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WELDABILITY OF STEELS
FORMATION 1
PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004
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CONTENTS
1. DEFINITION OF WELDABILITY...........................................................................................3
2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS)...........................................3

2.1. Summary of the steels most commonly used in welded structures..............................3
2.1.1. Non-alloyed steels.......................................................................................................3
2.1.2. Alloy steels (excluding stainless steels).......................................................................4
2.2. Introduction to the weldability of steels.........................................................................5
2.3. Cold cracking.................................................................................................................6
2.3.1. Introduction.................................................................................................................. 6
2.3.2. Main steels concerned.................................................................................................6
2.3.3. Description of the cracks.............................................................................................6
2.3.4. Factors affecting cold cracking....................................................................................7
2.3.5. Means of preventing cold cracking.............................................................................11
2.3.6. Conclusion.................................................................................................................14
2.4. Ageing.........................................................................................................................14
2.4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................14
2.4.2. Principal steels concerned.........................................................................................14
2.4.3. Description of the phenomenon.................................................................................14
2.4.4. Factors affecting ageing............................................................................................15
2.4.5. Ageing prevention......................................................................................................15
2.5. Lamellar tearing...........................................................................................................16
2.5.1. Introduction................................................................................................................16
2.5.2. Principal steels concerned.........................................................................................16
2.5.3. Description of the cracks...........................................................................................17
2.5.4. Factors affecting lamellar tearing...............................................................................17
2.5.5. Prevention of lamellar tearing....................................................................................17
2.6. Reheating cracks.........................................................................................................18
2.6.1. Introduction................................................................................................................18
2.6.2. Principal steels affected.............................................................................................18
2.6.3. Description of the cracks...........................................................................................18
2.6.4. Factors affecting reheat cracking...............................................................................19
2.6.5. Prevention of reheat cracking....................................................................................19
2.7. Additional information concerning weldability of steels...............................................19
2.7.1. Weldability of fine grain non-alloyed steels................................................................19
2.7.2. Weldability of nickel steels for low temperature applications......................................20
3. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS..........................................................................20

3.1. Presentation of stainless steels...................................................................................20
3.2. Metallurgical roles of alloying elements......................................................................21
3.2.1. Quenching action.......................................................................................................21
3.2.2. Alphagenous action...................................................................................................22
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3.2.3. Gammagenous action................................................................................................22

3.2.4. Carburigenous action.................................................................................................22
3.2.5. Application to welds...................................................................................................23
3.3. Stainless steel parent metals......................................................................................24
3.3.1. Martensitic steels.......................................................................................................24
3.3.2. Ferritic steels.............................................................................................................25
3.3.3. Austenitic steels.........................................................................................................25
3.3.4. Austeno-ferritic steels (also called "DUPLEX" steels)................................................28
3.3.5. Additional information on the embrittlement of stainless steels..................................28
3.4. Weldability of stainless steels......................................................................................29
3.4.1. Weldability of martensitic (and semi-ferritic) steels....................................................29
3.4.2. Weldability of ferritic steels........................................................................................30
3.4.3. Weldability of austenitic steels...................................................................................31
3.4.4. Weldability of austeno-ferritic steels...........................................................................34
4. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR STEELS (HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS)..............................35

4.1. Presentation of heterogeneous joints..........................................................................35
4.2. Particularities regarding weldability.............................................................................36
4.3. Post weld heat treatment.............................................................................................37
4.4. Case study...................................................................................................................37
4.4.1. Welding of two dissimilar steels.................................................................................37
4.4.2. Welding of two different low alloy steels....................................................................37
4.4.3. Welding of a non-alloyed steel to a low alloy steel.....................................................38
4.4.4. Welding of two steels of which at least one is stainless.............................................38
4.5. Case of welding of steels to non ferrous metals.........................................................40
4.5.1. Introduction................................................................................................................40
4.5.2. Case of a steel + nickel (or nickel alloy) weld............................................................40
4.5.3. Case of a steel + copper (or copper alloy) weld.........................................................41
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1. DEFINITION OF WELDABILITY
In order to successfully complete welding operations and in order to ensure correct operation of the
assemblies produced, the welding process used must satisfy several criteria grouped under the term
weldability, which specify the requirements relative to welding.
Among these criteria, we shall refer to:

– operational weldability,
– metallurgical weldability,
– overall weldability.
Operational weldability refers to the practical possibility of producing a weld in actual manufacturing
conditions (the part and its environment, the process, the welding position, possibly also the qualification
of welding personnel, etc.).
Metallurgical weldability refers to the possibility of producing a weld without generating compaction or
structural imperfections resulting from the behaviour of the materials during welding (cracks, brittle
structures, etc.).
The overall weldability refers to the ability of the welded assembly to satisfy the in-service conditions to
which it will be subjected (mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, etc.).
These three weldability criteria constitute a non-exhaustive list to which one might add other criteria
concerning:
– the design and calculation of welded assemblies,
– inspection of the welded assemblies both during manufacture and in-service,
– compliance with regulations or standards, etc.
For the purposes of this course, we shall limit ourselves to studying the metallurgical weldability of
steels, resulting from the behaviour of these materials during welding.
2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS)
2.1. SUMMARY OF THE STEELS MOST COMMONLY USED IN WELDED STRUCTURES
2.1.1. Non-alloyed steels
The non-alloyed steels most commonly used in welded structures are those known as construction
steels as well as the steels used for boilers and other pressure vessels.
These steels are used essentially for industrial applications with operating ranges extending from
approximately –50 to + 350°C.
The operating properties usually required from such steels are as follows:
– Absence of brittleness at the lowest service temperature limit. This characteristic is ensured by the
minimum failure energy value for a given temperature, as measured by an impact bending test
performed on a notched test-piece,
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– A minimum elastic limit and/or resistance to traction at the highest operating temperature. These
mechanical characteristics are measured by tensile testing.
As an indication, the minimum elastic limit for non-alloyed steels commonly used in metallic construction
or boilerwork is generally between 185 and 420 N/mm² at ambient temperature. This elastic limit may be
obtained in several ways, from which a classification can be established of several categories of steels
listed below in order of increasing strength.
a) Steels whose elastic limit is essentially dependent on the carbon content (the higher the carbon
content, the greater the strength). These steels, considered to be "conventional", are delivered in the
normalised condition.
b) Steels whose elastic limit is achieved due to a small grain size (the finer the grain, the greater the
strength), with additionally:
– either residual work hardening,
– a quench and tempering heat treatment.
The steels whose elastic limit is essentially dependent on their carbon content contain between
approximately 0.08 and 0.20 %C and achieve an elastic limit of between 235 and 355 N/mm² (examples:
S235 to S355 JR).
On the other hand, fine grain steels contain less than 0.10 %C (in some cases less than 0.05 %C) and
achieve an elastic limit equal to at least 275 N/mm² (examples: S275 to S355 ML).
These categories of steels are used for plates, bars, girders, etc, and have designations suited to the
type of product (sheet, tube, etc.). They are commonly used to produce all kinds of welded structures
such as metallic frameworks, bridges, civil engineering plant and agricultural machines, ships, etc.
Other non-alloyed steels are sometimes used in welded structures. These are heat-treatable steels
identified by letter C in the European standards (XC in the old French standards). These steels are
characterised by their carbon content, which is included between approximately 0.10 and 1 %. They are
essentially used for the manufacture of mechanical parts such as pins, fasteners, reinforcement plates,
etc. (examples: C25, C45).
2.1.2. Alloy steels (excluding stainless steels)
a) ALLOY STEELS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
Alloy steels for boilers and pressure vessels operating at high temperatures are often used in welded
structures (the term high temperature is most often taken to mean between about 200 and 600°C).
The essential characteristics of these steels are their minimum elastic limit, tensile strength and creep
resistance, which can be guaranteed at high temperatures. These properties are obtained by the
addition of chrome and/or molybdenum (or in some cases vanadium or other carburising elements)
whose purpose is to form carbides which harden the steel at high temperature.
Examples: 16Mo3, 10CrMo9-10.
b) ALLOY STEELS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
In this case, the notion of low temperature is used to qualify temperatures below about -50°C.
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Nickel alloy steels have been developed for use at such temperatures. Their essential characteristic is
the lowest temperature at which a minimum fracture energy can be guaranteed through an "impact" test.
These steels contain up to a maximum of about 11 % nickel, with a reduced carbon content. They
guarantee a minimum fracture energy at a temperature which is all the lower if their nickel content is
high.
Examples: 12Ni14, X7Ni9.
c) HIGH ELASTIC LIMIT ALLOY STEELS
Steels alloyed with chrome, molybdenum, nickel, etc. exhibit high quenchability and therefore a high
suitability for heat treatment. In particular, and according to their carbon content, these steels may
achieve a high elastic limit (in some cases exceeding 1000N/mm²) after quenching and tempering. For
that reason, they are occasionally employed in welded structures, mainly to manufacture highly loaded
parts (lifting equipment, weapons, armour plating, submarine hulls, etc.) or to save weight (motor
vehicles, sports vehicles, aeronautical construction, etc.).
Examples: 25CrMo4, 36NiCrMo16.
2.2. INTRODUCTION TO THE WELDABILITY OF STEELS
Welding of steels may generate some danger of cracking or embrittlement.
The "welder" must be capable of predicting these possible defects, and be able to avoid them through
the use of an appropriate welding procedure.
The nature of the metallurgical problems to be considered, and therefore the remedies to be envisaged,
are primarily dependent on the type of steel. The main risks for the various families of steels are listed
below.
With non alloyed steels:

