Human Reproduction

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Human
Reproduction
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Life Sciences
Unit
Human
Reproduction
Unit Structure
Cover Page
The unit title is highlighted and the learn-
ing objectives presented. An index of the
contents according to the 5-E Model is also
provided. The digital version also includes an
activity to review the skills and knowledge
required to undertake the unit.
Engage
A video and a related activity are available
with the digital version. Both versions have
a summary on page one. Different activities
are proposed for the video; some of these
may be interactive in the digital version, but
they all contain open-ended questions.
Explore
This exploratory and discovery activity is
devised to mobilize prior knowledge and
check it against the results obtained from
the experience. The digital version con-
tains the necessary multimedia resources
required for this activity: simulators, videos,
interactivities, etc.
4 www.science-bits.com
Unit Structure
Explain
The unit’s key concepts are formally and
systematically addressed. The digital version
includes a wide range of multimedia resourc-
es to facilitate understanding of the ideas
presented. The printable version includes
all basic graphical elements and references
to the digital resources available. The digital
version may also include reinforcement or
enrichment activities.
Elaborate
In this section, the newly acquired knowl-
edge can be applied in a practical way.
Thus, a problem-solving activity is pro-
posed, one which requires the application
of the concepts, attitudes, and procedures
learned throughout the unit. The digital
version may provide multimedia tools (such
as simulators or videos) to help develop
and solve the activity.
Exercises
Each of the concepts addressed in the
“Explain” section is related to interactive
or open-ended exercises with the aim of
consolidating the topics covered through
practice. The printable version includes all
the exercises except for reinforcement or en-
richment activities, and they are organized
in accordance with the contents from the
“Explain” section.
www.science-bits.com 5
Human Reproducti
Index
· Engage
· Understanding Human Reproduction .............................08
· Explore
· Key Processes of Human Reproduction ............................10
· Explain
· Characteristics of Human Reproduction ..........................14
· The Human Life Cycle ...........................................................14
· Gametes ................................................................................ 15
· Reproductive Systems ......................................................... 16
· Anatomy of Reproductive Systems .............................17
· The Menstrual Cycle ............................................................. 18
· Fertilization ............................................................................ 19
· Pregnancy .............................................................................. 19
· Implantation ...................................................................20
· Embryonic and Fetal Nutrition ......................................20
· Birth ........................................................................................ 21
· Postnatal Period
· Mother’s Return to Prepregnant State .........................21
· Newborn Care .................................................................22
· Elaborate
· In Vitro Fertilization ...............................................................23
· Exercises ................................................................................... 26
In this unit, you will learn:

How humans pass from being a single
cell to being an adult capable of repro-
ducing.
How the male and female reproductive

systems work.
About the period and how it works.
About the conditions in which fertiliza-

tion and pregnancy may occur.
That the embryo is a living organism

that carries out life processes.
About the changes that affect a preg-

nant woman and how she recovers after
giving birth.
About basic newborn care.

tion
Engage
Understanding Human Reproduction
We humans reproduce, which means that we create new human beings.

This is something we share with all living organisms, as they also re-
Video produce.
Some living organisms reproduce asexually. This means that a single

parent produces offspring which are identical to it.
But we humans reproduce sexually: two parents, one male and one fe-
male, are required to produce offspring, which are not identical to either
of the parents but have a combination of the parents’ traits.
Humans have always come up with theories to try and explain the mech-
anisms behind human reproduction. But most of them were wrong. For
example, when the microscope was invented, scientists in the seven-
teenth century discovered the existence of sperm.
This discovery set their imagination running. Some thought they could
see tiny human beings inside sperm, which they named homunculi.
Then, they thought that the role of men in reproduction would be to
generate a tiny person, whereas the role of women would be to protect
and nourish the developing person.
To them, human reproduction was like sowing a seed in fertile ground.
We know today that that’s not how it works.
So, what are the roles of men and women in human reproduction?
Questions
a. The video in the digital version explains how

seventeenth-century scientists understood sexual
reproduction.
What were the parents’ roles in generating a new

infant baby according to those scientists?
b. Today, the idea that sperm may have a tiny

human trapped inside it sounds almost surreal.
However, in light of the scientific knowledge of the
seventeenth century, that idea was reasonable.
Nowadays we can safely affirm that that idea is

completely wrong. What current scientific knowl-
edge is this fact based on?
c. The video in the digital version talks about

sperm, the male sex cells.
What are the female sex cells called? What do

these cells have in common with and what distin-
guishes them from male sex cells?
d. How do sex cells come to create a new living

organism?
Describe the process involved in creating a new

living organism. If possible, try to use accurate
terminology.
e. What are the parents’ roles in the process of

sexual reproduction, according to what we know
today?
Compare today’s scientific model to that of the

seventeenth century.
9
Explore
Key Processes of Human Reproduction

Fertilization
Table Human reproduction begins with fertilization, when a woman’s egg
and a man’s sperm join to form a zygote, the first cell of the new living
organism.
Like with most non-aquatic animals, fertilization in humans is internal:

it takes place inside the female reproductive system.
Sperm Egg
a. Look at the characteristics of eggs and sperm on the table and complete
Cell size 50 µg 110 µg the following sentences:

The weight of an ovule is [less than / the same as / greater than] the
Cell weight 0.003 µg 3 µg weight of a sperm.
Amount 3.3 µg 3.3 µg
The amount of DNA in an ovule is [less than / the same as / greater than]
of DNA
the amount in a sperm.
Some characteristics of the egg and
the sperm. b. What is the amount of DNA inside the zygote nucleus?
1 trillion picograms (pg) is equal to 1 gram (g).
The amount of DNA is approximately ........... pg.
Image c. DNA in eukaryotic cells is stored in structures called chromosomes.
Egg Sperm These structures—only visible during certain stages of a

cell’s life—can be seen under the light microscope.
Look at the images of the chromosomes of a human egg

and a human sperm. How many chromosomes are found
in each of these cells?

The sperm has ........... chromosomes.

The egg has ........... chromosomes.
d. Compare the chromosomes in the egg and sperm.

10 µm
Chromosomes of a human egg Can you see any similarities between them?
and a human sperm.
e. How many chromosomes will the zygote formed from the egg and
sperm have?
A total amount of .......... chromosomes, that is, .......... pairs of chromosomes.
The zygote is the first cell of the new living organism. The genetic mate-
rial of this cell results from the combination of the genetic materials of
the sperm and the egg.
The female egg and the male sperm each contribute the same
amount of DNA to the zygote’s genetic material.
The zygote’s genetic material replicates in all the cells it divides into dur-
ing embryonic development.
From One Cell… Image

For a zygote to become a baby weighing approximately 3 kg, with
fully functioning organs and systems, a lot needs to happen.
It is estimated that a newborn baby has around 2 trillion cells.
a. What do these cells and the zygote have in common?
q
They are completely different.
q
The have the same DNA.
q They are exactly alike: they weigh the same, occupy the same vol-
ume, carry out the same processes, etc.
b. What is the process which forms all these cells?
All of an organism’s cells form through successive .........., the first of which
takes place in the zygote.
c. Apart from sperm and eggs, all body cells have the same DNA. However,
they are all different. Image
Give three examples of cell types found in the human body.
d. Both the zygote and all the cells formed during the first
stages of embryonic development are nondifferentiated cells.
Which process gives rise to the different cell types?
Nourishment of the Embryo
Graph
This graph shows a developing embryo’s weight increase throughout
the nine months of pregnancy in the mother’s womb.
r este
r
este
r a. Study the graph and complete the description of the
este trim
rim trim embryo’s or fetus’ weight increase.
1st t 2nd 3rd
3,000
During the [first / second / third] trimester, the fetus
2,500 increases in weight by more than 2 kg.
2,000 During the [first / second / third] trimester, the increase

Weight (g)
in weight is not significant, by less than 100 g.

