Table of Contents

About UPPCL .............................................................................................................................. 4

UPPCL Mission ........................................................................................................................... 4
To the Public .............................................................................................................................. 4
Energy Availability, Energy Available for Sale and T& D Losses................................................. 5
Substation, Its Function And Types ........................................................................................... 6
Main Tasks of a Sub-Station .................................................................................................. 6
Types of Substation................................................................................................................ 7
Electricity Urban Distribution Division,Civil Lines ,Allahabad Sub-Station (33 KV) at a glance
................................................................................................................................................. 10
Interconnection: ...................................................................................................................... 11
Equipments: ............................................................................................................................. 12
Instrument Transformers: CT & PT .......................................................................................... 12
Current Transformer (CT): ....................................................................................................... 12
Specification of CT: .............................................................................................................. 13
Potential Transformers (PT): .................................................................................................... 13
Specification of PT:............................................................................................................... 13
Transformers:........................................................................................................................... 13
In Transformer Oil test: ........................................................................................................ 15
Specification of Transformers: ............................................................................................. 15
Conductors: .............................................................................................................................. 17
Specifications of Conductors: .............................................................................................. 17
Isolators: .................................................................................................................................. 18
Circuit Breakers (CB): ............................................................................................................... 18
Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB): ............................................................................................... 19
Specifications of VCB: .......................................................................................................... 20
Oil Circuit Breakers: ................................................................................................................. 20
Lightning Arrestor: ................................................................................................................... 21
Types of lightning arrestors: ................................................................................................ 21
D.C. System: ............................................................................................................................. 21
Battery charger – ..................................................................................................................... 22
Specifications of Battery Charger: ....................................................................................... 22

1
Electronic Trivector Meter- ...................................................................................................... 22
DISPLAYPARAMETERS .......................................................................................................... 22
Specifications- ...................................................................................................................... 23
Detailed Study about Transformer ........................................................................................... 24
Principle of operation of Transformer ..................................................................................... 24
Induction law ........................................................................................................................... 25
The Ideal Transformer.............................................................................................................. 26
Leakage flux ............................................................................................................................. 27
Transformer universal emf equation ....................................................................................... 28
Core form and shell form transformers ................................................................................... 28
Equivalent circuit ..................................................................................................................... 29
Cooling ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Insulation drying ...................................................................................................................... 31
Bushings ................................................................................................................................... 32
Classification parameters......................................................................................................... 32
Types ........................................................................................................................................ 32
Applications ............................................................................................................................. 34
Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 35
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 36

2
Tables of Figures
Fig no. 1 Substation its function and types
Fig no.2 Current Transformer
Fig no.3 Potential Transformer
Fig no.4 Transformer at the substation
Fig no.5 Conductors
Fig no.6 Isolator
Fig no.7 Circuit Breaker
Fig no.8 Vacuum Circuit Breaker
Fig no.9 Lightning Arrester
Fig no.10 Electronic Trivector Meter
Fig no.11 A Transformer
Fig no.12 windings in core
Fig no.13 The basic transformer
Fig no.14 Ideal transformer circuit diagram
Fig no.15 Leakage flux of a transformer
Fig no.16 Core form = core type; shell form = shell type
Fig no.17 Basic transformer equivalent circuit
Fig no.18 Cutaway view of liquid-immersed construction transformer
Fig no.19 An electrical substation in Melbourne, Australia showing 3 of 5 220kV/66kV
transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA.

3
About UPPCL

UPPCL will be professionally managed utility supplying reliable and cost efficient
electricity to every citizen of the state through highly motivated employees and state of
art technologies, providing an economic return to our owners and maintaining
leadership in the country.