– cold cracking,
– lamellar tearing.
With allied steels for high temperature applications:

– cold cracking,
– cracking during reheating.
With allied steels for low temperature applications:

– loss of ductility through grain growth.
With high yield strength alloyed steels:

– cold cracking,
– possibly cracking during reheating.
We shall now examine the mechanisms operating in these different types of cracking or embrittlement
phenomena and see the preventive measures to be taken.
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2.3. COLD CRACKING
2.3.1. Introduction
When cold cracking conditions exist, this type of defect occurs in the welded zone, at the end of the
cooling of the weld (whence the term cold cracking) for instance below 150 °C.
This cracking is not related to the "quality" of the steel. In other words, it is not possible to avoid it by
selecting a "higher" quality steel grade. Each steel is more or less subject to this type of cracking,
according to its chemical composition. Certain steels are practically exempt, whereas others are
extremely prone to it.
In order to avoid cold cracking, we shall see that it is essential to adapt the welding procedure according
to the steel, the type of assembly and the process employed.
2.3.2. Main steels concerned
Cold cracking affects most steels which are subject to quenching during welding, in particular:
– non alloyed construction steels as well as "conventional" steels for boilers and pressure vessels,
– most of the heat treatable non alloyed steels,
– alloyed steels for high temperature applications,
– limited yield strength alloyed steels.
Fine grain non alloyed steels and alloyed steels for low temperature applications are either insensitive or
have low sensitivity to cold cracking due to their low carbon content.
2.3.3. Description of the cracks
APPEARANCE OF COLD CRACKS
1. crack along interface

2. crack in the weld root
3. underbead crack
4. longitudinal crack in the weld metal
5. transverse crack
6. transverse crack in the HAZ
Cold cracks may be located in the heat affected zone (HAZ) or in the weld metal (WM) which are the
regions of the weld most subject to quenching.
The cracks may be aligned longitudinally or transversely in relation to the weld bead.
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Finally, they may be internal or may break the surface.

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2.3.4. Factors affecting cold cracking
Cold cracking is the result of the combined effect of three factors which occur during welding:
– a brittle microstructure (particularly martensitic),
– the presence of hydrogen,
– the build-up of stresses.
Cold cracking does not require each of these factors individually to be at a maximum or minimum. It
does however require a minimum combination of the three together and occurs all the more readily if the
stress level, the hydrogen content or the brittle nature of the microstructure are high.
WELDING STRESSES
CONTRAINTE DE SOUDAGE
a) STRESS CAUSES L L
The stresses which lead to cold cracking are those which

we call residual welding stresses. They are built-up
during welding and are not in any way related to the L L
subsequent operating stresses.
Residual welding stresses are caused by the local

heating effect which is inherent in the very nature of
welding, combined with the degree of restraint applicable
to the welded assembly.
A part which is heated throughout its thickness

undergoes an increase in volume due to thermal L L
expansion. On cooling, the reverse process results in the
same amount of material contraction.
In a welded part, the expansion and contraction are

generally resisted by the surrounding metal which
remains cooler. This phenomenon is all the more
pronounced if the part is rigid (thick material, presence of
L
stiffeners, etc.). As a result of this, the metal expansion
and contraction cannot occur freely in the weld zone.
E hw ep
The resistance to natural expansion and contraction of
the metal are referred to as restraint.
 L x E x ep
hw L
In a restrained configuration, a weld which contracts on
cooling exerts a tensile force on the surrounding metal,
since the latter resists any material displacement.
The resulting forces generate residual welding stresses. Their magnitude is all the greater if the degree
of restraint, which is linked to the "restraint" of the part, is high. The welding stresses are at the worst
equal to the yield strength of the material, since beyond that, plastic deformation occurs at the same time
as the metal contracts.
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b) SOURCE OF THE HYDROGEN BASIC COATING
Welding, apart from a few special cases, has the effect of introducing
Humidity hydrogen
absorption asinto
% ofthe
the metal. This
hydrogen comes from the breakdown of humidity (which is rich in hydrogen) in contact with the heat
coating weight
source. This humidity is caused by:
– the humidity in the electrode coating or the flux (natural humidity and humidity absorbed from the air),
– penetration of air, containing more or less humidity, in the weld arc (particularly with a long arc or
defective protection),
– any humidity which may be present on the parts to be welded (water condensation or contamination
of the surfaces with products containing hydrogen).
If one compares the different welding processes, it becomes clear that those process which use flux (in
the form of a coating or in powder form) are the ones which contain most hydrogen. One must also
consider the nature of the flux (cellulose, rutile, basic) or certain particularities of filler metals (tubular
cored wire or sheet, etc.).
The case of basic coated electrodes also demonstrates how certain products absorb moisture during
storage. These coated electrodes must imperatively be dried (e.g. for two hours at 350 °C) then they
must be stored in a heated enclosure (around 150 °C) until they are used, to ensure they do not
reabsorb any moisture. In order to avoid such difficulties, coated electrodes with very low hydrogen
content and low water absorption are increasingly being developed and marketed in airtight packaging.
The humidity in the ambient air surrounding the weld arcs is without doubt the second most important
factor with respect to the introduction of hydrogen. Of course the quality of the protection is of direct
consequence. It should be noted that the amount of hydrogen introduced into the metal is:
– low in MAG welding,
– very low in TIG welding,
HYDROGEN SOURCES IN WELDING WITH COATED
– zero in electron beam welding (which therefore avoids cold cracking).
ELECTRODES
TIME OF EXPOSURE TO AIR IN DAYS
Humidity on the surface of the parts to be welded is more an anomaly, as is the use of inert gas
coated electrode
protection welding BASIC
in the COATING
presence of a draught, or the introduction of humidity due to leakage in the
water cooling system for a welding torch.
humidity content of the

coating in %
BASIC COATING
cm3 of hydrogen diffusible per 100 g filler metal

of metal deposited
slag
parent metal
drying temperature in °C
humidity content of the

coating in %
DRYING TIME IN HOURS
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H2
ml / 100g M.F. > 22
TENEURS EN HYDROGENE DIFFUSIBLE PRODUITES
PAR DIFFERENTS PROCEDES DE SOUDAGE
15 15,5 et +
bas hydrogène si Hdiff < 5ml / 100gr.MF
13
Cellulosiques
2 normes: NF A 81.305-H2 / M.F.
10 H2 / M.D.
9
Rutiles
ISO 3690 et
7
Feuillards
6,5 H2 / M.F.
5,5
5 Norme BH
4
2,5
2 2
Feuillards
Basiques
2 2
1,5
1.5 1,5
Tub.
0,5
Tub.
ELECTRODES ENROBEES Rutiles Basiques TIG
S / FLUX Fll fourré Fll nu / CO2
MAG
c) ORIGIN OF THE BRITTLE MICROSTRUCTURE
The brittle microstructure which is subject to cold cracking is due essentially to the presence of
martensite.
As already seen in the study of the HAZ, the structure obtained in the region of the weld is dependent
essentially on the welding thermal cycle at the point concerned and on the chemical composition of the
steel.
The formation of martensite is increased if the cooling time (e.g. tr 800-500) is short, and if the steel is
highly subject to quenching.
Remember that the quenchability of a steel is higher if:

– the carbon content is high (which also increases the brittleness of the quenched structures),
– the content of additive elements is also high.
From a practical point of view for the welder, the quenchability of a steel (and therefore indirectly its
susceptibility to cold cracking) may be evaluated by calculating its CARBON EQUIVALENT (Ceq) using
the following equation:
– for non-alloyed steels: Ceq = C + Mn/6
– for low-alloyed steels: Ceq = C + Mn/6 + (Cr+Mo+V)/5 + (Ni+Cu)/15
Where: C = actual % carbon in the steel (see the raw material certificate),
Mn = actual % manganese in the steel,
Cr = actual % chrome in the steel,
Mo = actual % molybdenum in the steel,
V = actual % vanadium in the steel,
Ni = actual % nickel in the steel,
Cu = actual % copper in the steel.
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The higher the carbon equivalent, the more quenchable the steel, and therefore the more susceptible it
is to cold cracking. As soon as the equivalent carbon for the steel reaches a value of about 0.40, there is
a severe risk of forming martensite during electric arc welding (SAEE, TIG, MIG, MAG).
TRC welding CONVERSION CHART TRC welding CONVERSION CHART
in sec in sec
2.3.5. Means of preventing cold cracking

X 10 Cr Mo 5
C Mn Si Cr Ni Mo Cu
0,10 0,51 0,28 5,05 0,11 0,6 0,12
Re = 210 N/mm² Rm = 486 N/mm²
 Hv5
800 500
Hv
600 400
400 A + M
300
M
300 250
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
tr (800-500°C) en Sec.
in sec
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The means of preventing cold cracking are those which:

– reduce the level of residual welding stresses
– avoid the presence of a brittle structure,
– limit the amount of hydrogen introduced into the weld
– prevent the simultaneous occurrence of the first three factors.
a) Prevention by design of the installation
From the very design stage of a welded installation, several precautions should be taken to avoid or limit
the danger of cold cracking. Two main recommendations are provided below
Irrespective of the assemblies to be produced, it is always beneficial to reduce the residual welding
stresses. To achieve this, it is essential to try to avoid highly restrained welds.
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When selecting the steel grade, it is important, wherever possible, to choose a steel having a low carbon
equivalent value.
b) Preventive measures during welding
First and foremost, it is essential to calculate the carbon equivalent of the steel to be welded, in order to
evaluate its susceptibility to cold cracking.
If the steel to be welded has a high carbon equivalent (> 0.40) the quantity of hydrogen introduced into
the welds must be kept to a minimum, remembering that this can be achieved by:
– appropriate selection of the welding process, giving preference to low-hydrogen processes,
– strict compliance with the welding instructions (use of dried covered electrodes, welding with a short
arc, etc.).
Once the steel to be welded, the type of assembly to be produced and the welding process have been
defined, the welding conditions to avoid cold cracking may be evaluated:
– either by performing weldability tests,
– or by interpreting the cracking graphs in conjunction with a welding heat dissipation graph.
The welding parameters which avoid cold cracking cannot be validated by qualification of the welding
process (QMOS). The reason for this is that the QMOS is performed on test specimens which are either
not or only slightly restrained, this is not therefore representative of the real stress level in an actual
production weld. Additionally, each QMOS covers a range of steel grades and not a specific equivalent
carbon value.
In practice, the choice of manufacturing process to avoid cold cracking is defined such as to facilitate
welding, in accordance with the following rules:
a) Determine the minimum linear welding energy to achieve a cooling time which avoids cracking, i.e. a
cooling time which avoids or limits the degree of quenching sufficiently to prevent cracking.
b) If the welding energy required is too high to achieve in practice, the energy should than be limited to a
reasonable value and a pre-heating temperature should be sought to achieve a cooling time which
avoids cold cracking with that energy.
c) If the pre-heating requires an excessive temperature (as is the case for highly quenchable steels),
then pre- and post-heating should be used. Post-heating corresponds to maintaining the weld at high
temperature. This is a true heat treatment where the temperature and the time at temperature are to
be defined. The effect of post-heating is to enable hydrogen degassing before the weld cools (i.e.
before forming all the martensite). This is characterised by a temperature-time combination and a
minimum temperature below which the steel must not cool until the hydrogen has sufficiently
degassed in order to avoid cracking.
d) Finally, if post-heating is not desirable for practical reasons, the ultimate solution consists in using an
austenitic stainless steel or nickel alloy filler metal (which "traps" the hydrogen in the weld pool where
the structure is not brittle). This solution may however limit the operating properties of the assembly in
relation to the initial properties of the parent metals.
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COLD CRACKING GRAPHS WELD ON SHEET MATERIAL
DEPOT SUR TOLE

i = 25°C tr (800-500°C)
0 10 20 30 40 50
5000
non-cracking limit
10000
e = 7 mm
15000
20000
25000
e = 10 mn
30000
35000 e = 15 mn
welding with basic electrodes 40000 e = 20 mn
E e = 30 mn
J/ cm
Contrainte en N / mm² X 10 Cr Mo 5
500
Soudage à froid
Avec électrode "basique" Cr = 5% traitées
Soudage homogène 2h à 350°C puis conservées en étuve à 150°C
jusqu'au moment de l'emploi. 500
Avec électrodes "austénitiques rutilo-basiques"
Soudage Hétérogéne Cr : 24% - Ni : 12% non traitées.
400 ( ZF = CFC ) Avec électrodes "basiques" Cr = 15% - Ni = 74%
traitées.
450
300
NF Dureté sous cordon
F 400
NF NF
200
NF F
350
100
Limite de non fissuration 300
NF tr en s ( 800-500°C )
2 5 10 15 20
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2.3.6. Conclusion
Cold cracking is a serious problem, for which the conditions of occurrence are frequently encountered in
welding: quenching steel + process which releases hydrogen + restrained assembly = likelihood of cold
cracking.
Whenever a situation conducive to cracking is encountered, it is imperative to take preventive measures

with respect to the welding process.
For non alloyed steels, compliance with the minimum linear welding energy level and the possible use of
pre-heating are the main methods for avoiding cold cracking. The pre-heating temperatures which can
be achieved in practice fall within the range 100 to 300 °C.
For alloyed steels, which are more quenchable, it is frequent to have to resort to pre-heating at least, and
in some cases to pre- and post-heating. The post-heating temperatures which can be achieved in
practice fall within the range 75 to 300 °C. The post-heating times are most often spread between 15 and
90 minutes. It should be noted that post-heating does not prevent quenching, which often results in the
need for performing tempering heat treatment after welding in order to avoid the susceptibility to
in-service brittle fracture of the welds.
Steels susceptible to cold cracking may also be welded without pre- or post-heating, by using either
austenitic (stainless steel) or nickel alloy filler metal. This method is not often used as the service
properties of the weld are diminished in relation to a homogeneous assembly.
2.4. AGEING
2.4.1. Introduction
Ageing corresponds to a loss in ductility (embrittlement) which affects the material gradually with time.
Usually, embrittlement appears after a certain period of use whereas the initial properties of the steel
PRE- AND POST-HEATING CONDITIONS
Welding with basic electrodes

heat-treated for 2 h at 350 °C and
stored at 150 °C until use.
CRACKING TEST
with E/cm = 20 kJ/cm for thick = 20 mm
were quite satisfactory.