1,500
In the [first / second / third] trimester, the fetus increas-
1,000 es in weight by almost 1 kg.
500 b. Complete the following statement:
0 The weight of a newborn baby—around 3 kg— is

04 08 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 [10 / 1000 / 1,000 / 10,000 / 100,000 / 1,000,000 /
Week of pregnancy 1,000,000,000] times the weight of a human zygote—
around 0.003 mg.
Weight of embryo and fetus during
pregnancy. c. How does the developing embryo obtain the matter required for
growth?
Image
d. Throughout its development, the embryo’s cells must perform a series of

processes to be able to sustain life.
Indicate which of the following processes take place in the embryo’s cells:
q E
xpulsion of waste substances such as CO2 since they may be harm-
ful if they accumulate in the blood.
q
Use of oxygen and organic nutrients to obtain energy.
q
Use of organic and inorganic nutrients to build biomolecules.
These are the same processes which take place in all our body’s cells.
e. How do we humans extract the organic and inorganic nutrients from

food and distribute them to all of our cells?
f. How do we extract oxygen from the air and distribute it to all our body
cells to perform cellular respiration?
g. How does the human body expel the waste substances from the
chemical reactions taking place in the cells, such as CO2 and excess min- Image
eral salts?
amniotic sac
h. Carefully look at the diagram. In the mother’s uterus, the embryo devel-
ops inside a fluid filled sac: the amniotic sac.
Can the embryo obtain nutrients and remove waste substances as we do?
q Yes q No
i. However, the embryo still obtains the nutrients it requires and re-
moves the waste substances it produces. Otherwise, it wouldn’t be able
to survive.
How do you think the embryo is nourished?
Conclusions
Throughout the nine months of pregnancy, a zygote weighing about
3 µg transforms into a baby weighing 3 kg, with all its organs func-
tioning . This process—in which mitosis and cell differentiation play a mother’s blood vessels
key role—is possible because the embryo is nourished through the
mother’s blood all the way until birth. umbilical cord
blood vessels
(embryo)
The exchange of substances between the mother’s blood
and the embryo’s blood is possible because at the onset of
pregnancy a specialized organ called placenta develops in- umbilical cord
side the mother.
The placenta links the mother’s circulatory system to the embryo’s,

which extends within the umbilical cord. It is a selective barrier that
prevents the two bloods from mixing together, but which allows:
placenta

nutrients to be transferred from the mother’s blood to the embryo’s
blood, and

waste substances to be transferred from the embryo’s blood to the
mother’s blood.
Explicamos
Explain
Characteristics of Human Reproduction
Human reproduction is the process by which humans create

Image new human beings.
Offspring take after their parents Human reproduction has the following characteristics:
but are not identical to them.
1.
Sexual reproduction. This involves the fusion of two gametes: a
female gamete—the ovum—and a male gamete—the sperm. They
fuse to form the zygote, the first cell of the new organism. The ge-
netic material of the new organism is a mixture of its parents’ ge-
netic material.
2.
Internal fertilization. The fusion of gametes, called fertilization, oc-
curs inside the female reproductive system.
3.
Viviparous. The embryonic development of the new living organ-
ism is accomplished inside the mother’s reproductive system, which
is fed through a structure called placenta.
The Human Life Cycle

Interactivity From the time of birth, human beings go through different stages which
determine their life cycle.
Years
Childhood is the age span ranging from birth to the onset of adolescence,
although it comprises other stages such as infancy, the first two years of life.
Several changes occur during these stages: great motor, physical, emotion-
al, and cognitive development occurs; humans increase in size very rapidly,
learn to gain control over their bodies, and develop speaking, reading, and
writing skills, etc.
Boys and girls are distinguished by having, respectively, male and female
reproductive systems from birth. These characteristics are referred to as pri-
mary sex characteristics.
Years
Adolescence is the transitional stage between child-

hood and adulthood. During this stage, humans un-
dergo many physical and mental changes and reach
sexual maturity, that is, the ability to reproduce.
Physical changes. During puberty—the first stage

of adolescence—the pituitary gland, ovaries, and testes
begin to produce sex hormones. These hormones trig-
ger the development of secondary sex characteris-
tics, which make the differences between boys and girls Years 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Growth begins
more acute. Appearance of facial hair
Voice changes
Males
Mental changes. Together with sexual development, Growth of the testes
Pubic hair growth
mental changes take place during adolescence. Mood Penis growth
swings are common; adolescents often feel the need First ejaculation
to isolate themselves from family; friendship is highly Growth begins
Development of breasts
valued; intense emotions related to sex and love are ex-
Females
Pubic hair growth
perienced; political or social ideals are created; etc. All First menstruation
these changes help to define human personality. Enlargement of the pelvic bone
Secondary sex characteristics
Years
Adulthood. After adolescence, mental, emotional, and physical growth

continues, but at a slower pace. As humans advance into adulthood, the
process of aging begins and the ability to reproduce is reduced: the
quantity and quality of sperm gradually decrease, and women stop men-
struating and go through a series of profound changes known as meno-
pause. The average age of menopause is around 50.
Gametes
Gametes or sex cells are the cells specialized in reproduction. They fuse to
form the zygote, the first cell of the new living organism.
Gametes pass on genetic information from the parents to the offspring:

each gamete carries half of the zygote’s genetic material.
Female gametes are called ova or eggs and male gametes are
called sperm.
Gamete production is regulated by sex hormones and occurs in special-

ized sex organs called gonads.
Gallery
cytoplasm
nucleus
nucleus
flagellum
plasma membrane
35 μm plasma membrane 7 μm
Eggs. Eggs are produced in the female gonads: the ovaries. Sperm. Sperm is produced in the male gonads: the testes. In these
These large, spherical cells contain reserve substances that sup- small cells, which have a flagellum to move about, the nucleus oc-
port the zygote during the first few days. cupies most of the cytoplasm.
All of a woman’s eggs form before her birth but remain imma- Sperm production begins at puberty and continues as a man ages.
ture in the follicles—small cavities in the ovaries—up until However, certain behaviors—such as alcohol consumption—and
puberty. They begin to mature gradually with the onset of pu- diseases may damage sperm production temporarily or permanently.
berty, one by one, until the menstruation begins.
Reproductive Systems
Image The reproductive system consists of the organs and structures

involved in reproduction.
Structure of reproductive systems.
Despite being different, the human male and female reproductive sys-
tems perform common functions in reproduction: producing gametes
and allowing for internal fertilization.
Therefore, both systems have equivalent and complementary structures:
1.
Gonads produce gametes and some sex hormones.
2.
Genital tracts transport the gametes.
3.
Sex organs. During sexual intercourse, these organs bring the egg
and sperm together inside the female reproductive system.
In addition, the human female reproductive system has an ad-