UPPCL Mission
We shall achieve this being a dynamic, forward looking, reliable, safe and trustworthy
organization, sensitive to our customers interests, profitable and sustainable in the long
run, providing uninterrupted supply of quality power, with transparency and integrity in
operation, providing

To the Public

Effective communication of policies and procedures, a Reliable supply to essential

public services, enforcing adequate safety norms and environmental and social norms,
minimizing inconvenience dare to disruptions etc.
We shall be a diversified business with a core function of providing quality,
uninterrupted power, Commercial focus considering all techno-economic issues of
investments, and a high level of Consumer Service with new connections on demand
and low complaint resolution times. Diversifications shall include optic fiber based
activities, consultancy, manufacture, and repairs, and we shall have a Diversified
investment portfolio around the globe.
We shall satisfy all stakeholders including the regulator.
We shall be a global industry Leader working in close cooperation with other utilities
supporting self sustained growth through financially viable business units and
technological leadership, providing a world class cost of supply, and world class
profits, doubling turnover every 5 years. We shall function independently;
implementing prudent safety and environment norms, with a cost of supply based tariff,
without external interference, in a transparent corruption free operating environment, in
compliance with statutory requirements. We shall add value to our shareholders,
safeguard the environment, and maintain our asset base. We shall maintain a strong
image with the general public.

4
We shall measure success on global standards, e.g.

Parameter Measurement

Reliability of supply 99.50%

Technical losses 10%

Commercial losses 2%

Collection efficiency 97%

Billing efficiency 100%

Employee cost 25 p/u

We shall have a Long-term dynamic vision based on strong perspective planning. We

shall have sophisticated procedures including on line billing, on line queries and
eBusiness functions.
We shall have the most motivated. Satisfied and best-trained employees with full
competence in all key areas, optimally deployed and the most satisfied customers in the
sector.

Energy Availability, Energy Available for Sale and T& D Losses

M.U.
Total Energy
Transmission Total Energy %age Loss to the
available at Bus Bar
Year Distribution available for total Energy
including Gross
Losses Sale Available at Bus
Import
1997-1998 36425 9295 27130 25.52
1998-1999 38985 10359 28626 26.57
1999-2000 39785 16189 23596 40.61
2000-2001 40661 15528 25132 38.19
2001-2002 40241 14716 25525 36.56
2002-2003 36459 11742 24717 52.20
2003-2004 40741 14030 26711 34.43
2004-2005 42210 14231 27979 33.71
2005-2006 45307 15166 30141 33.47
2006-2007 50679 17221 33458 33.98
2007-2008 53981 16846 37134 31.21
2008-2009 56374 16844 39530 29.88
2009-2010 61040 19677 41363 32.33
2010-2011 65599 20344 45255 31.01

5
Substation, Its Function And Types

Fig no. 1 Substation its function and types

An electrical sub-station is an assemblage of electrical components including busbars,

switchgear, power transformers, auxiliaries etc.
These components are connected in a definite sequence such that a circuit can be
switched off during normal operation by manual command and also automatically
during abnormal conditions such as short-circuit. Basically an electrical substation
consists of No. of incoming circuits and outgoing circuits connected to a common
Bus-bar systems. A substation receives electrical power from generating station via
incoming transmission lines and delivers elect. power via the outgoing transmission
lines.
Sub-station are integral parts of a power system and form important links between the
generating station, transmission systems, distribution systems and the load points.

Main Tasks of a Sub-Station-

Associated with major sub-stations in the transmission and distribution system include
the following:
 Protection of transmission system.
 Controlling the Exchange of Energy.
 Ensure steady State & Transient stability.

6
  Load shedding and prevention of loss of synchronism. Maintaining the system
frequency within targeted limits.
 Voltage Control; reducing the reactive power flow by compensation of reactive
power, tap-changing.
 Securing the supply by proving adequate line capacity.
 Data transmission via power line carrier for the purpose of network monitoring;
control and protection.
 Fault analysis and pin-pointing the cause and subsequent improvement in that
area of field.
 Determining the energy transfer through transmission lines.
 Reliable supply by feeding the network at various points.
 Establishment of economic load distribution and several associated functions.

Types of Substation-
The substations can be classified in several ways including the following :
Classification based on voltage levels, e.g. : A.C. Substation : EHV, HV, MV, LV;
HVDC Substation.
Classification based on Outdoor or Indoor : Outdoor substation is under open skv.
Indoor substation is inside a building.
Classification based on configuration, e.g. :
Conventional air insulated outdoor substation or
SF6 Gas Insulated Substation (GIS)
Composite substations having combination of the above two
Classification based on application
Step Up Substation : Associated with generating station as the generating voltage is
low.
Primary Grid Substation : Created at suitable load centre along Primary transmission
lines.
Secondary Substation : Along Secondary Transmission Line.
Distribution Substation : Created where the transmission line voltage is Step Down to
supply voltage.
Bulk supply and industrial substation : Similar to distribution sub-station but created
separately for each consumer.