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The time required for embrittlement to occur depends on the operating temperature of the steel. In
general, it is considered that ageing begins to occur after:
 a few months (or years), at ambient temperature,
 a few minutes (or tens of minutes), at around 250°C.
2.4.2. Principal steels concerned
Ageing occurs mainly with non alloyed « conventional » steels (such as S235) whose structure consists
essentially of ferrite.
2.4.3. Description of the phenomenon
The ductile-brittle transition temperature as measured by a notch impact toughness test increases as the
steel ages.
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For example, a rise in the transition temperature of + 200°C has been measured after severe ageing at
0 °C (i.e. K > 27D at 0°C initially and K > 27D at + 200°C after ageing).
Ageing takes place in the parent metal as well as in the welds.
2.4.4. Factors affecting ageing
Ageing is essentially caused by the gradual precipitation of iron nitrides (Fe4N) within the ferrite of the
steel.
The solubility of nitrogen in ferrite is very low at ambient temperature, and relatively fast cooling may trap
excessive nitrogen in the ferrite. As this nitrogen is gradually rejected by the ferrite, it forms nitrides. This
process is slower if the temperature is low.
In practice, the factors affecting the precipitation of nitrides are:
 a nitrogen content in excess of 0.01% to exceed the nitrogen solubility limit in ferrite,
 that the steel has been subjected to normalising heat treatment, as the cooling is fast enough to trap
an excess of nitrogen in the ferrite.
In practice, the precipitation of iron nitrides is not sufficient on its own to generate severe ageing. The
steel must also have been work hardened (e.g. during a forming operation) for the ageing intensity to be
at a maximum (remember that work hardening itself results in a loss of ductility). In this respect, work
hardening also constitutes a factor affecting ageing.
2.4.5. Ageing prevention
a) For the parent metal
Non-alloyed « conventional » steels are not subject to ageing if:
 their nitrogen content is low (less than 0.01% nitrogen),
 they contain elements such as aluminium which form non-embrittling nitrides in preference to iron
nitrides (this requires more than 0.02% aluminium).
The sensitivity of the parent metal can therefore be evaluated quite simply by chemical analysis of the
steel.
b) For the weld
As the likelihood of ageing is proportional to the nitrogen content, it is essential to limit the introduction of
this element into the weld pool. This involves:
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 prohibiting the use of protection gases containing nitrogen, for the welding non-alloyed steels.
 the need to provide effective protection of the weld pool from the ambient air, which contains
approximately 80% nitrogen (weld with a short arc to reduce the introduction of air into the
welding arc, perfectly protecting the welding process from draughts when using TIG / MIG / MAG
processes etc.).
2.5. LAMELLAR TEARING
2.5.1. Introduction
Lamellar tearing is a cracking mode which affects "low" quality steels. As a result, lamellar tearing is rare
since the quality level of modern steels is normally sufficient to prevent its occurrence. This type of defect
is encountered essentially when welding old steels, or low quality new steels.
As with cold cracking, the lamellar tearing develop during cooling of the welds.
2.5.2. Principal steels concerned
Lamellar tearing generally affects non-alloyed steels in the form of thick plate.
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The cracks propagate under fillet welds, in the heat affected zone or in the parent metal.
They advance in "footsteps" along the grain flow pattern.
The tears which break the surface exhibit a ligneous (or lamellar) appearance, similar to "rotten wood",
which gives rise to the term lamellar tearing.
2.5.4. Factors affecting lamellar tearing
Lamellar tearing of fillet welds is the combined effect of two factors:
– low tensile strength of the steel in the short transverse direction,
– the accumulation of residual welding stresses (which exceed the tensile strength of the steel in the
short transverse direction).
We have already seen that residual welding stresses are affected by the degree of restraint combined
with the thickness, built-in joints, etc. For this reason, lamellar tearing is most prevalent in heavy gauge
materials.
The lack of tensile strength of the steel in the short transverse direction is due to excessive inclusions
resulting from inadequate purity of the steel. The inclusions concerned are generally manganese
sulphides, which are flattened in the longitudinal direction in flat materials. In extreme cases, these
inclusions may cause "delamination" of the steel. In such cases, the steel is like a book: strong
longitudinally and transversally, but which opens easily in the thickness direction. This is the reason why
lamellar cracking principally affects fillet welds, since these load the metal in the thickness (short
transverse) direction.
2.5.5. Prevention of lamellar tearing
In new manufacture, the best protection from lamellar tearing consists in checking the quality level of the
steel. When fillet welds are to be performed, which exhibit a high degree of restraint, two solutions
should be considered to avoid lamellar tearing:
– choose a steel grade whose properties are guaranteed in the short transverse direction. Construction
steels described as "having improved deformation properties perpendicular to the surface of the
product" satisfy this requirement. They are standardised and are designated by quality classes Z15,
Z25, Z35 (the higher the index, the greater the resistance of the steel to lamellar tearing),
– on receipt of the steels , check their inclusion content by ultrasonic non-destructive testing. This type
of test is quite simple to perform. It is conducted using thickness measuring apparatus, taking
readings at regular intervals over the surface of the product concerned..
When performing repairs or modifying old constructions, it may be necessary to fillet weld on thick
material sensitive to lamellar tearing (this situation sometimes occurs also with new constructions).
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In such cases, a special welding procedure must be used: "buttering" must be performed in the zone
where the fillet weld is to be performed, on the product which is subject to lamellar tearing. Buttering
consists in surfacing the steel by welding, in several layers, to a thickness of at least 5 mm.
The buttering is intended to establish a "base layer. This acts like the foundations of a building
constructed on unstable ground.
– either directly on the surface, as a metal build-up,
– or in a groove providing a flush surface, without any build-up.
2.6. REHEATING CRACKS
2.6.1. Introduction
As with lamellar tears, reheat cracking occurs essentially in low quality steels. For this reason, it is quite
rare, because the quality level of modern steels is sufficient to avoid it.
Contrary to cold cracking or lamellar tearing, reheat cracking of a weld bead does not occur when the
weld is being produced. It occurs when the bead is reheated (hence its name), essentially during heat
treatment after welding.
Reheating welding may also be experienced during multiple pass welding, as the beads already
produced are reheated by the application of subsequent passes.
2.6.2. Principal steels affected
Reheat cracking mainly affects low alloyed steels containing chrome + molybdenum or chrome +
molybdenum + vanadium.
These steels generally require tempering after welding, as they are highly quenchable.
The reheat cracks initiate in the heat affected zone, and possibly also in the weld zone.
Their special feature being that they propagate along the grain boundaries of the steel.
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2.6.4. Factors affecting reheat cracking
Reheat cracking occurs as a result of two main factors:
– embrittlement of the steel at the grain boundaries which occurs during reheating, between 350 and
700°C approximately,
– residual welding stresses which exceed the breaking strength at the embrittled grain boundaries.
We have already seen that the welding stresses are all the higher if the degree of restraint of the weld is
severe. The intensity of the residual welding stresses is therefore determined by the configuration of the
welded joint (beware of heavy sections, built-in ends, etc.).
Embrittlement of the steel is principally caused by the accumulation of certain impurities at the grain
boundaries: mainly phosphorus (P), but also sulphur (S) and possibly a few other impurities. In other
words, the higher the impurity content of chrome + molybdenum (+ vanadium) alloyed steels, the more
likely they are to be affected by reheat cracking.
2.6.5. Prevention of reheat cracking
The welding of a highly restrained steel, requiring heat treatment after welding, may be undertaken
without any worry of reheat cracking providing that the impurity content of the steel is moderate.
Well before welding, it is therefore recommended to check the chemical composition of the material, in
particular regarding the phosphorus content, in order to avoid or to limit the welding of chrome +
molybdenum (+ vanadium) alloy steels whose impurity content approaches or exceeds the maximum
values specified in the reference standard for the product (e.g. 0.030% phosphorus).
Remark: In view of the potential risk of reheat cracking of such steels, it is advisable to perform non
destructive testing of the welds once the heat treatment is complete.
2.7. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION CONCERNING WELDABILITY OF STEELS
2.7.1. Weldability of fine grain non-alloyed steels
Fine grain non-alloyed steels have carbon contents which are low enough to avoid any danger of cold
cracking in the heat affected zone.
Beware however if the weld zone is required to exhibit the same mechanical strength as the parent
metal. The weld zone in fact requires a higher carbon content than the parent metal in order to achieve
equivalent strength (as it does not benefit from the same special elaboration conditions as the base
metal in order to obtain a fine grain structure). As a result of this, the danger of cold cracking migrates to
the weld zone, making it necessary to take all the necessary precautions (checking of the hydrogen
content and controlling the cooling times).
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It should be noted that it is not always required that the strength of the weld metal be equal to that in the
parent metal. In particular, fillet welds may be performed using filler metal which provides less strength.
To counter this, the depth of the fillet weld groove should be increased accordingly so that the size of the
weld can offset its lower mechanical properties.
In view of their elaboration quality, these steels are theoretically immune to lamellar tearing.
2.7.2. Weldability of nickel steels for low temperature applications
Nickel steels for use in low temperatures have relatively low carbon content in order to limit the formation
of brittle martensite in the heat affected zone. For this reason, they are virtually immune to cold cracking.
The main metallurgical difficulty presented by welding of these steels is to achieve adequate impact
strength in the weld, if possible equal to that of the parent metal. To achieve this, it is essential to reduce
the time spent at high temperature in order to limit the grain growth due to overheating. This involves
welding with a low linear energy level, without preheating, or just using "tepefaction" (warming to less
than 100 °C) on heavy gauge materials.
Steels containing up to 3.5% nickel (e.g.: 12Ni14) may be welded using filler metal of the same grade as
the parent metal (homogeneous welding). On the other hand, welds in steels with a higher nickel content
(e.g.: X7Ni9) cannot achieve the necessary impact strength using homogeneous welding (due to the
coarse structure in the weld zone). These grades require the use of an austenitic stainless steel filler
metal (or nickel alloy), whose natural impact strength is greater (due to their cubic face centred
structure).
3. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS
3.1. PRESENTATION OF STAINLESS STEELS
The term "stainless steel" applies to high-alloy steels, whose corrosion resistance is enhanced due to the
presence of at least 10.5% chrome.
The corrosion resistance of these steels results from the formation of a film of chrome oxide which
naturally covers the metal and protects it when it is in an oxidising medium. This protective oxide layer
constitutes a barrier against attack of the metal by a large number of chemicals.
In practice, the oxide layer forms naturally at ambient temperature when the steel is exposed to air,
which is how it came to be called stainless, as it very quickly stops oxidising in this ambient medium and
preserves its metallic appearance.
However, stainless steel loses its corrosion resistance as soon as the protecting oxide is unable to form
properly. This may happen for example:
– following surface contamination. Projection of non-alloy steel by grinding is a typical case,
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– following the formation of certain non-protective oxides (coloured oxides), by welding or heat
treatment.
In other words, the implementation of stainless steels requires special precautions regarding clean
surfaces. In the event of doubt, degreasing and stripping (or decontamination) are performed
systematically prior to commissioning. Stripping consists in superficial dissolving of the metal to strip it
bare, most often performed by dipping it in a bath of highly corrosive acids. This operation may be
followed by "passivation" which intended to build up a reinforced coating of oxide by placing the metal in
a relatively oxidising medium. If the surface of the stainless steel has merely been contaminated by the
projection of ordinary steel, decontamination may be used in place of stripping. Decontamination is
performed under the same conditions as passivation, the ordinary steel is dissolved by the oxidising
medium. These operations are followed by a thorough rinse in demineralised water.
In order to remove the coloured oxides formed during welding, the surface may be cleaned mechanically,
in particular by brushing with a stainless steel brush used exclusively for that purpose.
In addition to chrome, these steels are often alloyed to a multitude of other elements. The presence of
certain items increases corrosion resistance (this is the case for molybdenum with respect to corrosion
by chlorides) whereas other elements enhance the mechanical properties. In all cases, the chemical
composition of a stainless steel provides it with metallurgical properties. In particular we shall see how
the structure of these steels is the direct consequence of their chemical composition, thus enabling
stainless steels to be classified into four main categories:
– martensitic steels,
– ferritic steels,
– austenitic steels,
– austeno-ferritic steels.
3.2. METALLURGICAL ROLES OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
In addition to iron, chrome and carbon, stainless steels often contain other elements such as nickel,
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, silicon, nitrogen, vanadium, aluminium, copper, boron, etc.
These elements are intended to enhance certain operating properties of stainless steels. First and
foremost, they affect the structure of the steels through four main actions:
– quenching action,
– alphagenous action,
– gammagenous action,
– carburigenous action.
3.2.1. Quenching action
The quenching action promotes the formation of martensite. It is the result of increased quenchability
which is proportional to the content of carbon + alloying elements (in the case of non- and low-alloyed
steels, the quenching action is evaluated by calculating its carbon equivalent).
Virtually all alloying elements have a quenching action.