Gonads ditional function: nourishing the new human being during em-
Genital tacts bryonic development.
Sex organs
Anatomy of Reproductive Systems
Interactivity
Female reproductive system
Fallopian tubes. Through these two ducts, also known as oviducts, the
eggs released in the ovaries travel to the uterus. Fertilization takes place in
the fallopian tubes.
Ovaries. These two almond-shaped organs are located on both sides of
the uterus. They are the female gonads, where the eggs or female gametes lining of
Fallopian tube the uterus
mature. They also produce estrogen and progesterone, two sex hormones.
Vagina. This is a duct measuring 10 cm in length that communicates the
uterus with the body’s exterior. Its walls are thickly muscled and elastic.
Ovary
Uterus or womb. This is a thick-walled muscular cavity that increases in
Uterus or womb
size to accommodate the fetus during pregnancy. Its inner wall is covered by cervix
the lining of the uterus or endometrium, a vascularized mucous mem-
brane layer that is shed regularly with the onset of puberty. The lower part of
Vagina
the uterus is a narrow canal called the cervix that connects with the vagina. vaginal opening
Vulva. This is comprised by the external genital structures of the female Vulva
reproductive system. It consists of two folds of skin, the labia, that protect
the urethral orifice—through which urine is eliminated—and the vagi-
nal opening—which connects with the vagina.
Male reproductive system
Penis. This is an organ formed by three columns of erectile tissue that,

when filled with blood, expand and become rigid, causing the penis to be-
come erect. The enlargement at the end of the penis, the glans, is covered
by a layer of skin called foreskin.
seminal
Urethra. This tube travels through the penis and carries semen. It also Vas deferens
vesicles
provides an exit for semen during a process called ejaculation. The ure-
thra, also part of the urinary system, transports urine from the bladder to
the outside of the body. Penis Accessory
Accessory sex glands. The two seminal vesicles and the prostate se- sex glands
crete fluids that nourish the sperm and act as their environment. Together Glans Cowper’s
glands
with the male gametes, these fluids are called semen. Cowper’s glands
Urethra
secrete a fluid that lubricates the urethra, aiding the passage of semen.
epididymis
Testes. These two egg-shaped organs, located outside the abdominal cav-
Testis
ity, are covered by a protective sack of skin called scrotum. The male gonads
produce sperm, which is stored in an adjacent duct called epididymis. In
scrotum
addition, the testes secrete testosterone, a sex hormone.
foreskin
Vas deferens. Sperm travels through these two ducts—commonly known
as deferent ducts—from the epididymis to the urethra.
The Menstrual Cycle
Women experience the menstrual cycle or period from the onset of
puberty until menopause. This cycle, which averages 28 days, consists
of two coordinated cycles:

Ovarian cycle. During this phase, an egg matures in one of the
ovaries and is released into the fallopian tube.

The release of the mature egg is called ovulation.

Uterian cycle. During this cycle, the endometrium—the mucous
membrane of the uterus or womb—thickens gradually ahead of
a possible pregnancy.

If pregnancy doesn’t occur, the endometrium is shed and is elimi-
nated during menstruation.
The menstrual cycle determines the fertile time of the month for
women to get pregnant. During those days, fertilization may occur.
Video
1 14 OVARIAN CYCLE 2 23 OVARIAN CYCLE 3
Ovulation Luteal phase
The menstrual cycle consists of two Ovarian cycle (I). Countless follicles Ovarian cycle (II). Next, the follicle
coordinated cycles: the ovarian cycle in the ovaries each contain an imma- becomes the corpus luteum, an endo-
and the uterine cycle. Although highly ture egg. A hormone secreted by the crine structure that produces hormones
variable, the average menstrual cycle is pituitary gland activates the maturation during the second half of the menstrual
28 days long. of the follicles, which is completed half cycle. Last, the corpus luteum regresses,
way through the cycle. Then, ovulation completing the ovarian cycle. The fol-
occurs: the mature egg leaves the ovary lowing ovarian cycle will take place in
and is expelled to the fallopian tube. the other ovary.
4 5 6
Infertile Days
2 UTERINE CYCLE
Thickening of the
Menstruation endometrium MENSTRUAL CYCLE 9
Uterine cycle (I). The uterine cycle Uterine cycle (II). Near the first half of Menstrual cycle. Both the ovarian and
starts with the shedding of the lining of the uterine cycle, the lining of the uterus menstrual cycles are coordinated by sex
the uterus, the endometrium, which is thick enough to allow for the implan- hormones secreted by the pituitary and
produces the bleeding known as men- tation of a fertilized egg and the onset ovaries. Knowing these cycles is impor-
struation or period. After 3 to 7 days, of pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilized, tant to work out a woman’s fertile time.
sex hormones activate the growth of the the uterine lining keeps growing and
uterine lining, which thickens and be- is shed with the onset of the following
comes richly irrigated. menstrual cycle.
Fertilization
Video
During fertilization, an egg and a sperm combine to form a fer-
tilized egg called the zygote.
Sexual intercourse—the insertion of the male sex organ or penis into Egg
the female sex organ or vagina—often results in ejaculation, the de-
livery of the male’s semen into the cervix (the lower part of the uterus).
Next, the male gametes found in the semen use their flagella to travel
to the fallopian tubes in search of an egg.
In the Fallopian tubes, a single sperm cell fuses with the egg and ferti-
lizes it, giving rise to the zygote.
After fertilization, and while it descends to the uterus—which will take

a week—, the zygote divides through successive mitosis, giving rise to
a ball of cells called blastocyst. The inner cells of the blastocyst will
eventually become the embryo, while the outer cells will form the
structures for protection and nourishment.
Pregnancy
Pregnancy or gestation is the process by which one or more

new living organisms develop in the mother’s uterus or womb.
Pregnancy in humans takes around nine months—three trimesters or 40 Gallery

weeks of develpoment—as timed from the mother’s last menstruation.
To protect both the mother’s and
During pregnancy, the mother’s body undergoes physiological chang- the baby’s health, healthy behaviors
es to adapt to the process of gestation. These are the main changes oc- and continued medical follow-ups
curring during pregnancy: are recommended.
The fetus by the end The fetus by the end The fetus by the end
of the first trimester of the second trimester of the third trimester
10 cm 30 cm 50 cm
20 g 1 kg 3 kg
First trimester. The blastocyst attaches to Second trimester. The fetal organs begin Third trimester. The fetus continues to
the uterus, a process known as implanta- to activate, except for the lungs, and the fe- grow at a rapid rate, and the lungs are get-
tion. The outer cells develop structures to pro- tus increases its growth rate. The fetus is capa- ting ready for breathing. The fetus has
tect and nourish the embryo on the inside. Af- ble of sucking its thumb and begins to move. grown in size and won’t move as much, and by
ter the tenth week, the embryo has formed all On the other hand, the mother’s hormones the end of the trimester it turns in a down-
of its organs and systems and becomes known stabilize and the symptoms subside. The ward position ready for birth. The mother’s
as a fetus. Although pregnancy may not be mother can feel the fetus move and the ab- last days before birth are physically demand-
noticeable yet, the mother experiences acute domen grows: pregnancy is now noticeable. ing: the expanded abdomen hinders her
hormonal changes that produces symptoms movements and makes her feel uncomfort-
like nausea and vomiting. able and tired.
Implantation
In less than a week after fertilization, the zygote becomes a blastocyst
formed of dozens of cells that moves down to the uterus. Once there,
it attaches to the endometrium, the mucous membrane of the uterus,
Image and penetrates into it.
The process through which the living organism ad-