7
Mining Substation : Needs special design consideration because of extra precaution for
safety needed in the operation of electric supply.
Mobile Substation : Temporary requirement.

NOTE:
Primary Substations receive power from EHV lines at 400KV, 220KV, 132KV and
transform the voltage to 66KV, 33KV or 22KV (22KV is uncommon) to suit the local
requirements in respect of both load and distance of ultimate consumers. These are also
referred to ‘EHV’ Substations.
Secondary Substations receive power at 66/33KV which is stepped down usually to
11KV.
Distribution Substations receive power at 11KV, 6.6 KV and step down to a volt
suitable for LV distribution purposes, normally at 415 volts

Substation Parts and Equipments

Each sub-station has the following parts and equipment.
 Outdoor Switchyard
 Incoming Lines
 Outgoing Lines
 Bus bar
 Transformers
 Bus post insulator & string insulators
 Substation Equipment such as Circuit-breakers, Isolators, Earthing Switches,
Surge Arresters, CTs, VTs, Neutral Grounding equipment.
 Station Earthing system comprising ground mat, risers, auxiliary mat, earthing
strips, earthing spikes & earth electrodes.
 Overhead earthwire shielding against lightening strokes.
 Galvanised steel structures for towers, gantries, equipment supports.
 PLCC equipment including line trap, tuning unit, coupling capacitor, etc.
 Power cables
 Control cables for protection and control
 Roads, Railway track, cable trenches
 Station illumination system

8
  Main Office Building
 Administrative building
 Conference room etc.
 6/10/11/20/35 KV Switchgear, LV
 Indoor Switchgear
 Switchgear and Control Panel Building
 Low voltage a.c. Switchgear
 Control Panels, Protection Panels
 Battery Room and D.C. Distribution System
 D.C. Battery system and charging equipment
 D.C. distribution system
 Mechanical, Electrical and Other Auxiliaries
 Fire fighting system
 D.G. Set
 Oil purification system

An important function performed by a substation is switching, which is the connecting

and disconnecting of transmission lines or other components to and from the system.
Switching events may be “planned” or “unplanned”. A transmission line or other
component may need to be deenergized for maintenance or for new construction; for
example, adding or removing a transmission line or a transformer. To maintain
reliability of supply, no company ever brings down its whole system for maintenance.
All work to be performed, from routine testing to adding entirely new substations, must
be done while keeping the whole system running.
Perhaps more importantly, a fault may develop in a transmission line or any other
component. Some examples of this: a line is hit by lightning and develops an arc, or a
tower is blown down by a high wind. The function of the substation is to isolate the
faulted portion of the system in the shortest possible time.
There are two main reasons: a fault tends to cause equipment damage; and it tends to
destabilize the whole system. For example, a transmission line left in a faulted
condition will eventually burn down, and similarly, a transformer left in a faulted
condition will eventually blow up. While these are happening, the power drain makes

9
the system more unstable. Disconnecting the faulted component, quickly, tends to
minimize both of these problems.

Electricity Urban Distribution Division,Civil Lines ,Allahabad

Sub-Station (33 KV) at a glance-
If this is the age of computer then electricity is the most important part of this age. To
generate electricity we have power generating station. To transmit the energy from
generation end to demand end distribution system is developed. Power is needed in
various heavy industries and houses that is why power generation and transmission is
most important need in this age.
In a sub-station various transformers are mounted for stepping up and stepping down
purposes. Sub-station plays a most important part in the distribution system. Uttar
Pradesh Power Corporation Limited (UPPCL) is a State Government undertaking.
UPPCL is the main power transmitter. Allahabad sub-station is part of UPPCL. It is a
132 KV/33KV/11KV sub-station.
It was established in 1942 firstly it is a D.C. Generation plant then in 1978 it is
converted into an A.C. distribution system. It consists of two transformers , 4 incomers
and 11 outgoing. The supply comes from Cantt. Area and teliarganj and distributed into
its 20 km range

10
Interconnection:

Single Line Diagram:

11
Equipments:

In sub-station-station we came across a number of equipments, which are integral parts

and important for distribution of power. A brief analysis is done here about the
equipments shown in Allahabad Sub-station.

