computational grid and fuel
0 droplet distribution at 6 degrees ATDC (-9 CA ATDC
-100 -50 0 50 100 SOI). Computations are on a one-sixth sector of the com-
crank angle (degrees ATDC) bustion chamber.
(a) pressure
and TDC. The falling injection proles, Fig.4(a), were the
most sensitive to changes in the injection duration. As can
700 been seen, the long duration falling injection produced the
600
measured
computed
highest soot levels, while the short duration falling injec-
tion produced the lowest soot levels of the three injection
heat release rate (J/deg)

500 proles considered. The tradeo for the rising injection
proles, Fig. 4(b), shows the general trends of increas-
ing the injection duration decreasing the NOx levels and
400

300 increasing the soot levels. The tradeo for the square injec-
tion proles, Fig. 4(c), show the same trends as the rising
200
injection proles with respect to changes in the injection
100 duration.
The measured data for the experimental engine cong-
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ured with the common rail injector are repeated on the
crank angle (degrees ATDC) tradeo curve for the square injection in Fig. 4(c) showing
that the actual injection is similar in performance to the
(b) heat release middle duration square injection case.
An interesting feature of the tradeo curve for the long
injection duration falling prole is that there is a minimum
2.2
in the soot levels. In fact, there is a portion of that tradeo
2 measured
computed (3.0e-6 cm) curve where soot level decreases with retarding fuel injec-
1.8 computed (0.6e-6 cm) tion timing that will be explained next.
1.6
The combustion mechanisms responsible for the ob-
soot (g/kg-fuel)

1.4
served trends are re
ected in the NOx and soot evolution
1.2
curves for the dierent injection rate shapes. Figure 5
1
presents emission results for the three dierent injection
0.8
proles with the short injection duration of 15.2 CA and
0.6
-5 CA SOI. The results show that the predicted total in-
0.4
cylinder NOx evolution time (Fig. 5(a)) for the falling
0.2
injection prole rises about 50% higher than the curves for
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 either the square or the rising injection proles. Figure
NOx (g/kg-fuel) 5(b) shows that the total incylinder soot evolution curve
for the falling injection prole reaches a maximum of only
(c) soot-NOx tradeo 60% of the maximum for the square and rising injection
Figure 2: Comparison between the computed and mea-
sured (a) pressure, (b) heat release and (c) emissions. (a)
and (b) are for an injection timing of -9 degrees ATDC.
(c) shows engine out emissions for injection timings of -12,
proles.
These emissions evolution results can be explained by
considering the local instantaneous equivalence ratios and
temperatures within the combustion chamber. Figure 6(a)
shows that much less of the combustion chamber gas mass
-9, -6, -3, and 0 degrees ATDC for the NSC soot oxidation for the falling injection prole is rich (i.e., above 2.5 equiv-
model with soot diameters of 3.0e-6 cm, and 0.6e-6 cm. alence ratio) compared to either the rich mass of the rising

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1.2
long
1 medium
short
soot (g/kg-fuel)

0.8

0.6

0.4
70

0.2 60

0 50

NOx (g/kg-fuel)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
NOx (g/kg-fuel) 40

(a) falling rate-of-injection 30 falling

rising
square
20
1.2
long 10
1 medium
short 0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
soot (g/kg-fuel)

0.8 crank angle (degrees ATDC)

0.6 (a) NOx evolution

0.4
2.5
falling
0.2 rising
2 square
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
soot (g/kg-fuel)

NOx (g/kg-fuel) 1.5

(b) rising rate-of-injection 1

1.2 0.5
long
1 medium
short 0
baseline computed -20 0 20 40 60 80 100
soot (g/kg-fuel)

0.8 crank angle (degrees ATDC)

0.6 (b) soot evolution

0.4
Figure 5: NOx and soot evolution with varying injection
0.2
proles for 15.2 CA duration injection at -5 CA ATDC SOI

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
NOx (g/kg-fuel)

(c) square rate-of-injection

Figure 4: Predicted soot-NOx tradeo curves for the three

injection rate shapes at three injection durations.
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or square injection proles. Less rich gas mass within the
combustion chamber translates into less soot producing re-
gions within the combustion chamber.
To explain the NOx results, Fig. 6(b) shows the mass
of the cylinder gas which has temperature above 2800K for
the three dierent injection schemes with the short injec-
tion duration and -5 SOI. The results indicate that a higher
percent of the cylinder mass is above 2800K for the falling
prole than for either the square or the falling proles, and
since NOx formation is highly temperature dependent, this