Cell division heres to the tissues of the mother’s uterus is called im-
plantation.
Implantation triggers a hormone response in the mother,

Fertilization preventing menstruation and activating the develop-
ment of structures which enable the gestation of the new
living organism.
Implantation
A missed menstrual period is one of the the first signs of preg-
nancy.
Embryonic and Fetal Nutrition

Ovule reserves are not sufficient to sustain the gestation of the new in-
dividual organism. That’s why the mother must nourish it during preg-
nancy. After performing implantation, only some blastocyst cells give
Gallery rise to the embryo. The other cells form the structures for nourishment
and protection:
Placenta. The placenta is a disk-shaped Umbilical cord. The umbilical cord is the Amniotic sac. The amniotic sac is a mem-
organ that connects the new living being structure that connects the circulatory system brane containing amniotic fluid that sur-
to the mother. It controls the exchange of of the fetus with the placenta. It contains one rounds the embryo or fetus. This sac cushions
substances between their circulatory sys- vein that transports nutrient-rich blood from the new living organism, maintains it at a sta-
tems. In this way, the fetus obtains nutri- the placenta to the fetus, and two arteries ble temperature, and allows it to move freely.
ents—including oxygen—and antibodies that carry wastes in the blood from the fetus
from the mother and removes metabolic to the placenta.
waste products.
During pregnancy, fetal nutrition depends on the mother and is

carried out through the placenta, which regulates the exchange
of substances between maternal blood and fetal blood.
Birth
Pregnancy comes to an end with the birth of the baby, about 40 weeks
after the mother’s last menstruation.
Birth is the process by which the fully developed baby, together

with the structures that supported it throughout pregnancy, leave
the mother’s body.
Vaginal birth is a long, enduring process lasting between six and

twelve hours. The baby’s birth takes place in three stages:
Gallery
umbilical cord
amniotic sac remmants of the sac
placenta
umbilical cord
cervix
vagina
placenta
uterus
fetus
Labor. It is the longest stage of birth. It be- Delivery. Uterine contractions—gradually Afterbirth. A few minutes after delivery,
gins with muscular contractions of the uterus, becoming stronger and long lasting—and new contractions push the placenta out of
which gradually become stronger and more the force exerted by the mother with her the uterus through the vagina, along with the
frequent. Through contractions, the fetus is abdominal muscles push the baby through remainder of the umbilical cord and the am-
pushed out of the uterus. The pressure exerted the vagina and out of the mother’s body. The niotic sac.
causes the rupture of the amniotic sac—wa- head comes out first, then one shoulder, and
ter breaking—and the progressive dilation of the rest of the body is quickly pushed out. The
cervix and vagina to allow the baby’s passage. umbilical cord, still connecting the baby to the
placenta, is clamped and cut.
Caesarean section or induced labor is a surgical technique used in

cases when vaginal birth may pose a threat to the mother and baby.
Postnatal Period
Mother’s Return to Prepregnant State
The postnatal or postpartum period is the period when the

mother’s body returns to its nonpregnant state and the baby ad-
justs to life outside the uterus. It usually lasts between 6 to 8 weeks.
The main processes affecting the mother during the postnatal period are
the following:

Discharge of lochia, remnants of uterine tissue, blood, and mucus
following the shedding of the placenta.

Contraction of uterus as it shrinks back to its pre-pregnant size,
also known as involution.

Relocation of organs and structures that moved from their origi-
nal location during pregnancy, and recovery of muscular firm-
ness and tone.

Recovery of pre-pregnancy hormone levels and menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle may be delayed in breasfeeding mothers.
Newborn Care
To ensure their best physical and mental development, newborn

infants are entirely dependent on the special care of others.
The main types of care required by newborns during the postpartum

period are:

Feeding according to their needs. In this regard, mother’s milk con-
tains all the essential nutrients for growth and development.

Maintaining an adequate room temperature, avoiding extremely
high or low temperatures.

Maintaining the newborn’s good hygiene and monitoring the
belly button’s healing process.
Gallery
Allowing the newborn infant to rest and sleep.
Elaborate
In Vitro Fertilization
Most people decide at some point in their lives to start a family. Some
opt for adoption, while others decide to have children naturally.
However, some couples have fertility problems and cannot conceive
children naturally.
It is estimated that 15% of couples have some type of fertility problem.
Science has developed assisted reproductive technologies to help

couples become pregnant.
More than five million babies have been conceived through

one such technique, known as in vitro fertilization (IVF),
around the world since 1978.
In this activity you will research this technique and use the informa-
tion to create an informative website.
Louise Brown, the First Test-Tube Baby

Louise Brown was the world’s first IVF baby. She was born in Oldham,
England, in 1978.
Carefully read this text written to mark her 35th birthday and answer
the questions on the following pages.
The world’s first “test-tube baby,” Louise Brown, has paid tribute to the
fertility doctors who gave her life, as she celebrates her 35th birthday.
She said in vitro fertilization had helped millions—there are thought to
be more than 5.5 million IVF babies worldwide.
She was born in 1978 at Oldham General Hospital after her parents
became the first to successfully undergo IVF. Mrs Brown is now married
and has a six-year-old son, who was born naturally. As she prepared to
celebrate her birthday with a private family meal, Mrs Brown said she
hoped the public could now see the benefits of the breakthrough. “It’s
helped millions all around the world and if it can help improve success
rates, obviously it’s a good thing. I’ve now had my own son without IVF
and lots of people I know or have heard of have gone on to have chil-
dren naturally. That shows that it is just the beginning of life that’s a
little bit different, the rest is just the same.”
Her birth, to parents Lesley and John, attracted controversy at the time.
Some voices expressed concern over the use of artificial intervention
and some raised fears that science was creating babies who could ex-
perience medical difficulties later in life.
She recently unveiled a plaque to honor IVF pioneers gynaecologist

Patrick Steptoe and reproductive biologist Robert Edwards at Bourn
Hall, the clinic they founded in Cambridge and where the techniques
and drugs now used worldwide were first developed. Their research
led to the successful fertilization of a human egg outside the body and
the transfer of the resulting embryo to the womb. Sir Robert, who was
awarded a Nobel Prize in 2010, died aged 87 in April this year. Steptoe
died in 1988.
She called for IVF to be made more readily available and said more
people should have access to it on the NHS. “It is difficult to say what
it is like to be the first test-tube baby as I have been brought up with it.
People ask what it feels like, but it’s just always been there—”it’s my
life,” she added. “I understand more now and I just think my mum was
fantastic. I think she was just very brave but I suppose if you’re told you
can’t have children, you’ll do anything.”
Adapted from “’Test-Tube Baby’ Brown Hails Pioneers on 35th
Birthday,” BBC News website, http://www.bbc.com/newsz-
health-2344866, July 25, 2013
Task
Structure of Website Page

a. After reading the text, what questions about IVF can you think of?
b. After listing your questions, decide how you are going to design your
webpage and structure the content around it.
c. Share the content structure of your website with the rest of the class.
Assess the different proposals and agree to a site map for your project.
A site map is a diagram of all the sections or pages of a website, with a list of
the URLs that access the site’s content.
Make sure you consider all the medical, technological, emotional, ethical,
and moral issues related to IVF.
Preparing the Content
Next, the teacher will have you work in groups and will assign each group a
task. The role of each group will be to prepare the content of a page or sec-
tion of the informative website.
a. Reflect on the sources you should use to look up the information you
require to complete your task.
To ensure the quality of the content, it is important that you choose the
appropriate information: not all the information made available is thor-
ough and rigorous. Make sure you look up several sources and compare
the information presented to you.
b. Look up the information needed to prepare the content of your page or

section.
Consider the use of images, diagrams, and other visual resources. Also,
note the precise references to all the sources of information used.
c. Use a collaborative editing word processor—such as Google Docs