Instrument Transformers: CT & PT

The line in the sub-station operates at high voltages and carry large amount of current.
The measuring instrument and protective devices are designed for low voltages.
Therefore they will not work satisfactorily if mounted directly on the power lines. The
function of instrument transformers is to transfer voltages and currents of power lines to
a value which is convenient for operation of measuring and relays.

Fig no.2 Current Transformer Fig no.3 Potential

Transformer

Current Transformer (CT):

It is a step down transfer which steps down the current to a know ratio. The primary of
this transformer consists of one or more thick wires connected in series with the line
and hence is dependent upon the load connected to the system. The secondary consists
of a large number of turns of fine wires and provided for the measuring instruments and
relays, a current which is a constant function of the line current. It also does the work of
sensing abnormalities in current and sent signal the relays to isolate the defective
system.

12
Specification of CT:

Voltage class - 11 KV, 50 Hz

Outgoing - 200/100/1 Amp.
Incoming - 200/100/1 Amp.

Potential Transformers (PT):

It is a step down transformers, which steps down the voltage to known ratio. The
primary of this transformer consists of a large number of turns of fine wires connected
across the line. The secondary winding consists of a few turns and provided for
measuring instruments and relays. PTs are used to operate voltmeters, potential coil of
wattmeter and relay from high voltage lines by step down to lower voltage.

Specification of PT:

Ratio - 33 KV / 100 V
Primary Winding - 33 KV
Type - Earthed
Secondary Winding - 100 V

Transformers:
Transformers are the most essential part of a sub-station. In Electricity Urban
Distribution Division, Civil Lines, Allahabad there are two transformers; TR-1, TR-2
both of which are 33/11 KV, 10 MVA. These transformers supplies power over Civil
Lines area within 20 km of range in Allahabad region.
Inside the transformer a high voltage windings are wound over low voltage winding on
a metallic core. There are three such arrangements each for a phase. These three
arrangements are inside the transformer tank, which is filled with transformer oil.
Transformer oil does the primary work of cooling the windings and core which tend to
release heat during operation.
Externally transformers have the appearance of a huge metallic container. We can
observe conservator tank, Bucholtz Relay, Breather, Oil and Winding temperature

13
meter etc. It also has large radiator grills to dissipate the heat from transformer oil and
cool it down. The bushings are present for taking in and out the power lines from the
transformer. Conservator tank helps in maintaining the oil level inside the transformer.
The vaporized oil is condensed to liquid form in that tank. Breather serves the purpose
of absorbing moisture from air that comes in contact with Transformer Oil. Breather
contains silica gel which absorbs moisture. In modern transformers balloon
arrangement is used. The balloon membrane is a porous material which allows dry air
to pass through and absorbs moisture which degrades the Transformer Oil. Transformer
also has a tap changing arrangement which helps in varying the voltage in transformer.
Tap changer is based on the H.V. winding because precision is higher than low voltage
winding and as H.V. winding is wound outside, bringing the tap pointer is easier and
mechanism is easier than tap changer in L.V. winding, which is inside.
Tap changers are of two types:
i) ON Load tap changer
ii) OFF Load tap changer
During yearly maintenance the important tests are Transformer Oil Test and Insulation
Resistance test.

Fig no.4 Transformer at the substation

14
In Transformer Oil test:

Limit per IS
Acidity (mg of KOH/gm) 0.5 max
Neutralization Value
Tan Delta (90°, °C) 0.2 max
Dielectric Dissipation Factor
Resistivity (Ω-cm at 90°) 0.1000 X 1012 min
Dielectric Strength 50 KV min
Break Down Voltage (BDV)
Moisture content (PPM) 0.25 max
Insulation Resistance 5000X106 Ω
HV-E, LV-E, HV-LV

Specification of Transformers:

