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Handbook
Table of Contents
Context ...........................................................................................................................1
APPENDICES .......................................................................................................................33
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX G
APPENDIX H
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX J
Accident Blackspots Ranking Spreadsheet for Site Data and Project Evaluation
Glossary of Terms
Accident Rate number of major accidents per year for intersections and short mid-block sections
(less than 500 meters) or major accidents per year per km for road sections longer
than 500 meters
Accident Factor Chart a tabular format of presentation of key information about each accident at an
intersection or section of road
CBA Cost-Benefit Analysis – a technique for calculating an indicator of the economic merit
of a project
Clear Zone the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided beyond the edge of the traveled way for
the recovery of errant vehicles (includes any shoulders or auxiliary lanes)
Hazardous Location blackspot – intersection or road length which has a high accident rate
Hazardous Location Report a report that documents the outcome of the investigation of a hazardous location and
provides details of the resulting proposed candidate blackspot project
MCA Multi-criteria Analysis – a technique for prioritizing projects on the basis of several
decision criteria
National Road Network the roads for which the Department of Public Works and Highways is responsible
TAD Traffic Accident Description – a numerical code assigned to each accident type
TAR Traffic Accident Report – a form that is filled in by the attending police officer at the
scene of an accident to record details of the accident
TARAS Traffic Accident Recording and Analysis System – a database in which details of
accidents on the National Road Network are recorded and analyzed
Injury Types
Fatal Injury an injury resulting in death within 30 days of the road accident
Serious Injury an injury that is serious enough to require admission to hospital, but is not fatal
Minor Injury an injury that requires medical attention, but not admission to hospital
Accident Types
Fatal Accident an accident in which at least one person is killed (within 30 days of the accident)
Serious Injury Accident an accident in which at least one person is admitted to hospital (but nobody is killed)
Minor Injury Accident an accident in which at least one person is injured (but nobody is killed or seriously
injured)
Property Damage Only an accident where nobody is injured but vehicles or other property is damaged
Major Accident a road accident in which someone is killed or injured seriously enough to be admitted
to hospital for medical treatment. These are ‘high severity’ accidents in TARAS.
Minor Accident a road accident that involves only minor injuries and property damage – nobody is
killed or seriously injured
PART 1 INTRODUCTION
Context
Road accidents affect the lives of tens of thousands of Filipinos each year and cost the
country billions of pesos each year in lost economic output. In many cases, making small
changes to the design and construction of the road and the way traffic is managed can
significantly reduce the risk of road accidents at a particular location.
The objective of the procedures described in the Handbook is to produce candidate projects
for the Road Accident Reduction Program that will effectively reduce the incidence and / or
severity of major accidents at the worst accident locations on the national arterial road
network. The Handbook contains information on the use of accident data, reports and maps
from the Traffic Accident Recording and Analysis System (TARAS) to identify hazardous
locations and assist with the analysis of accident patterns and causal factors at particular
sites. However, it does not provide guidance on the use of TARAS – readers should refer to
the TARAS Users Manual for this purpose.
The Handbook provides guidance on the critical steps required to investigate and develop a
project comprising engineering countermeasures that will have a high probability of
improving road safety at a blackspot location. It therefore is aimed at developing an
understanding of the factors that contribute to road accidents as well as knowledge of which
treatments will be the most effective in addressing different accident types and patterns.
The scope of this Handbook extends to the point in the project cycle at which a road accident
reduction project has been developed to the concept design stage with a preliminary cost
estimate. Beyond this point, candidate projects will be submitted for evaluation, including
screening to ensure compliance with the criteria for acceptable road accident reduction
works, economic appraisal using cost-benefit analysis and prioritizing using a multi-criteria
analysis methodology. Procedures for these steps in the project cycle are contained in the
companion Handbook – Road Accident Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
Other manuals that provide guidelines on specific aspects of road safety include the Road
Safety Audit Manual and Highway Safety Design Standards Manual.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
PART 2 puts the project preparation phase into context within the overall project
cycle of project preparation, evaluation and delivery. This part of the
Handbook provides an overview of each of the steps in the project cycle for
road accident reduction projects; covering identification of hazardous
locations, through site investigation, formulation of treatment options,
screening-out of unsuitable projects, economic appraisal, multi-criteria
evaluation of each candidate and ranking of projects in priority order,
culminating in delivery of funded projects.