(http://docs.google.com)—and write the text of your task. Also, add all
the visual resources you used.
d. Prepare a list of 4 or 5 multiple choice questions about the content of

your page or section.
Select questions from all the groups and put together a simple test to as-
sess whether the visitors to your website have found the content easy to
understand.
Launching Your Website

a. Next, the teacher will set up the website using a program such as Google
Sites (http://sites.google.com).
Discuss a name for the web domain that is easy to remember with the rest of
the class. Also, select a design that you all deem appropriate.
b. Next, the teacher will create each of the agreed sections and an addi-
tional one for the website assessment test.
In groups, complete each of the sections and write the questions for the mul-
tiple choice test.
EXERCISES
Characteristics of Human Reproduction
1. Facts about Sexual Reproduction

Which of the following characteristics are specific to sexual reproduction?
Sexual reproduction results in offspring that Sexual reproduction produces offspring who
look similar to the parents. are identical to the parents.
An organism reproduces without needing to Two organisms come together to produce
relate or interact with another organism. offspring that are different from the parents.
Two organisms produce offspring that are dif- One organism produces offspring that are
ferent from each other. identical to one another.
2. Type of Fertilization
Human sexual reproduction involves internal fertilization and is viviparous. But this is not the case with all
other animals. Indicate whether the following animals exhibit internal or external fertilization and whether
they are oviparous or viviparous:
Tiger: .......... I .......... fertilization Dolphin: .......... I .......... fertilization

Duck: .......... I .......... fertilization Frog: .......... I .......... fertilization
Salmon: .......... I .......... fertilization
The Human Life Cycle
3. Primary or Secondary?
Classify the following sex characteristics into primary or secondary:
Pubic hair: .......... Low voice: ..........

Ovaries: .......... Testes: ..........
Penis: .......... Widening of hips: ..........
Enlargement of breasts: .......... Uterus: ..........
4. Human Development
During which stages of human development do
the following changes occur? Select from the
following options: [childhood / adolescence /
dulthood].
Control of body motion: ..........
First menstruation: ..........
Growth of body hair: ..........
Development of secondary sex characteristics: ..........
Aging begins: ..........
Development of speaking skills: ..........
Onset of menopause: ..........
Widening of hips: ..........
First ejaculation: ..........
Decline of fertility: ..........
EXERCISES
Gametes
5. Sperm flagellum
The location of mitochondria in sperm cells can be mitochondria
observed under the microscope.
The image shows a 3D model of a human

sperm cell.
a. Which of the following action is typical of

sperm?
q
These cells specialize in storing substances.
nucleus
q
These cells transmit electrical impulses.
q
These cells specialize in secreting substances. head
Diagram of a human sperm cell.
q
These cells exhibit high motility.
b. Where are mitochondria located in sperm? c. Why are mitochondria in sperm found in this
particular region of the cell?
q
Near the Golgi apparatus
q
To supply energy to the cytoplasm.
q
At the tip of the flagellum q To supply energy to the flagellum.
q
At the base of the flagellum q
To supply energy to the Golgi apparatus.
q
Inside the nucleus q
To store energy in the nucleus.
6. Are We Talking Gametes?

Indicate whether the following statements refer to eggs, sperm, to both types of cells, or to neither of them:
Select from the following options: [eggs / sperm / eggs and sperm / neither of them].
These cells are large: ..........
These cells have a flagellum that allows them living organism by themselves: ..........
to move: ..........
These cells transmit the genetic information
These cells are produced in the testes: .......... needed to generate a new living organism:
..........
These cells contain nutrients to enable the
development of the zygote: ..........
These cells contain the genetic information of
one of the parents: ..........
These cells are produced in the ovaries:
..........
Its nucleus takes up most of the cyto-
plasm: ..........
These cells can develop into a new
EXERCISES
Reproductive Systems
7. Equivalent and Complementary Structures

a. Indicate whether the following functions are
specific to the male reproductive system, female
reproductive system, or common to both:
Gamete production: ..........
Enable internal fertilization: ..........
Protection and nourishment of the new devel-
oping living organism: ..........
b. Indicate what types of structures perform the

following processes in the reproductive system:
[genital tracts / sex organs / gonads].
Producing gametes: ..........
Transporting gametes: ..........
Facilitating male and female gametes coming
Producing sex hormones: ..........
together: ..........
Anatomy of Reproductive Systems
8. The Reproductive System

a. Name the parts of the human female reproduc- b. Name the parts of the human male reproduc-
tive system highlighted in the diagram. tive system highlighted in the diagram.
..........
..........
..........
.......... ..........
.......... ..........
..........
..........
9. What Type of Structure Is It?

Indicate which reproductive system the following elements belong to and the role each plays in reproduction.
a. Ovaries c. Penis:
Reproductive system: [female / male] Reproductive system: [female / male]
Type: [sex organ / gonad / genital duct] Type: [sex organ / gonad / genital duct]
b. Vas deferens: d. Fallopian tubes:
EXERCISES
e. Testes: f. Vagina:
10. Gonads, Gametes, and Infertility

At times, couples have problems becoming preg-
nant. This phenomenon, called infertility, may
have multiple causes.
Read the following list of causes of infertility and
indicate which ones are due to problems in the
gametes, functional problems of the gonads, or
problems in other reproductive organs.
Insufficient sperm production: ..........

Sperm with low motility: ..........
Semen remains blocked in the vas deferens:
..........
Ovules remain trapped in the fallopian tubes,
also preventing sperm from passing through:
..........
Egg life is shorter than normal: ..........
Ovaries do not produce mature eggs: .......... A maturing egg seen under the light microscope.
The Menstrual Cycle
11. Facts about the Menstrual Cycle

Indicate whether these statements about the menstrual cycle are true or false.
The length of the menstrual cycle and their dif- There’s only one fertile day per period: the day
ferent stages may vary across different woman. when ovulation occurs.
The length of the menstrual cycle and their To know when ovulation occurs exactly you
different stages may vary from period to period simply have to count 14 days from the day when
in the same woman. the period started.
All menstrual cycles of a woman last exactly The ovarian cycle takes places in the two ovaries
the same. simultaneously.
12. Estimates about the Menstrual Cycle

a. A woman whose menstrual cycle is 28 days long b. Assuming that her menstrual cycle was 28 days
on average has her period on January 29. With this long, when would her next ovulation take place?
information in mind, answer the following questions.
It would take place [between January 9 and 17 /
Between what dates could you be sure ovulation between January 18 and 28 / between February 9
took place? and 13 / between January 12 and 16].
Ovulation occurred [between February 9 and 13 / c. Around which day will she have her next period?
between January 12 and 16 / between January 9
and 17 / between January 18 and 28]. [February 12 / February 19 / February 5 / February 26].
EXERCISES
d. A different woman has a menstrual cycle that e. When will she ovulate next? Consider that in
is 21 days long on average. Knowing she took her cycles shorter than 28 days the egg’s maturation
period on March 15, answer the following ques- phase accelerates, whereas the luteal phase remains
tions. unchanged.
When is her next period supposed to come?
Her next ovulation will occur [between April 1 and
She will have her period [between April 3 and 6/ 5/ between March 27 and 31 / between March 21
between March 29 and 31 / between April 7 and 11]. and 26].
13. Menopause
The menstrual cycle comes to a natural stop around the age of 50. This phenomenon is known as the
menopause. Look up information about menopause on the Internet and indicate whether the following
statements are true or false.
The menstrual cycle ends suddenly rather than Near the onset of menopause, menstruation is
gradually. less regular and less frequent.
Menopause is the period that spans from a Menopause occurs when very few or no eggs
woman’s last menstruation to the end of her life. remain in the ovaries.
After menopause, women no longer menstru- Important hormone changes occur with
ate and become infertile. menopause.
14. Hormone Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