percent cylinder mass at equivalence ration > 2.5

9
explains the higher NOx of the falling prole. 8
falling
rising
square

Reduced Soot at Retarded Injection

7

Timings
6
5

Finally, the mechanism responsible for the anomalous trend 4

of decreasing soot with retarding injection timing for the 3
falling rate seen in Fig. 4(a) for the long injection duration
can be explained by showing the dierences in the spatial 2
variation of the soot elds. Figure 7 shows contours den- 1
ing the location of the soot cloud at 39 CA ATDC which
is a representative time during the soot oxidation period 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
for the long duration falling prole for the three injection crank angle (degrees ATDC)
timings, -10 CA, -5 CA, and TDC, respectively. At both
the -10 CA and the TDC injection timings, the soot cloud (a) Percent cylinder mass above equivalence ratio of 2.5
is located in the bottom of the piston bowl. In this case
the soot is located in a region devoid of oxygen and soot
oxidation is inhibited. For the -5 CA injection timing, the
1.6

soot cloud is has been swept though the combustion cham- 1.4
ber and is located near the head where there is available
percent cylinder mass > 2800 K

oxygen which promotes soot oxidation. The dierence in 1.2

location of the soot is the reason for the anomalous de- 1

crease in soot levels as the injection timing was retarded
from -10 CA to -5 CA. For early injection with a long in- 0.8
jection duration the lower spray momentum connes the 0.6
combustion to the bowl as seen in Fig. 7(a). As the in-
jection timing is retarded, the spray interacts more with 0.4
the reverse squish ow, moving the soot cloud nearer to
the head, as seen in Fig. 7(b). Finally, at very retarded 0.2

timings, the spray momentum is again directed into the 0

piston bowl and the soot remains away from the head, as -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
seen in Fig. 7(c). crank angle (degrees ATDC)

Interestingly, the short injection duration falling pro- (b) Percent cylinder mass above 2800K
les do not show a decrease in soot levels with retarding
injection timing. This can be explained by the location of
the soot cloud in comparison to its location for the long Figure 6: Evolution of rich and high temperature regions
injection duration case. For the short duration injection, with varying injection proles for 15.2 CA duration injec-
the soot cloud is located near the head of the combustion tion at -5 CA ATDC SOI
chamber for all of the injection timings, as can be seen in
Fig. 8. Evidently, the higher spray momentum of the short
duration injections is sucient for the spray to penetrate
farther into the combustion chamber such that more of the
soot cloud reaches the head region in all cases.
This mode change from the soot being located on the
cylinder head to the soot being located in the piston bowl
is shown conceptually in Fig. 9. By changing the injec-

8
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(a) -10 CA ATDC SOI (a) -10 CA ATDC SOI

(b) -5 CA ATDC SOI (b) -5 CA ATDC SOI

(c) TDC SOI (c) TDC SOI

Figure 7: Soot contours for the long duration falling injec- Figure 8: Soot contours for the short duration falling injec-
tion prole at 39 CA ATDC for dierent start-of-injection tion prole at 39 CA ATDC for dierent start-of-injection
timings (SOI). timings (SOI).
9
 Downloaded from SAE International by Univ of Calif-Los Angeles, Saturday, September 03, 2016

tion timing and changing the location of the soot during

its oxidation period, the engine is eectively moved to a
dierent soot-NOx tradeo curve, as indicated schemati- injector
cally in Fig. 9. In this case the tradeo curve is higher for
the soot located near the piston than for the soot located
on the head.

Conclusions
soot cloud

The injection proles from three typical classes of diesel

fuel injector were simulated for a range of fuel injection
timings and injection durations. Overall, the predicted ef-
fects on emissions of decreasing the injection duration is to (a) retarded injection
increase NOx and to decrease soot, consistent with mea-
sured data. The falling injection proles show the greatest
sensitivity to decreasing the injection duration. The falling injector
injection prole results in higher soot levels than either the
square or rising injection proles at the same injection du-
ration. However, at the shortest injection duration inves- soot cloud
tigated (i.e., highest injection pressure) the falling prole
produced the lower soot levels than either the square or
the rising injection proles. The rising injection proles all
have higher soot and lower NOx than the square proles
at the same injection duration. Similarly, the trend of in-
creasing soot and decreasing NOx can be seen in many of
the tradeo curves. Finally, the phenomenon of decreasing
soot with retarding fuel injection timing has been identi- (b) early injection
ed and the underlying mechanism proposed. It is shown
to be due to a regime transition where the soot cloud is
located in dierent regions in the combustion chamber.
Table 1 Caterpillar Engine Specications
bore 13.719 cm
stroke 16.510 cm
connecting rod length 26.162 cm (1)
displacement 2.44 liters
soot

compression ratio 15:1

piston crown Mexican hat
engine speed 1600 rpm
intake pressure 1.84 bar mode change
injection duration 22.5 degrees (2)
fuel injected 0.1625 grams/cycle

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Caterpillar Inc., with addi-
tional funding from the Army Research Oce. The au-
thors thank Drs. Simon Chen, Sudhakar Das and Andre
Kazakov for helpful discussions and comments.
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