Transformer – 1:
Type: Three Phase
Volts at no load: HV – 33000 V
LV – 11000 V
Amperes: HV – 175 A
LV – 525 A
Frequency: 50 Hz.
Cooling Type: ONAM
Vector group: DYN-11
Max. oil temperature: 45°C
Max. Winding temperature: 50°C
S.C. Current – Duration 2 sec: HV- 2.09 KA
LV- 6.28 KA
Test Voltage (KV (rms)): HV- 70 KV
LV- 28 KV
Impulse Level (KVp): HV-170
15
 LV-75
No load loss (max.): 8 KW
Load loss Normally (max.): 50 KW
Core and Winding: 10,670 kg
Tank and Fitting: 6,500 kg
Oil weight: 3,960 kg
Total weight: 21,130 kg
Oil Volume: 4,500 lt

Transformer – 2
Type: Three Phase
Volts at no load: HV – 33000 V
LV – 11000 V
Amperes: HV – 175 A
LV – 525 A
Frequency: 50 Hz.
Cooling Type: ONAM
Vector group: DYN-11
Max. oil temperature: 45°C
Max. Winding temperature: 50°C
S.C. Current – Duration 2 sec: HV- 2.09 KA
LV- 6.28 KA
Test Voltage (KV (rms)): HV- 70 KV
LV- 28 KV
Impulse Level (KVp): HV-170
LV-75
No load loss (max.): 8 KW
Load loss Normally (max.): 50 KW
Core and Winding: 10,670 kg
Tank and Fitting: 6,500 kg
Oil weight: 3,960 kg
Total weight: 21,130 kg
Oil Volume: 4,500 lt
16
Conductors:

Conductors carry electrical power from sending end to receiving end stations. They are
one of the most important as most of capital outlay is invested on them.
The distribution of current throughout the cross-section of a conductor is uniform only
when D.C is passing through it. When A.C flows through a conductor, the current is
non-uniformly distributed over the cross-section in a manner that current density is
higher at the surface compared to the centre of the conductor. This effect becomes more
pronounced with increase in frequency. This phenomenon is called SKIN EFFECT.
This causes large power loss in A.C transmission. To minimize this effect stranded
conductors are used which have added advantage of flexibility. Aluminium conductor
steel reinforced (ACSR) is most commonly used in overhead transmission lines.
Aluminium is used because it is cheaper and lighter than copper but with less
conductivity and tensile strength. To strengthen the conductor, it is steel reinforced.
ACSR conductors have different specifications and are differentiated with names of
animals like deer, dog, panther, zebra etc.

Fig no.5 Conductors

The interconnections within the sub-station are done with ACSR-panther. The
aluminium bus pipes used in 132kv lines are 2.5 inches in diameter while in 33kv and
25kv lines it is 1.5 inches in diameter.

Specifications of Conductors:

ACSR-panther :- 30 aluminium and 7steel wires.

ACSR-zebra :- 54 aluminium and 7 steel wires.

17
Isolators:

Isolators are used in breaking a circuit. Isolators can be both mechanically or remotely
operated. Isolators operate on no-load condition. It does not have specified current
breaking or current making capacity. While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is
opened first, and then isolator and lastly earthing isolator is closed. While closing a
circuit, earthing isolator is opened first, and then isolator is closed followed by circuit
breaker.

Fig no.6 Isolator

Circuit Breakers (CB):

Circuit breakers are most important protective devices. With the help of C.T, P.T and
relays they can be made to trip automatically to disconnect any faulty circuit. Circuit
breakers consist of fixed contact, moving contact, extinguishing chamber, roller,
insulation, breather etc. The moving contact with the help of rollers is responsible for
closing and opening of circuit. They are inside the extinguishing chamber and the
whole arrangement is kept inside an oil-filled chamber. Transformer oil is responsible
for cooling.
Circuit breakers are of many types, but in Allahabad sub-station we come across
vacuum circuit breakers and oil circuit breakers.

18
Fig no.7 Circuit Breaker

Vacuum Circuit Breakers (VCB):

A vacuum system is one in which the pressure is at a value below the atmospheric
pressure and is measured in terms of millimeters of mercury. In a vacuum of the order
of 0.00001 torr the mean free path is of the order of few meters and thus, when the
electrodes are separated by a few millimeters an electron crosses the gap without any
collision. Therefore, in a vacuum the current growth prior to breakdown cannot take
place due to electron avalanches.