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3.2.2. Alphagenous action
The alphagenous action manifests itself by a rise in the ferrite to austenite transformation temperature.
This results in an increase in the temperature range in which the structure of the steel is ferritic. This
effect is proportional to the content of alphagenous elements, to such an extent that if the steel contains
sufficient alphagenous elements then its structure remains ferritic from ambient temperature right up to
melting of the metal, without any austenitic transformation taking place.
If the alphagenous element content is insufficient to prevent austenitic transformation, the alloying
elements present increase the quenchability of the steel (which results in martensitic structures). If on
the other hand the alphagenous element content is sufficient to prevent austenitic transformation, the
same alloying elements make the steel ferritic, without any chance of forming any other type of structure,
since no transformation can be produced (the ferrite appears as soon as solidification occurs and
remains at all temperatures of the solid metal).
The following is a list of elements which have an alphagenous action in steels: CHROME (Cr),
MOLYBDENUM (Mo), SILICON (Si), TITANIUM (Ti), NIOBIUM (Nb), ALUMINIUM (Al), TUNGSTEN (W),
ZIRCONIUM (Zr).
3.2.3. Gammagenous action
Gammagenous action is contrary to alphagenous action, as it manifests itself by a reduction in the

transformation temperature from ferrite to austenite. This results in an increase in the temperature range
within which the structure of the steel is austenitic. This effect is proportional to the gammagenous
element content, such that a steel which contains sufficient gammagenous elements may exhibit a totally
austenitic structure at ambient temperature.
If the gammagenous element content is inadequate to prevent transformation of the austenite, the
alloying elements present reinforce the quenchability of the steel (this leads to martensitic structures).
However, if the gammagenous element content is sufficient to prevent transformation of the austenite,
the same alloying elements make the steel austenitic, without any chance of forming any other type of
structure, since no transformation can be produced.
The following is a list of the elements which have a gammagenous action in steels: NICKEL (Ni),
CARBON (C), NITROGEN (N), COPPER (Cu), COBALT (Co), MANGANESE (Mn).
3.2.4. Carburigenous action
Carburigenous action manifests itself by the formation of carbides. The carburigenous elements exhibit a
great affinity for the carbon in steel, with which they combine to form carbides.
The following is a list of carburigenous elements in decreasing order of affinity for carbon: NIOBIUM
(Nb), TITANIUM (Ti), CHROME (Cr), IRON (Fe).
From this classification, it can be seen that iron is the least carburigenous. The result of this is that:
– in an iron + chrome + carbon alloy, the chrome takes precedence in forming carbides
– in an iron + chrome + carbon + titanium alloy, the titanium takes precedence in forming carbides.
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3.2.5. Application to welds
We have seen that the structure of a high alloy steel varies according to its chemical composition,
according to the degree of quenchability, alphagenous and gammagenous effects. In other words, a
stainless steel may exhibit either:
– a martensitic structure,
– a ferritic structure,
– an austenitic structure,
– an intermediate structure formed of a mixture of the above different constituents.
In the weld zone of stainless steels, the composition charts enable the structure to be determined in
accordance with the composition of the alloy to be elaborated by the welder. The best known of these is
the Schaeffler diagram: this shows the constitution of the weld zone at ambient temperature in relation to
its actual composition. It applies to stainless steel welds performed in a single pass by the electric arc
process.
The effect of alphagenous elements is provided on the horizontal axis by the chrome equivalent
equation: Creq = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5(%Si) + 0.5(%Nb).
The higher the chrome equivalent, the stronger the alphagenous action (which encourages a ferritic
structure).
The effect of gammagenous elements is provided on the vertical axis by the nickel equivalent equation:
eqNi = %Ni + 30(%C) + 0.5(%Mn).
The higher the nickel equivalent, the stronger the gammagenous action (which encourages an austenitic
structure).
Equivalent Ni
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE
+ 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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The Schaeffler diagram cannot be applied directly to parent metals as it does not take into account the
heat treatment performed on certain alloys (for example, tempering heat treatment of martensite
transforms the martensite into ferrite and carbides).
Remarks:
In order to take into account the presence of certain elements, the Schaeffler diagram may be used with
more accurate chrome and nickel equivalent equations, such as the Espy formulae which include the
gammagenous effect of nitrogen.
Other diagrams predict more accurately the austenitic and ferritic structures (Delong and WRC
diagrams).
3.3. STAINLESS STEEL PARENT METALS
3.3.1. Martensitic steels
These steels correspond mainly to iron + chrome + carbon alloys whose chrome content are generally
between 10.5 % and 17 %, with a maximum carbon content of around 1 %, often limited to about 0.20 %
C for the grades intended for welded constructions (they may also contain other alloying elements such
as molybdenum, vanadium, nickel, etc.).
Examples of grades: X12Cr13, X20Cr13, X105CrMo17.
These steels are austenitic at high temperature and become martensitic as they cool. In view of their
chrome and carbon contents, they are highly quenchable: the martensitic transformation takes place
even with slow cooling.
The higher their carbon content, the harder and more brittle they are.
Martensitic stainless steels are supplied in the quenched and tempered, or annealed condition.
Their main properties are as follows:

– high yield strength and hardness value (the yield strength may exceed 1,500 N/mm²),
– good creep resistance (for operating temperatures below the austenitic transformation temperature),
– average corrosion resistance,
– very low ductility.
They are used for manufacturing parts which demand high mechanical strength and/or average
corrosion resistance. One of their common applications is for the manufacture of knife blades. They are
also used in the manufacture of hydroelectric turbines for use in fresh water. These steels cannot be
used for applications where high ductility or good corrosion resistance are required.
Note concerning operating temperatures: Martensitic stainless steels must not be used within the
following temperature ranges:
– at low temperatures (e.g. below 0°C) as they become brittle,
– between 350 and 500 °C as they form brittle compounds,
– beyond the temperature at which austenitic transformation begins (around 800 to 900 °C depending
on the chemical composition).
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3.3.2. Ferritic steels
These steels correspond to alloys which are naturally rich in alphagenous elements (chrome + possibly
molybdenum, titanium, niobium, zirconium, aluminium) and poor in gammagenous elements (carbon,
nickel, nitrogen). Depending on the relative content of alphagenous and gammagenous elements, two
categories of ferritic steels can be distinguished:
– "semi-ferritic" steels – these are medium rich in alphagenous elements (10.5 to 18% chrome) and
contain a small amount of gammagenous elements (up to 0.08% carbon and 1.5% nickel). As a
result of this, they are subject to a partial austenitic transformation on heating and consequently a
partial martensitic transformation on cooling. These grades are known as semi-ferritic, since their
structure after cooling consists of ferrite and martensite. They require tempering heat treatment.
– pure ferritic steels – these are richer in alphagenous elements (16 to 30% chrome and molybdenum
or titanium, niobium, aluminium, zirconium) and poor in gammagenous elements (0.03% carbon
maximum). These steels are entirely ferritic in the solid state, irrespective of temperature. They are
supplied in the annealed condition.
Examples of grades:
- (semi-ferritic) X2CrNi12, X6Cr13,
- (ferritic) X2CrMoTi18-2, X2CrNbZr17.

- good corrosion resistance (generally proportional to their chrome content),
- relatively high yield strength (from 200 to more than 500 N/mm²),
- good creep resistance for certain grades (grade X2CrMoTi29-4 may be subject to creep)
- moderate ductility (which deteriorates rapidly if the grain size is large).
Remark: Steel-makers elaborate fine-grain ferritic stainless steels by using work hardening and
recrystallisation processes. This involves considerable "cold" work, which is only possible with thin gauge
material. For this reason, ferritic stainless steels are only available as thin sheet, whose thickness is less
than 5 mm.
They are used for manufacturing parts which demand corrosion resistance and possibly high
temperature resistance (household electrical goods, immersion heaters, railway carriage trim, motor
vehicle exhaust systems, smoke stacks, etc.).
Note on operating temperatures: Ferritic stainless steels should not be used within the following
temperature ranges:
– low temperatures (e.g. below 0 °C) as they become brittle,
– between 350 and 500 °C as they form brittle compounds,
– beyond 800 to 900 °C to avoid embrittlement due to grain growth by overheating (apart from certain
grades which are suitable for high temperature applications).
3.3.3. Austenitic steels
These steels correspond to alloys of iron + chrome + nickel + carbon. They may also contain other
elements such as molybdenum, titanium, niobium, nitrogen, etc. Their austenitic structure is obtained by
the gammagenous effect of nickel, whose content is generally equal to at least 8 %. The contents of the
alloying elements are approximately as follows:
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CHROME NICKEL CARBON MOLYBDENUM
16 to 25% 8 to 35% 0.01 to 0.20% 1 to 6%
Examples of grades: X2CrNi18-9, X2CrNiMo17-12-2, X10CrNi18-8.
These steels are not subject to transformation, i.e. they are austenitic at high temperature (similar to non
alloyed steels) and remain so down to very low temperatures (below – 200 °C) providing the steel
contains sufficient gammagenous elements.
According to their content of gammagenous and alphagenous elements, austenitic steels may exhibit a
mixed structure consisting of austenite and ferrite. The ferrite content ranges from 0 to 25%.