PART 3 provides a step-by-step guide to the project preparation process for road
accident reduction projects, including: the identification of blackspots using
TARAS and other sources; investigation of hazardous locations to determine
accident patterns and contributing factors; and the development of
candidate projects comprising accident countermeasures to reduce the
incidence of accidents.
APPENDICES provide examples of accident reports etc. from TARAS and samples of other
information and tools used in the accident blackspot investigation and
project development process.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
1. IDENTIFY
hazardous Hazardous
locations Locations
PREPARATION
2. INVESTIGATE
hazardous Potential
locations Projects
3. FORMULATE
candidate Candidate
projects Projects
4. SCREEN
projects against Eligible
eligibility criteria Projects
EVALUATION
5. APPRAISE
Cost-benefit
project
Assessment
economics
6. PRIORITIZE
Prioritised List
using multi-
of Projects
criteria score
DELIVERY
7. DELIVER
projects
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Each of these steps is briefly explained in the following sections of Part 2. Then in Part 3 of
this Handbook, the steps in the project preparation phase of the cycle are explained in step-
by-step detail. A detailed explanation of steps in the Project Evaluation phase is provided in
the Road Accident Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
The first step in the project cycle is to identify hazardous locations. For convenience, this
Handbook uses the term blackspot to refer to all types of hazardous locations with a high
road accident risk, including:
• intersections which have a higher than average accident rate;
• road sections which have a higher than average accident rate; and
• small areas with a higher than average accident rate.
Possible blackspots can be identified from a variety of sources – they can be:
• identified through statistical analysis of accident records, for example, by using
TARAS;
• suggested by DPHW Regional or District engineers; or
• suggested by the community or local government officials.
The aim of this Step is to identify all locations with a poor record of road safety. The criteria
to be used for identifying blackspots to be considered for treatment projects is set out in Part
3 (Table 3.1) of this Handbook. Note that the criteria focus on major accidents, since these
are the accidents that have the greatest impact on the community as a result of fatal and
serious injuries.
At this Step in the project cycle, the aim is to draw on all sources to identify all locations with
a poor road safety record and prepare a list of hazardous locations that will be considered for
treatment action. All suggestions should be included in the list of hazardous locations.
The second step is to investigate the sites. In general, it will not be possible to investigate all
of the hazardous locations identified in Step 1 because of the likely large number of sites and
limited resources and time. As a general guide, priority should generally be given to
investigating sites where people are being killed or seriously injured rather than sites with a
history of large numbers of minor accidents. This means giving priority to investigating the
locations with the highest average number of major accidents per year.
The aim of the site investigation is to gather information that can be used to verify the level of
safety risk at the location and formulate a response. Information required from the site
investigation includes:
• confirmation of accident frequency and severity
• predominant accident type and probable cause(s) of accidents
• physical geometry of the site (layout of intersections and road sections)
• location environment (roadside structures, adjacent land use, environment)
• traffic volume and composition
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
• driver behavior
• other relevant information about traffic and road use.
Having identified and investigated a blackspot location, the next step is to formulate a
proposal for reducing the level of accident risk. In most cases, this will involve formulating a
project that will involve one or more engineering treatments. In some cases, the proposal to
reduce accident risk may also include recommendations for enforcement and/or community
education to address matters relating to driver behavior. The types of treatment should be
matched to the location and accident trend profile, taking into consideration:
• site and traffic conditions (such as right of way, pavement conditions, sight distance
etc);
• effectiveness of the treatment in reducing accident frequency and severity;
• appropriateness of the treatment in the context of road environment and road network
at each location; and
• preliminary estimated cost of the treatment.