Fig no.8 Vacuum Circuit Breaker

19
Specifications of VCB:

Voltage- 36 KV,
Current- 1250 Amps,
Frequency- 50 Hz,
Poles- 3,
Breaking Capacity- 25 KA,
Making Capacity- 62.5 KA,
Short circuit Current- 25 KA,
Duration of S.C. Current(Tk)-3s
D.C Component- 50%,
P.F. Withstand Voltage(Vp)-70 KV
Impulse Withstand
Voltage(Vp)- 170 KV
Supply voltage of Trip/close- 24 KV
Auxiliary Supply voltage- 230V , 50 Hz
Weight- 1200(approx.)Kg

Oil Circuit Breakers:

In these breakers, some insulating oil is used as an arc-quenching medium. The contacts
are opened under oil and an arc is struck between them. Mineral oil has better insulating
properties than air.

Types Of Oil Circuit Breaker:

The oil circuit breakers find extensive use in power systems. They are of following
types:-
1) Bulk oil circuit breaker:
a) Plain break oil circuit breakers, and
b) Arc control oil circuit breakers.
2) Low oil circuit breakers.

20
Lightning Arrestor:

A lightning arrestor or a surge diverter provides protection against lightning and

traveling waves. They are protective devices that conduct the high voltage surges on the
power system to the ground.

Fig no.9 Lightning Arrester

Types of lightning arrestors:

1) Rod gap arrestor,

2) Horn gap arrestor,
3) Multi-gap arrestor,
4) Thyrite lightning arrestor.

Lightning arrestors are composed of insulators with air gaps and non-linear resistances
in between them. Neal gapless arrestors have zinc sulfide which does the work of both
line gaps and non-linear resistance.

D.C. System:

Protection scheme of transformers and circuit breakers are D.C based. It is such that
because this system is completely independent in operation from A.C supply except
charging of battery which are D.C sources. Moreover this system is free from any
voltage fluctuations which might affect the protection system adversely and even cause
failure.
The D.C system consists of power stack VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid) batteries

21
and battery charger.

Battery charger –

Battery charger is charging the battery in various modes and at the same time to supply
load requirements. The system consists of two battery chargers- 1) Float charger, 2)
Float cum boost charger (FCBC) with contactor interlocking circuit and alarm
indication circuit. They work on 415vac, 3-phase, and 50 Hz supply.

Specifications of Battery Charger:

Type - Auto/Manual 30vdc, 16 amps. Float cum boost charger.

Ratings- I/p- 230(+/-) 20% VAC
Phase- 1,
Frequency- 50(+/-) 2Hz
Output D.C- Float- 32.5V(DC)
Boost- 27.4 V(DC)
Output Current- Load-0.6amps
Battery-10amps

Electronic Trivector Meter-

Electronic Trivector meter, ER300P - PRIDE is a multipurpose unit which integrate

several functions and replace various equipments for metering energy parameters. It is
light, compact and highly reliable.

DISPLAYPARAMETERS

Meter can be programmed to display maximum 350 parameters that include PF, per
phase RMS voltages and currents, Frequency, Phase sequence, real time clock, kW,
kVA, kVAr, kWH, kVAh, kVArh+, kVArh-, MDs’, Rising demand with elapsed time,
high resolution energies, tamper details, etc.

22
Fig no.10 Electronic Trivector Meter

Specifications-

Phase - 3, 4 wire

P.T. ratio- 11 KV/110 V

C.T. ratio- 300/5

Ib- 5A

Imax- 10 A

Pulse Rate- 1.66667 Imp /KWh

1.66667 Imp /KVArh

Class- 0.55 s for Active

1.0 s for Reactive

MF- 1 for 300/5

2 for 600/5

Frequency- 50 Hz

23
Detailed Study about Transformer-

Fig no.11 A Transformer

A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive

coupling between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding
creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic
flux through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a
varying electromotive force (emf) or voltage in the secondary winding.