This graph shows the levels of the four hormones
that regulate the menstrual cycle.
a. Look up information on the Internet about each
Hormone concentration
of the hormones in the diagram and match them

to their role in the parts of the menstrual cycle
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
indicated below. Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Thickening of the uterus lining: ..........
Egg maturation: ..........
Preparing the uterus lining in light of a possible
implantation: ..........
Ovulation: ..........
1 7 14 21 28
b. Observe the graph and place the stages of the
Days Estrogens
menstrual cycle in the correct order.
Progesterone
A.
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, pre- D.
While the eggs mature, estrogens stimulate
paring the uterus lining ahead of the possible the growth of the uterus lining.
implantation of the fertilized egg.
E.
Half way through the cycle, LH and FSH
B.
Regression of the corpus luteum causes a de- hormones induce ovulation and trigger the
cline in progesterone secretion, causing in turn formation of the corpus luteum.
the shedding from the uterus.
n increase in FSH secretion activates egg
C. A
maturation.
EXERCISES
Fertilization
15. Multiple Pregnancy

Most multiple pregnancies, when a woman is Monozygotic
simultaneously pregnant with two or more fetuses,
are classified into:

Monozygotic: the fetuses result from the
atypical cell division of a single zygote—gen-
erated by the fertilization of one egg and one
sperm—occurring shortly before its formation.

Dizygotic: the fetuses come from different
zygotes, formed because two or more eggs
were fertilized by two or more sperm cells.
a. Which pregnancies give rise to identical twins?

Why? Dizygotic
onozygotic pregnancies, since the fetuses
qM
come from the same egg and the same
sperm.
izygotic pregnancies, since the fetuses
qD
come from fertilizations that take place simul-
taneously.

qB oth pregnancies lead to the formation of
identical twins, since the mother always pro-
duces identical eggs.
b. Complete the following statements about the

genetic material of monozygotic and dizygotic c. Complete the following statements about the sex
twins: of monozygotic and dizygotic twins:
The genetic material in the cells of monozy- [Monozygotic / Dizygotic] twins may or may
gotic twins is [identical. / similar.] not be the same sex.
The genetic material in the cells of dizygotic [Monozygotic / Dizygotic] twins are always the
twins is [identical. / similar.] same sex.
16. Genetic Material and Fertilization

Complete the following text with the appropriate
terms:
Human beings are formed of millions of cells. They
all contain the same genetic material, which is an
exact copy of the material found in the organism’s
first cell, called ........... These copies are produced by
.........., a cell division process were new cells contain-
ing the same genetic material are generated.
The first cell’s genetic material was formed after
the genetic materials of two .......... combined, a pro-
cess specific to sexual reproduction called ........... .
EXERCISES
17. A Single Sperm b. Can a zygote fertilized by more than one sperm
Although only a single sperm fuses with the egg, develop?
there are many contenders.
q
Yes. The resulting zygote would have the
If more than one sperm is able to fuse with an egg, same amount of genetic material as its par-
there is an excessive amount of genetic material ents.
in zygote being formed. This zygote cannot divide
qYes, the zygote would develop normally,
successfully and does not develop.
producing an organism with an excessive
Female eggs have a mechanism to avoid polysper- amount of genetic material.
my or fertilization by more than one sperm. q
No, the resulting zygote would contain too
much genetic material.
When fusion of the membranes of one sperm and
one egg begins, the female sex cell initiates a pro- c. Which functions does a cortical reaction per-
cess called cortical reaction. This reaction causes form?
the hardening and thickening of the egg mem-
brane to prevent other sperm from fusing with it. Avoiding the formation of a zygote containing
more genetic material than is necessary.
a. Complete the following text with the most
suitable option: Selecting the sperm which has the best ge-
netic material.
Sex cells or gametes have exactly [half as much
genetic material as / the same amount of genet- Eliminating all the sperm that attempt to pen-
ic material as / twice as much genetic material etrate the egg after one has already done so.
as] the rest of the cells in the human body.
Favoring the development of polyspermic
This is why the zygote has exactly [half as zygotes.
much genetic material as / the same amount
of genetic material as / twice as much genetic Preventing more than one sperm from fertiliz-
material as] the non-sex cells of its parents. ing one egg.
18. Fertile Days and Fertilization

a. On average how long do the eggs remain in the Infertile days
fallopian tubes after ovulation? Look up the informa-
tion if necessary.
q
Only a few minutes
q
Between one and two days
q
Around three or four days MENSTRUAL CYCLE 9
q
More than a week
b. How long can sperm survive on average inside c. The fertile days of the menstrual cycle are the
the female reproductive system after sex? Look up days when the probability of pregnancy is high-
the information if necessary. est: the biological conditions are ideal for preg-
nancy to occur if there is sexual intercourse.
q
Only a few minutes
Watch the video in the digital version and explain
etween one and two days
qB
why it is possible to have fertile days before the
round three or four days
qA onset of ovulation.
ore than a week
qM d. Why is it that two days after ovulation a
woman is no longer fertile?
EXERCISES
Pregnancy
19. What Happens Every Trimester?

Indicate the trimester during which the following changes occur:
During the [first / second / third] trimester, The mother experiences nausea and sickness
the fetus’ major body organs begin to function during the [first / second / third] trimester.
except for the lungs.
The fetus turns upside down during the [first /
By the end of [first / second / third] trimester, second / third] trimester.
most of the fetus’ body organs have developed.
Changes in the body of the expectant mother
The mother experiences more physical discom- are visually noticeable starting from the [first /
fort in the [first / second / third] trimester. second / third] trimester.
During the [first / second / third] trimester, the During the [first / second / third] trimester, the
fetus’ lungs get ready to function. mother begins to feel fetal movement inside her.
20. Ultrasound Scans This gel facilitates the proper transmission of the
Read this text and answer the following questions. returning waves. The substance is usually cold, but
in most cases, the scanning is not uncomfortable
or painful. The only thing the patient sometimes
needs to do is to change position, in order to ob-
tain clearer images or more detailed views.
In this way, the heart, blood vessels, kidneys,

gall bladder, liver, pancreas, spleen, and genital
tract can all be examined through ultrasound
imaging—as can the fetus growing inside the
mother’s womb.
Ultrasound scanning is a very useful procedure to