– good corrosion resistance,
– excellent ductility (the cubic face centred crystalline structure is not subject to brittle fracture),
– good creep resistance,
– moderate yield strength (from 200 to more than 350 N/mm² in the hyper-quenched condition).
In view of their properties, austenitic steels are in widespread industrial use:

– either for their corrosion resistance (industrial applications involving the use of corrosive products),
– or for their creep resistance, i.e. their high temperature tensile strength (e.g. applications in ovens),
– or for their absence of brittle behaviour at very low operating temperatures (cryogenic applications
involving liquid gases).
Austenitic stainless steels used for their corrosion resistance are supplied in the hyper
quenched condition.
Hyper-quenching corresponds to heating to between 1,000 and 1,100°C, followed by a water quench.
The reason for the importance of this treatment is as follows:
At around 1,000 to 1,100°C, the steel is entirely austenitic. Below 900 to 800°C, the solubility limit of
carbon in austenite becomes very low, which results in the formation of carbides.
austenite austenite + carbides

(temperature)
(1,100 °C) (800 °C)
During welding, the carbides appear within the 800-500 °C temperature range, at the austenite grain
boundaries.
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Our steel contains iron, chrome, nickel and carbon. The carbon combines with the most carburigenous
element, i.e. the chrome, to form chrome carbides Cr 23C6 (the chrome initially in solution in the austenite
is found in the form of carbides at the grain boundaries). The austenite is then "dechromed": it has lost
chrome in the region of the grain boundaries. Since the corrosion resistance is provided by the chrome,
this results in the steel being subject to INTERGRANULAR CORROSION.
Several solutions are available to overcome intergranular corrosion in service:
1) hyper-quenching avoids the formation of carbides. The steel is heated to between 1,000 and 1,100 °C
to solutionise the carbon in the austenite, then it is quenched so that the carbides no longer have time
to form. Thus the carbon remains trapped in the austenite.
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2) many grades of austenitic stainless

steel have a low carbon content
(C < 0.03%) so that the austenite can
contain all the carbon without the need
to form carbides, + carbide
Austenitic steel by hyper-quenching
precipitation of carbide
on re-heating
need for stabilisation
(Ti.Nb)
steel is stable without stabilising additives
SOLUBILITY OF CARBON IN Ni-Cr

AUSTENITIC STEELS


+ carbure
%C
Acier austénitique par hypertrempe
précipitation de carbure
au réchauffage
nécéssité d'une
stabilisation ( Ti . Nb )
Acier stable sans addition stabilisante
SOLUBILITE DU CARBONE DANS LES

AUSTENITES AU Ni . Cr ( aciers type 18-8 )
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3) among the grades which contain more than 0.03% carbon, some contain titanium or niobium which
are more carburigenous than chrome and form TiC or NbC carbides instead of Cr 23C6 (therefore
avoiding dechroming). These grades are termed "stabilised".
Note on operating temperatures:

We have seen that austenitic stainless steels are used in a wide range of temperatures, from very low
temperatures, up to high temperatures (there are grades suited to the various temperatures).
However, austenitic stainless steels chosen for their corrosion resistance (irrespective of their operating
temperatures) without exception must not be heated to between 500 and 800 °C (by welding, heat
treatment or operational environments) without first checking their behaviour with respect to intergranular
corrosion.
Remark: Contrary to other steels, austenitic steels are non-magnetic. This particular property is specific
to grades which are free from ferrite and which are in the hyper-quenched condition.
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3.3.4. Austeno-ferritic steels (also called "DUPLEX" steels)
These steels correspond to alloys of iron + chrome + nickel + molybdenum + nitrogen (+ carbon). They
may also contain elements such as copper, tungsten, etc. The proportion of gammagenous elements to
alphagenous elements provides a mixed structure consisting of approximately 50% austenite and 50%
ferrite. The contents of the main alloying elements are as follows:
CHROME NICKEL MOLYBDENUM NITROGEN CARBON
21 to 28% 3.5 to 8% 0.10 to 4% 0.05 to 0.35% < 0.03%
Examples of grades: X2CrNiMoN22-5-3, X2CrNiMoCuWN25-7-4.
These steels exhibit a ferritic solidification structure. On cooling, the solidification ferrite gradually
transforms to austenite, reaching a proportion of about 50% austenite at around 1,000 to 1,100 °C. At
lower temperatures, the proportion of austenite tends to increase further.
These steels are supplied in the hyper-quenched condition, as is the case with austenitic steels. Hyper-
quenching enables the required proportions of ferrite and austenite to be achieved: around 50% of each
constituent at around 1,100 to 1,000 °C, which is sustained down to ambient temperature by a water
quench, which does not leave sufficient time for the ferrite to continue its transformation to austenite as it
cools.
The structures of these steels are not in equilibrium, which means that re-heating will modify them.

– very good corrosion resistance,
– relatively high yield strength (from 400 to over 550 N/mm²),
– average ductility due to the partly ferritic structure.
They are used in the manufacture of items requiring good corrosion resistance, combined with relatively
high mechanical strength.
Note on operating temperatures: Austeno-ferritic stainless steels should not normally be used within the
following temperature ranges:
– at low temperatures (e.g. below - 40°C) as the ferrite is subject to brittle behaviour,
– above 350 °C as this forms brittle compounds.
3.3.5. Additional information on the embrittlement of stainless steels
In presenting the various parent metals, we have mentioned several situations which cause
embrittlement of stainless steels by the formation of brittle compounds or by grain growth. A general view
is provided below of the main possible cases.
a) Martensitic steels: embrittlement by tempering heat treatment at between 350 and 500 °C
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b) Ferritic steels:
– embrittlement due to extended exposure to temperatures between 350 and 500 °C,
– embrittlement by heat treatment at temperatures beyond about 900 to 1,000 °C.
c) Austeno-ferritic steels: embrittlement due to extended exposure to temperatures of between 350 and
500 °C.
d) For certain ferritic, austenitic and austeno-ferritic steels: embrittlement by heat treatment at
temperatures between 500 and 900 °C if the chrome equivalent of the steel (calculated using the
Schaeffler equations) provides a result greater than about 20.
3.4. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS
3.4.1. Weldability of martensitic (and semi-ferritic) steels
Martensitic stainless steels (and to a lesser extent semi-ferritic steels INEVITABLY PRODUCE A
MARTENSITIC STRUCTURE in the HAZ (as well as in the WM if the weld is homogeneous, i.e.
produced without the use of filler metal, or using similar filler metal to the parent metal).
The higher the carbon content of the martensite, the more brittle it is.
As a result, these steels have a natural tendency to COLD CRACKING. This phenomenon, which has
been described with respect to non-alloyed and low alloyed steels, is all the more worrying if the carbon
content is high. For this reason, welding of martensitic steels is normally limited to grades whose carbon
content is no more than 0.20%.
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LIKELIHOOD OF COLD CRACKING ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
Equivalent Ni RISQUE DE FISSURATION A FROID SUR LE DIAGRAMME DE BISTRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE
+ 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
Welding of these steels usually should include the following operations in the welding process:
– pre- and post-heating of martensitic stainless steels whose carbon content is in the vicinity of 0.10%,
– pre- and post-heating immediately followed by tempering heat treatment (without letting the weld cool
to ambient temperature before heat treatment) for steels whose carbon content is in the region of
0.20%.
Another solution consists in employing austenitic stainless steel or a nickel alloy as the filler metal, to
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prevent cold cracking, without pre- or post-heating. The weld is then said to be heterogeneous.
After welding, it is generally necessary to perform tempering heat treatment (at around 750 °C) to
transform the martensite into ferrite, with a view to limiting the brittleness of the welded joint. This
arrangement is not necessary, however, in the event of heterogeneous joints.
3.4.2. Weldability of ferritic steels
Ferritic stainless steels are principally sensitive to embrittlement by grain growth following overheating
phenomena.
 These steels are not subject to any metallurgical transformation, either by heating or by cooling, and
consequently no conventional heat treatment may be used to regenerate the structure. On the
contrary, any heating beyond 900 to 1,000 °C results in grain growth, especially if the time spent at
temperature is long or the number of heating cycles is large.
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The only way to avoid embrittlement by grain growth is to limit as far as possible the time of exposure to
high temperatures, which in practice means welding using REDUCED LINEAR ENERGY WELDING.
LIKELIHOOD OF EMBRITTLEMENT BY GRAIN GROWTH

(OVERHEATING) ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
RISQUE DE FRAGILISATION PAR GROSSISSEMENT DES GRAINS

Equivalent Ni (SURCHAUFFE) SUR LE DIAGRAMME DE BISTRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE
+ 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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Contrary to martensitic steels, or even semi-ferritic steels, welding of ferritic steels must be performed
without pre-heating in order to avoid extending the exposure to high temperatures.
Heat treatment after welding is not suitable for these steels.
3.4.3. Weldability of austenitic steels
From the metallurgical point of view, welding of austenitic stainless steels presents two risks:
 increased sensitivity to intergranular corrosion,
 hot cracking.
a) Sensitivity to intergranular corrosion
We have seen that certain austenitic stainless steels may be made more sensitive to intergranular
corrosion by precipitation of chrome carbides, during welding.
If the welded joint is subjected to corrosion, it is essential to prevent the precipitation of chrome carbides
by the use of grades of parent metal and of filler metal which are either:
– low carbon (C% < 0.03),
 or stabilised (containing titanium or niobium).
A grade which forms chrome carbides may be used, providing the carbides can be solutionised by hyper-
quenching heat treatment after welding. However, such treatment is often impossible to achieve for
practical reasons (operational feasibility), economic reasons (cost of implementation), or mechanical
reasons (distortion of the parts).
b) Hot cracking
b.1) Introduction
"Hot cracking" corresponds to cracks which form during solidification, and therefore at high temperature,
whence their name.
b.2) Description of the phenomenon
Hot cracks initiate in the weld zone, and sometimes in its immediate vicinity, where the entirely or partly
liquefied metal solidifies during welding.
Since these cracks form during solidification, they follow the orientation of the solidification grains.
As with cold cracks, they may or may not break the surface.
b.3) Factors affecting hot cracking
The essential factors which affect hot cracking are as follows:

– welding stresses during solidification,
– segregation.
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b.3.1) Welding stresses
We have seen that welding stresses are the result of the local heating effects inherent in welding,
together with the degree of restraint of the welded joint: the restraint acts against the shrinkage of the
metal in the welded region.
In the case of austenitic stainless steels, an aggravating factor is their expansion coefficient which is
much higher than in other steels (approximately 1.5 times that of a non alloyed steel). In other words, for
the same degree of restraint, an austenitic steel expands and contracts at a high amplitude, which
favours the accumulation of stresses.
b.3.2) Segregation
In an alloy which solidifies, the chemical elements do not all solidify at the same time: one could say, for
illustration purposes, that the "high solidification temperature elements" solidify first and that the " low
solidification temperature elements" solidify last. If the rate of solidification is extremely slow, diffusion
within the alloy allows the metal to "rehomogenise" so that when solidification is complete, the solid
metal is everywhere of the same composition.
On the other hand, if solidification is relatively fast, as is always the case in welding, the high
solidification temperature elements and the low solidification temperature elements do not have time to
diffuse homogeneously throughout the metal: the high temperature solidification elements remain
confined to the zones where solidification began (in the core of the grains) and the low solidification
temperature elements remain confined to those zones where solidification completed (particularly at the
grain boundaries). This separation of the chemical elements is known as segregation.
Austenitic stainless steels are particularly subject to segregation. The result of this is that during
solidification, low solidification temperature elements (sulphur, phosphorus, boron, copper, etc.) are
concentrated in the liquid, to such an extentWELDING
that theyOF AUSTENITIC
form an alloy whose solidification temperature is
STAINLESS
very low: in other words, the weld will finish solidification STEELS
at a much lower temperature than that
expected, with a very slow rate of solidification.
In practice, segregation lowers the end of solidification temperature, this increases the temperature
Subjectsolid
range during which the alloy is partly to hot cracking
and partly liquid.
Segregation of impurities (S, P, B)

b.4) Hot cracking mechanism
Equivalent Ni RISQUE DEstill
Film FISSURATION A CHAUD
liquid at lower SUR LE DIAGRAMME DE BISTRAM
temperature
LIKELIHOOD OF HOT CRACKING ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
In the first instance, the welding stresses develop gradually as the weld cools. At the same time,
30
segregation lowers the end of solidification temperature in the weld, 0% whilst maintaining at a lower
5% ferrite
temperature the mixture of liquid and solid whose mechanical strength is very low.10%
If the solidification is entirely completed before the welding stresses equal the decohesion strength of the
AUSTENITE
liquid, then hot cracking
20
cannot occur. 20%
40%
Welding
If solidification is not entirely completed stresses
at the moment when theAwelding stresses equal the decohesion
strength of the liquid, then hot cracking
M+A occurs by tearing of the metal which is still liquid.
+
80%
10 Hot crackingA F
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
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b.5) Means of prevention of hot cracking
In order to combat the danger of hot cracking, it is essential to counter either the accumulation of welding
stresses, or the segregation, or both together.
In practice, it is found more effective to counter segregation. Although the austenite in stainless steels is
very subject to segregation, ferrite on the other hand is much less so. In fact, many austenitic steel
grades initially solidify as ferrite which subsequently transforms to austenite.
In arc welding, about 5 to 10% residual ferrite found in the weld zone after welding is indicative of ferritic
solidification (for the most commonly used austenitic steels).
Consequently, the sensitivity to hot cracking of a given parent metal or filler metal is predicted by plotting
it on a Schaeffler type diagram in order to check its ferrite content after welding.
Measurement of the ferrite content after welding also constitutes a means of checking the quality of the
weld: a minimum ferrite content guarantees freedom from sensitivity to hot cracking, on the other hand,
too much ferrite content is undesirable if it is required to preserve the characteristics inherent in
austenitic steels.
In certain circumstances, the absence of ferrite is essential in order to achieve optimum properties for
the weld (e.g. corrosion resistance). If such is the case, the stainless steel may be solidified in the
austenitic phase without danger of hot cracking providing that the content of "low solidification
temperature" elements is very low (in particular the content of sulphur + phosphorus must be less than
0.01%).
3.4.4. Weldability of austeno-ferritic steels
These stainless steels are characterised by a mixed structure, consisting of 50% austenite and 50%
ferrite. This structure contributes towards their mechanical properties and corrosion resistance.
They are subject to metallurgical transformation and their structure varies according to the heat
treatment which they undergo. In particular, the correct proportion of austenite and ferrite in the parent
metal is achieved by a hyper-quenching process.
AUSTENO-FERRITIC
AUSTENO- FERRITIQUE
50%A ZAT : %A Zf : %A
mb :
50%F
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LIKELIHOOD OF SIGMA PHASE EMBRITTLEMENT AFTER HEAT

TREATMENT AT 500 TO 900 °C ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
RISQUE DE FRAGILISATION PAR PHASE SIGMA APRES TRAITEMENT

Equivalent Ni THERMIQUE ENTRE 500 ET 900°C SUR LE DIAGRAMME DE BISTRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE
+ 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
Welding, through its heating effects, modifies the initial structure of the parent metal. The essential
difficulty with welding of austeno-ferritic steels therefore consists in controlling the welding heat cycles
(especially the cooling rates) in order to limit the structural variations in the HAZ and the WM in relation
to the parent metal.
In practice, this entails defining and complying with a given welding energy level, for example around
10 kJ/cm, and not exceeding a certain maximum temperature between passes (about 150°C maximum).
If the welded structures are not satisfactory, the optimum structure may be obtained by hyper-quenching
heat treatment after welding. In practice, however, it is rarely feasible to perform such treatment.
4. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR STEELS (HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS)
4.1. PRESENTATION OF HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS
A welded joint is said to be heterogeneous if it is performed with parent metals or filler metals of different
chemical composition.
There are many possible cases of heterogeneous joints:

– welding of two identical parent metal parts (A) with a different filler metal (B),
– welding of two different parent metal parts (A and B) with a filler metal corresponding to A or B,
– welding of two different parent metal parts (A and B) with a different filler metal C,
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– surfacing of a steel A with a filler metal B,

– welding of a clad steel (e.g. a non-alloyed steel clad with a layer of stainless steel).
4.2. PARTICULARITIES REGARDING WELDABILITY
Consider the welding of two different parent metals A and B using a filler metal.
From a metallurgical point of view, the welding process must cover three considerations:
1) Consideration of the weldability of metal A, with respect to the phenomena which may occur in the
HAZ of the material (cold cracking, lamellar tearing, re-heating cracking, embrittlement),
2) Consideration of the weldability of metal B, with respect to the phenomena which may occur in the
HAZ of the material,
3) Choice of the filler metal.
As the parent metals A and B are fully defined, their weldability is known and the welding conditions
specified must be suitable for both materials.
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EXAMPLES OF DILUTION
EXEMPLES DE DILUTION
SAEE , TIG ,... d% = 10 à 30
SAFP d% = 30 à 80
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In the weld metal, the choice of filler metal must result in an alloy which:
– has mechanical properties at least equal to the lowest performance parent metal,
– has the best possible weldability (or is at least as good as the most difficult to weld parent metal).
After establishing the nature of this alloy, one must determine how to achieve it in the weld zone. The
alloy which constitutes the weld zone results from the filler metal, together with the dilution of the two
parent metals. In other words, the choice of filler metal cannot be dissociated from the dilution in the
weld.
It has been found that in heterogeneous welds, the dilution is a predominant factor. To limit its
consequences, it is essential to REDUCE THE DILUTION. The result of this is that welding processes
which provide low dilution rates are best suited to heterogeneous joints. This is the case, for example, for
arc welding with covered electrodes, TIG welding, MIG/MAG.
Remember that the dilution depends also on:

– preparation of the edges,
– the welding parameters,
– the welding position,
– the regularity of the filler metal supply.
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4.3. POST WELD HEAT TREATMENT
Heat treatments after heterogeneous welding are quite difficult and should be avoided. First of all
because the treatment must be compatible with all the materials present. Then because each material
may have a different expansion coefficient, leading to the accumulation of stresses and distortion during
heat treatment.
4.4. CASE STUDY
4.4.1. Welding of two dissimilar steels
Consider, for example, the welding of a grade S235 steel with a grade S355 steel.
Welding precautions:
The welding process must primarily satisfy the welding of steel S355 with respect to cold cracking
(minimum linear welding energy and possible preheating). Steel S235 does not present any major
metallurgical problem, in view of its low equivalent carbon content.
Choice of filler metal:
The filler metal normally used for steel S235 is adequate since it is steel S235 which limits the
mechanical strength of the joint. However, although steel S235 is usually welded using a welding
process involving a rutile flux, in this case it will be necessary to use a basic flux in order to reduce the
amount of hydrogen introduced into the weld with respect to the danger of cold cracking with steel S355.
The filler metal normally employed for steel S355 can also be used.
Post weld heat treatment:
A stress relief heat treatment may also be applied after welding.
4.4.2. Welding of two different low alloy steels
Consider, for example, the welding of two steels for operation at high temperature, one being grade
13CrMo4-5, the other being grade 10CrMo9-10.
The two steels are both prone to cold cracking. The welding process must primarily satisfy the weldability
of the steel with the highest carbon equivalent, in this case steel 10CrMo9-10 (pre- and post-heating may
be necessary).
The filler metal for grade 13CrMo4-5 is adequate, since it is grade 13CrMo4-5 which limits the
mechanical strength of the joint at high temperature and which provides the best weldability.
However, use of the filler metal normally employed with grade 10CrMo9-10 may also be suitable.
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Heat treatment after welding:
Tempering heat treatment is recommended after welding, as both steels are particularly quenchable.
4.4.3. Welding of a non-alloyed steel to a low alloy steel
Consider, for example, the welding of a non-alloyed steel of grade S355 to a low alloy steel of grade
25CrMo4.
Here again, the welding process must primarily consider the weldability of the steel which is most subject
to cold cracking, i.e. steel 25CrMo4 (a minimum linear welding energy with pre-heating or pre- and
post-heating may be necessary).
The filler metal for grade S355 is adequate, since it is grade S355 which limits the mechanical strength
of the joint and which provides the best weldability.
Use of the filler metal normally employed for grade 25CrMo4 may also be suitable. It however does have
a disadvantage in that it is prone to cold cracking.
Post-weld heat treatment:
A tempering heat treatment is recommended for steel 25CrMo4. This may also contribute towards
relieving the stresses in the joint.
4.4.4. Welding of two steels of which at least one is stainless
EXAMPLE No. 1:
Consider, for example the welding of a non-alloyed steel of grade S235 to an austenitic stainless steel of
grade X2CrNiMo17-12-2.
From the metallurgical point of view, neither of the two parent metals presents any particular weldability
problem in the HAZ (no danger of cold cracking for steel S235, no danger of sensitivity to intergranular
corrosion for steel X2CrNiMo17-12-2).
However, the welding of these two materials without the use of filler metal, would result in the elaboration
of a weld zone whose chrome equivalent (eqCr) and nickel equivalent (eqNi) when plotted on the
Schaeffler diagram, correspond to the martensite region. In other words, the mixture of the two parent
metals in the weld zone (without the use of filler metal) leads to a martensitic structure which is subject to
cold cracking. In such cases, the weldability is dependent on the correct choice of filler metal.
In order to guarantee the weldability in the weld metal, it is essential to avoid structures subject to "risk"
– risk of cold cracking if the structure is martensitic,
– risk of hot cracking if the structure is austenitic,
– risk of embrittlement by grain growth if the structure is ferritic.
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Practically speaking, the structure which is exempt from metallurgical problems in relation to the
Schaeffler diagram, is located around Creq=20 and Nieq=10. It consists of around 10% ferrite and
corresponds to the ideal weldability weld zone which must be aimed at.
GOOD WELDABILITY ZONE ON THE BISTRAM DIAGRAM
Equivalent Ni ZONE DE BONNE SOUDABILITE SUR LE DIAGRAMME DE BISTRAM
30
0% 5% ferrite
10%
AUSTENITE
20%
20
40%
A
M+A
+
80%
10 F
A
MARTENSITE + 100%
M
+
F M + F F FERRITE
+
0 M
0 10 20 30 40
Equivalent Cr
Given the position on the Schaeffler diagram of the weld zone to be achieved, the next stage is to define
the position of the appropriate filler metal, based upon:
– the position of both parent metals on the diagram,
– the estimated dilution rate in the weld.
Once the position of the filler metal has been found on the Schaeffler diagram, simply check the supplier
catalogues to determine which is the most suitable filler metal. In our case, for a dilution rate of around
25%, a filler metal containing 24% chrome and 12% nickel is recommended.
Post weld heat treatment:
No post-weld heat treatment is suitable for this type of joint, due to the resulting distortion and stresses,
as well as the danger of embrittlement of stainless steels when they are held at between 500 and
900 °C.
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EXAMPLE No. 2:
This time consider welding of a martensitic stainless steel of grade X20Cr13 with a ferritic stainless steel
of grade X2CrTi17.
Martensitic steel is subject to cold cracking (it requires pre- and post-heating, possibly immediately
followed by tempering heat treatment).
Ferritic steel is subject to embrittlement by grain growth (it requires low linear welding energy and no
preheating). At first sight, the welding conditions for these two steels are contradictory.
For the weld zone to exhibit good weldability, we have seen that its structure must consist of austenite
with some ferrite (Creq of around 20 and Nieq of around 11). This type of weld zone also provides the
advantage of enabling martensitic steel to be welded without pre- or post-heating.
Thus the welding conditions for these two steels are compatible.
To find a suitable filler metal for this welding situation, it is necessary to follow the same reasoning as
that described in example No. 1.
This time, again for a dilution rate of around 25%, a filler metal containing around 18% chrome, 8%
nickel and 3% molybdenum is suitable.
Heat treatment after welding:
Heat treatment is not recommended after welding for this type of joint.
4.5. CASE OF WELDING OF STEELS TO NON FERROUS METALS
4.5.1. Introduction
Heterogeneous welds can be made between steels, whether they be non alloyed or alloyed, and non
ferrous metals. For example, it is possible to weld steel + nickel, as well as steel + copper. Other
heterogeneous joints cannot be achieved by fusion, this is true in the case of joints of steel + aluminium
or steel + titanium which form very brittle compounds when they mix together in the weld metal.
4.5.2. Case of a steel + nickel (or nickel alloy) weld
A weld between steel and nickel is achieved using a filler metal normally used for nickel. It is
recommended to limit the dilution (low energy welding in small passes) so that the weld zone retains
properties close to those of the nickel or alloy filler metal.
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4.5.3. Case of a steel + copper (or copper alloy) weld
This type of joint is more difficult to achieve by fusion welding, as the iron and the copper exhibit a
metallurgical incompatibility (the iron and copper must not be mixed together directly in the weld metal as
they form an alloy which has poor characteristics).
First of all, the face to be welded on the copper part must be coated with nickel (or nickel alloy) which is
compatible with copper. This operation, known as buttering, is achieved by welding with limited dilution.
Two layers of nickel are deposited such that the copper content is very low at the buttered surface.
Secondly, the weld is made between the steel and the nickel buttering under the conditions already
described for a steel + nickel weld.
Nickel buttering Nickel weld
Copper Steel

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PP FPT 0352 A rev.

PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 41

2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS)...........................................3

3. WELDABILITY OF STAINLESS STEELS..........................................................................20

PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 41

3.2.3. Gammagenous action................................................................................................22

4. WELDING OF DISSIMILAR STEELS (HETEROGENEOUS JOINTS)..............................35

PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 41

Among these criteria, we shall refer to:

2. WELDABILITY OF STEELS (EXCEPT STAINLESS STEELS)

2.1. SUMMARY OF THE STEELS MOST COMMONLY USED IN WELDED STRUCTURES

2.1.1. Non-alloyed steels

PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 41

2.1.2. Alloy steels (excluding stainless steels)

a) ALLOY STEELS FOR HIGH TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS

Examples: 16Mo3, 10CrMo9-10.

b) ALLOY STEELS FOR LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS

PROFESSIONNELLE J. SCHUTZ date: 09/2004

RDT-ISS-AQ-1202-2000 PC-8010 Rév 0 41

Examples: 12Ni14, X7Ni9.

c) HIGH ELASTIC LIMIT ALLOY STEELS

Examples: 25CrMo4, 36NiCrMo16.

2.2. INTRODUCTION TO THE WELDABILITY OF STEELS

Welding of steels may generate some danger of cracking or embrittlement.

With non alloyed steels:

With allied steels for high temperature applications:

With allied steels for low temperature applications:

With high yield strength alloyed steels:

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2.3. COLD CRACKING

2.3.2. Main steels concerned

2.3.3. Description of the cracks

APPEARANCE OF COLD CRACKS

1. crack along interface

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Finally, they may be internal or may break the surface.

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2.3.4. Factors affecting cold cracking

The stresses which lead to cold cracking are those which

Residual welding stresses are caused by the local

A part which is heated throughout its thickness

In a welded part, the expansion and contraction are

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b) SOURCE OF THE HYDROGEN BASIC COATING

humidity content of the

cm3 of hydrogen diffusible per 100 g filler metal

humidity content of the

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2 normes: NF A 81.305-H2 / M.F.

c) ORIGIN OF THE BRITTLE MICROSTRUCTURE

Remember that the quenchability of a steel is higher if:

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TRC welding CONVERSION CHART TRC welding CONVERSION CHART