Principle of operation of Transformer

The principle behind the operation of a transformer, electromagnetic induction, was
discovered independently by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry in 1831. The
relationship between emf and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday's law
of induction:

where is the magnitude of the emf in volts and

ΦB is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers.

24
Faraday performed the first experiments on induction between coils of wire, including
winding a pair of coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroidal closed-core
transformer. However he only applied individual pulses of current to his transformer,
and never discovered the relation between the turn ratio and emf in the windings.

Fig no.12 windings in core

Induction law

Fig no.13 The basic transformer

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and Φ is the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are
oriented perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of
the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant,

25
being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic
field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same
magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in a quasi ideal
transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of these two equations, gives the basic equation,

, where Np/Ns is the turn ratio, usually expressed in round numbers, the
value of this ratio being respectively higher and lower than unity for step-down and
step-up transformers. If a load is connected to the secondary winding, current will flow
in this winding, and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit
through the transformer to the load.

The Ideal Transformer

Fig no.14 Ideal transformer circuit diagram

In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (Vs) is in

proportion to the primary voltage (Vp) as given by the above basic equation:

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow,

electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit.
Neglecting losses, the input electric power must equal the output power:

giving the ideal transformer equation

This formula is a reasonable approximation for commercial transformers.

26
If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor.
The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turn ratio. For
example, if an impedance Zs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it
appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of n2 * Zs. This relationship is
reciprocal, so that the impedance Zp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to
be Zp / n2.

When a voltage is applied to the primary winding, a small current flows, driving
magnetic flux around the magnetic circuit of the core.The current required to create the
flux is termed the magnetizing current. Since the ideal core has been assumed to have
near-zero reluctance, the magnetizing current is negligible, although still required, to
create the magnetic field.

The changing magnetic field induces an emf across each winding. Since the ideal
windings have no impedance, they have no associated voltage drop, and so the voltages
VP and VS measured at the terminals of the transformer, are equal to the corresponding
emf sources. The primary emf, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is
sometimes termed the counter emf. This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states
that induction of emf always opposes development of any such change in magnetic
field.

Leakage flux

Fig no.15 Leakage flux of a transformer

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding
links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses
paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results
in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer

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windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged
from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power
loss (see Stray losses below), but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the
secondary voltage to not be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly
under heavy load.

Transformer universal emf equation

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between
its rms voltage Erms of the winding, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N,
core cross-sectional area a in m2 and peak magnetic flux density Bpeak in Wb/m2 or T
(tesla) is given by the universal emf equation:

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used
for half-cycle average voltage Eavg of any wave shape:

Core form and shell form transformers

Fig no.16 Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in 'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings
surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the
core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core
form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking
the core around winding coils. Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more
economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high voltage

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power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating
ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and
power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent. Shell form design
tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because,
though more labor intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized
as having inherently better kVA-to-weight ratio, better short-circuit strength
characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.

Equivalent circuit

Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be

represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.

Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series
loop impedances of the model:

 Primary winding: RP, XP

 Secondary winding: RS, XS.

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in practice

usually referred to the primary side by multiplying these impedances by the scaling
factor (NP/NS) 2.

Fig no.17 Basic transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the
model:

 Core or iron losses: RC

 Magnetizing reactance: XM.

RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model.

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Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are
proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency. The finite
permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core.
Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being
non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit
shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically reflected
in transformer equivalent circuits.[67] With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced
emf by 90°. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch
current I0 equals transformer no-load current.Transformer equivalent circuit impedance
and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests: Open-circuit
test, short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.

Cooling

Fig no.18 Cutaway view of liquid-immersed construction transformer

The conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquid-to-atmosphere isolation as coolant
level and temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required heat dissipation
balance.

To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that the life
expectancy of insulation in all electric machines including all transformers is halved for
about every 7° C to 10° C increase in operating temperature, this life expectancy

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halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7° C to 8° C in
the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation.