monitor the development of pregnancies: it may
help detect fetal malformations, help to verify
the characteristics of the placenta and umbilical
cord, and to determine the amount of amniotic
fluid, etc.
Ultrasound scanning or sonography is a highly Ultrasound scans are considered to be harm-

reliable diagnostic technique in which high-fre- less to the fetus, and there is no evidence to date
quency sound waves are used instead of radiation. that it causes any harm to the unborn baby or to
These frequencies are referred to as ultrasound. the mother. However, it is recommended not to
perform more sonographies than are necessary.
A transducer probe—a kind of a microphone— Under normal conditions, scans are done between
emits high-frequency sound waves and registers weeks 6 and 12 of pregnancy in order to confirm
the waves that return to the device after hav- the pregnancy, between weeks 16 and 20 so as to
ing reflected from the patient’s organs. Next, a detect any fetal malformations, and around week
computer processes the data from these waves 32 to monitor fetal growth.
and produces the images, which are displayed on
a monitor. Adapted from “Ultrasound Scan” [in Span-
ish], in Enciclopedia de Tecnología Médica, El
The transducer is moved across the body sur- Mundo website, http://www.elmundo.es/el-
face to be examined, which has previously been mundosalud/especiales/2007/11/tecnologia/
smeared with a lubricating gel such as Vaseline. pruebas_imagen/ecografia.html, 2007
EXERCISES
a. What type of waves are used in sonography? d. When are ultrasound scans done to assess
whether the fetus’ organs are developing nor-
qUltrasounds q
X-rays mally?
q I
nfrared light q
Microwaves
In the [first / second / third] trimester of preg-
b. Are sonographies harmful to the mother or nancy.
fetus?
e. Which of the following aspects of pregnancy
q
No secondary effects have been detected. can we obtain information about through ultra-
q T
hey are as harmful as x rays. sound scans?

qYes, electromagnetic waves may be harmful to The length of the fetus
the cells of any living organism.
The skull diameter of the fetus
c. How many ultrasound scans are recommended
The degree of development of the fetal organs
during pregnancy?
q I
t is recommended to have as many ultra- The state and position of the placenta
sound scans as possible. The blood type of the fetus
ne per trimester, except in exceptional
qO
The amount of amniotic fluid
cases.
nly one ultrasound scan is recommended
qO The chromosome count
during the entire pregnancy.
Embryonic and Fetal Nutrition
21. Short-Lived Organs options:

a.Indicate which organ the following actions refer
to: [umbilical cord / amniotic sac / placenta]. Within the maternal uterus, the fetus is sur-
rounded by fluid and protected by the [umbilical
Replaces the fetus’ need to excrete: .......... cord / amniotic sac / placenta]. The exchange of
substances between the mother and the fetus is
Makes the fetus blood richer in oxygen: ..........
done through the [umbilical cord / amniotic sac /
Offers mechanical protection to the fetus: .......... placenta].
Supplies the fetus with the nutrients that the ma- This organ connects the blood vessels irrigating
ternal digestive system takes in from food: .......... the walls of the maternal organ with the blood
Has two arteries and one vein: .......... vessels of the fetus, which spread within the [um-
bilical cord / amniotic sac / placenta].
Attaches to the mother’s uterine lining: ..........
.
b. Complete the following text with the correct
22. A Selective Barrier The waste substances produced by the fetus can
The placenta is a selective barrier between the pass through the placenta.
maternal and fetal blood: it allows molecules to
The nutrients flowing in the mother’s blood can
pass and prevents certain macromolecules and
pass through the placenta.
cells from entering.
The placenta is a barrier that prevents the com-
Only certain microorganisms and viruses are able plete exchange of substances.
to pass through the placenta, which means that
Red cells and white cells can pass through the
the placenta protects the fetus from many diseases.
placenta.
Which of the following statements about the pla- The mother and fetus exchange blood in the
centa are true? placenta.
EXERCISES
23. Protecting Unborn Babies from Alcohol- The project also aims to educate the communities
Related Harm about the risks of drinking alcohol during preg-
Carefully read this text and answer the following nancy and about the challenges faced by children
questions. with FASD and their families.
Adapted from “Protecting Unborn Babies

from Alcohol-Related Harm,” World Health
Organization website, http://www.who.int/
features/2014/aboriginal-babies-alcohol-
harm/en/, March 2014
a. Indicate whether the following statements are

true or false.
The Lililwan project aims to inform aboriginal

communities in Australia about the risk of con-
suming alcohol during pregnancy.
Most fetal disorders caused by alcohol affect the
nervous system.
Alcohol and drug abuse during pregnancy can The Lililwan project aims to provide a cure to all
harm babies. It can also cause miscarriage, the children that suffer the fetal disorders caused
preterm birth, and stillbirth. If an unborn baby is by alcohol consumption.
exposed to alcohol it can be affected for life. The effects of alcohol consumption on the baby
Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) is the are temporary.
umbrella term for impairments of the growth and The effects of alcohol consumption by the
development of the brain and the central nervous mother on the developing fetus are negative or
system caused by drinking alcohol during preg- irreversible.
nancy. Aboriginal women in Australia have shown
how communities can take action to protect their b. Which organ regulates the exchange of sub-
women and babies from alcohol-related harm in stances between the maternal and fetal blood?
pregnancy.
q
The umbilical cord
In 2007, the Aboriginal communities in Kimberly
q
The placenta
recognized that many babies suffered from dis-
orders associated with high rates of alcohol use q
The uterus
during pregnancy. Signs of these disorders include q
The amniotic sac
physical deformities, mental retardation, learning
disabilities, and behavioral problems with irrevers-
c. Does the placenta allow for alcohol to be passed
ible and lifelong effects on children’s development.
to the fetus?
The Lililwan Project, which focuses on fetal disorders o, the placenta only allows oxygen and
qN
caused by alcohol, aims to provide each affected carbon dioxide to pass through.
child with a personalized FASD management plan
involving also their families, doctors and teachers. q
No, the placenta protects the fetus against
Since there is no cure for these disorders, the project toxic substances such as alcohol and nicotine.
provides mental health support and medical care
qYes, because maternal and fetal bloods mix in
to help cope with the resulting disabilities. Multi- the placenta.
disciplinary teams of health workers travel and

qYes, the placenta allows molecules like that of
work together so that comprehensive care can be
provided to children with FASD. alcohol to pass through.
EXERCISES
Birth To minimize the risks for both the mother and
fetus, each of these complications are treated
24. Stages of Labor differently:
Put the processes that take place during vaginal
Instrumental vaginal birth: the fetus comes
birth in the correct chronological order: out of the mother’s body through the vagina,
A. More
contractions expel the placenta and rem- but with the aid of surgical instruments (ven-
nants of the umbilical cord and amniotic sac. touse or forceps).
B. O
nce the baby is born, the umbilical cord is
Abdominal birth (caesarean section): the
clamped and then cut off. fetus is taken out through a surgical incision
in the mother’s abdomen.
C. T
he baby’s head appears at the vaginal opening.