Small dry-type and liquid-immersed transformers are often self-cooled by natural

convection and radiation heat dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are
often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, water-cooling, or combinations
of these. Large transformers are filled with transformer oil that both cools and insulates
the windings.Transformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and
insulation by circulating within the transformer tank. The mineral oil
and paper insulation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100
years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that
the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about
30% of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading
failures. Prolonged operation at elevated temperature degrades insulating properties of
winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but
can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.With a great body of empirical
study as a guide, transformer oil testing including dissolved gas analysis provides
valuable maintenance information. This can translate in a need to monitor, model,
forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation temperature conditions
under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions.

Insulation drying

Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the

windings be thoroughly dried before the oil is introduced. Drying is carried out at the
factory, and may be required as a field service. Drying may be done by circulating hot
air around the core, or by vapour-phase drying (VPD) where evaporated solvent
transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small transformers resistance
heating by injection of current into the windings is used. The heating can be controlled
very well and it is energy efficient. The method is called low-frequency heating (LFH)
since the current is injected at a much lower frequency than the nominal of the grid,
which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency reduces the effect of the inductance
in the transformer, so the voltage needed to induce the current can be reduced.The LFH
drying method is also used for service of older transformers.

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Bushings

Larger transformers are provided with high-voltage insulated bushings made of

polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide
careful control of the electric field gradient without letting the transformer leak oil.[100]

Classification parameters

Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

 Power capacity: From a fraction of a volt-ampere (VA) to over a thousand

MVA.
 Duty of a transformer: Continuous, short-time, intermittent, periodic, varying.
 Frequency range: Power-frequency, audio-frequency, or radio-frequency.
 Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.
 Cooling type: Dry and liquid-immersed - self-cooled, forced air-cooled;
liquid-immersed - forced oil-cooled, water-cooled.
 Circuit application: Such as power supply, impedance matching, output voltage
and current stabilizer or circuit isolation.
 Utilization: Pulse, power, distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output,
etc..
 Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.
 Constant-potential transformer descriptor: Step-up, step-down, isolation.
 General winding configuration: By EIC vector group - various possible
two-winding combinations of the phase designations delta, wye or star, and zigzag or
interconnected star; other -autotransformer, Scott-T, zigzag grounding transformer
winding.
 Rectifier phase-shift winding configuration: 2-winding, 6-pulse; 3-winding,
12-pulse; . . . n-winding, [n-1]*6-pulse; polygon; etc..

Types

A wide variety of transformer designs are used for different applications, though they
share several common features. Important common transformer types include:

32
 Autotransformer: Transformer in which part of the winding is common to both
primary and secondary circuits.
 Capacitor voltage transformer: Transformer in which capacitor divider is used
to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding.
 Distribution transformer, power transformer: International standards make a
distinction in terms of distribution transformers being used to distribute energy from
transmission lines and networks for local consumption and power transformers being
used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distribution primary circuits.
 Phase angle regulating transformer: A specialised transformer used to control
the flow of real power on three-phase electricity transmission networks.
 Scott-T transformer: Transformer used for phase transformation from
three-phase to two-phase and vice versa.
 Polyphase transformer: Any transformer with more than one phase.
 Grounding transformer: Transformer used for grounding three-phase circuits to
create a neutral in a three wire system, using a star-delta transformer, or more
commonly, a zigzag grounding winding.
 Leakage transformer: Transformer that has loosely coupled windings.
 Resonant transformer: Transformer that uses resonance to generate a high
secondary voltage.
 Audio transformer: Transformer used in audio equipment.
 Output transformer: Transformer used to match the output of a valve amplifier
to its load.
 Instrument transformer: Potential or current transformer used to accurately and
safely represent voltage, current or phase position of high voltage or high power
circuits.

33
Applications

Fig no.19 An Electrical Substation in Melbourne, Australia showing 3 of 5

220kV/66kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA.

Transformers are used to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over
long distances through wires. Wires have resistance which loses energy through joule
heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current. By transforming power to a
higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution.
Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting
generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the
world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it
reaches the consumer.

Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step-down the supply
voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also
electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.

Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio
transformers allowedtelephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a
single pair of wires. A baluntransformer converts a signal that is referenced to ground
to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and
internal circuits.

The principle of open-circuit (unloaded) transformer is widely used for characterization

of soft magnetic materials, for example in the internationally standardised Epstein
frame method.

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Conclusions

35
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