Episiotomy: the fetus is taken out through the
D. O
nset of uterine contractions. vagina, but the mother has undergone minor
E. The contractions push the baby down the surgery to widen the opening of the vagina.
birth canal, which exerts pressure on the lower
What techniques from the previous page would
segment of the uterus.
best suit the following complications?
F. The cervix and the vagina begin to dilate. The [Instrumental / Episiotomy / Caesarean section].
amniotic sac ruptures.
When in labor, the opening of the vagina has
G. The placenta separates from the walls of the not widened enough: ..........
uterus.
After a few hours of contractions, the baby is
25. From Ovulation to Birth about to pop out but it isn’t coming out: .........
Put the processes leading to the birth of a new An unexpected problem during childbirth
human in chronological order. poses a threat to the mother’s or fetus’ health,
so labor needs to be sped up: ..........
A.
After sexual intercourse, a sperm meets the egg
in the fallopian tube and fertilization occurs. The fetus has the umbilical cord wrapped
around its neck: ..........
B.
The zygote undergoes successive mitosis while
moving down the fallopian tube into the uterus.
C. T
he blastocyst gives rise to the embryo, placen- Mother’s Return to Prepregnant State
ta, umbilical cord, and amniotic sac.
26. Changes during and after Pregnancy
D. The fetus increases in size and weight and its
This page shows some of the typical changes
body organs begin to function.
women undergo starting from the onset of preg-
E. The fetus turns upside down getting ready for nancy until after the postpartum period. Put the
birth. changes occurring from pregnancy to postpartum
in chronological order.
F.
Uterine contractions initiate childbirth.
G.
The embryo develops all its body organs. A. Early
fetal movements can be felt and the belly
grows.
H. The blastocyst implants in the lining of the
uterus and the menstrual cycle is interrupted. B.
Uterine contractions signal the onset of labor.
I. The egg leaves the ovaries and is swept into C.
After childbirth, lochia discharges occur.
the fallopian tubes. D. The volume and weight of the belly limit and
hinder the woman’s movements.
26. Childbirth Complications
Most childbirths are not problematic, but at times E.
The uterus shrinks back to its prepregnancy size.
there are complications that pose a threat to the F. A
major hormonal change causes nausea and
fetus, the mother, or both. sickness.
EXERCISES
Newborn Care
27. Baby Soft Spot Care a. According to the text, why are the bones in an
Read this text and answer the following questions. infant’s skull not joined together at birth?
Fontanelles To protect the brain at birth.
The skull is made up of many bones. There are To allow the brain to grow during the first year
seven bones in the skull itself and 14 bones in the of life.
face area. They join together to form a solid, bony To protect the newborn from diseases such as
cavity that protects and supports the brain. The encephalitis or hydrocephalus.
areas where the bones join together are called
the sutures. Because it did not have the time to form fully
during pregnancy.
The bones are not joined together firmly at birth.
To allow the head to change shape when pass-
This allows the head to change shape to help it
ing through the vagina during delivery.alia.
pass through the birth canal. The sutures gradu-
ally gain minerals and harden, firmly joining b. When does the anterior fontanelle begin to
the skull bones together. This process is called close?
ossification.
q
Around two years
In an infant, the space where two sutures join
q
Between the first and second month
forms a membrane-covered “soft spot” called a
fontanelle. The fontanelles allow the brain and q
Between the second and seventh month
skull to grow during an infant’s first year.
q
Between 7 and 19 months
There are normally several fontanelles on a new-
born’s skull. They are located mainly at the top, c. Why is the care of a baby’s head so important?
back, and sides of the head. Like the sutures, fonta- Select all the correct options.
nelles harden over time and become closed, solid,
bony areas. The fontanelle in the back of the head q
Since the skull bones are not completely
(posterior fontanelle) most often closes by the joined together, the mechanical protection
time an infant is 1 or 2 months old. The fontanelle of the brain provided by the baby’s skull is
at the top of the head (anterior fontanelle) most limited.
often closes within 7 to 19 months. q
The observation of fontanelles may reveal
certain diseases.
The fontanelles should feel firm and should curve
inward slightly to the touch. A noticeably sunken q In reality, the care of a baby’s head is as impor-
fontanelle is a sign that the infant does not have tant as that of a baby’s limbs.
enough fluid in his or her body, which can be
caused by dehydration or malnutrition. d. Which disease or diseases might a sunken fonta-
nelle indicate?
On the other hand, a tense or bulging fontanelle
occurs when fluid builds up in the brain or the q
Hydrocephalus q
Meningitis
brain swells, causing increased pressure inside q
Dehydration q
Encephalitis
the skull. A bulging fontanelle can be caused by
encephalitis, hydrocephalus or meningitis. q
Malnutrition
Adapted from “Fontanelles - Bulging,” Medline e. Which disease or diseases might a bulging fonta-
Plus, U.S. National Library of Medicine website, nelle indicate?
https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/
q
Hydrocephalus q
Meningitis
ency/article/003310.htm, February 2, 2016
q
Dehydration q
Encephalitis
q
Malnutrition
ANNOTATIONS
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The content is taken from the digital work available through

Photo & Image Credits

International Science Teaching Foundation Science Bits, S.L.

In this unit, you will learn:

How the male and female reproductive

About the period and how it works.

About the conditions in which fertiliza-

That the embryo is a living organism

About the changes that affect a preg-

About basic newborn care.

Understanding Human Reproduction

We humans reproduce, which means that we create new human beings.

Some living organisms reproduce asexually. This means that a single

To them, human reproduction was like sowing a seed in fertile ground.

We know today that that’s not how it works.

a. The video in the digital version explains how

What were the parents’ roles in generating a new

b. Today, the idea that sperm may have a tiny

Nowadays we can safely affirm that that idea is

c. The video in the digital version talks about

What are the female sex cells called? What do

d. How do sex cells come to create a new living

Describe the process involved in creating a new

e. What are the parents’ roles in the process of

Compare today’s scientific model to that of the

Key Processes of Human Reproduction

Like with most non-aquatic animals, fertilization in humans is internal:

Image c. DNA in eukaryotic cells is stored in structures called chromosomes.

Egg Sperm These structures—only visible during certain stages of a

Look at the images of the chromosomes of a human egg

d. Compare the chromosomes in the egg and sperm.

A total amount of .......... chromosomes, that is, .......... pairs of chromosomes.

From One Cell… Image

It is estimated that a newborn baby has around 2 trillion cells.

a. What do these cells and the zygote have in common?

b. What is the process which forms all these cells?

Which process gives rise to the different cell types?

2,000 During the [first / second / third] trimester, the increase

in weight is not significant, by less than 100 g.

500 b. Complete the following statement:

0 The weight of a newborn baby—around 3 kg— is

d. Throughout its development, the embryo’s cells must perform a series of

e. How do we humans extract the organic and inorganic nutrients from

How do you think the embryo is nourished?

The placenta links the mother’s circulatory system to the embryo’s,

Characteristics of Human Reproduction

Human reproduction is the process by which humans create

The Human Life Cycle

Adolescence is the transitional stage between child-

Physical changes. During puberty—the first stage

Adulthood. After adolescence, mental, emotional, and physical growth

Gametes pass on genetic information from the parents to the offspring:

Gamete production is regulated by sex hormones and occurs in special-

Image The reproductive system consists of the organs and structures

Therefore, both systems have equivalent and complementary structures:

In addition, the human female reproductive system has an ad-

Male reproductive system

Penis. This is an organ formed by three columns of erectile tissue that,

1 14 OVARIAN CYCLE 2 23 OVARIAN CYCLE 3

Ovulation Luteal phase

After fertilization, and while it descends to the uterus—which will take

Pregnancy or gestation is the process by which one or more

Pregnancy in humans takes around nine months—three trimesters or 40 Gallery