Detailed information on selecting and designing road safety treatments is contained in the
Section 3 of this Handbook.
For the purposes of evaluating and prioritizing blackspot improvement projects, the outputs
from the project formulation step must include:
• a description or concept plan of the proposed treatment;
• a preliminary estimate of the cost of the treatment works;
• whether or not the works will require land acquisition and resettlement of persons
living on the site;
• whether or not there will be significant environmental impacts such as major
earthworks, changes to drainage patterns, disturbance of native forests and wildlife
etc; and
• an estimate of the number of vehicles that pass through the site each day (AADT
from traffic counts if possible, or a realistic estimate of traffic volume).
In some cases, a proposed road safety project can have adverse social, environmental or
other implications or be inconsistent with other road development plans for the area. This
can mean that the proposed project is not an acceptable solution to the road safety problem
and is unlikely to be implemented regardless of its other merits. The purpose of this step is
to screen out and review those projects that have serious drawbacks. This avoids wasting
scarce resources on detailed evaluation of potential projects that have little realistic chance
of being implemented. Screening of projects can also avoid a situation where funds may be
allocated to a project that is not feasible or cannot be implemented for various reasons.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
The projects that fail to meet the eligibility criteria can then be reviewed and either:
• reformulated in a way that avoids the original drawbacks, typically, by finding a
different solution to the road safety problems; or
• removed from further consideration if no acceptable alternative solution can be found
to rectify the problems with the project.
Procedures for screening out ineligible projects are described in the Road Accident
Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
Potential projects that pass through the screening process (Step 4) are then evaluated in
detail. In general, the aim of evaluating projects is to find the projects that provide the most
cost-effective way of allocating money – that deliver the best return from every peso spent.
In the context of road accident reduction projects, this means delivering the greatest
reduction in road safety risk and greatest reduction in numbers of accidents for the lowest
cost. The purpose of this step in the evaluation process is to calculate an indicator (a
number) that measures the overall economic merit of the project. This economic indicator
then becomes a key input to the process for prioritizing projects in Step 6.
The assessment of the project economics is conducted using a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA)
approach. Procedures for the economic assessment of projects are described in the Road
Accident Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
Whether or not a project delivers good value for money and is a cost-effective solution to the
road safety problem is the major consideration when choosing between projects competing
for funding. But other factors should also be taken into consideration. For example, if two
projects have similar economic performance then it is reasonable to:
• prefer one that does not require land acquisition or resettlement;
• prefer one that has less environmental impact; and
• prefer one in a location with higher traffic volume since in most cases, implementing a
road safety treatment will also produce benefits in terms of reduced congestion and
fewer secondary accidents (accidents caused by the traffic disruption).
The prioritization process for road accident reduction projects uses a Multi-criteria Analysis
(MCA) approach to calculate a multi-criteria score for each project. The multi-criteria score is
a measure of the relative merit of a project taking into account a range of decision criteria,
such as:
• the value that the project will deliver in terms of road safety benefits per peso of
project cost;
• its acceptability from a social and environmental perspective; and
• its potential secondary benefits in terms of reduced congestion and reduced
secondary accidents.
Sorting the projects from the highest scoring project to the lowest produces a prioritized list of
projects. Projects near the top of the list are high priority projects. Projects that are selected
for funding allocation should come from the group of highest scoring projects since these
deliver the greatest road safety benefits.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Procedures for establishing project priorities are described in the Road Accident Reduction
Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
The final step is to obtain budget allocation and release of funds, and implement the highest
ranked projects. This Handbook does not cover the budget process for funding of road
accident reduction projects, or the contracting and delivery of engineering works at
hazardous locations.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
The project preparation phase comprises the first three steps in the project cycle:
At the end of this stage of the project cycle, concept plans for infrastructure improvements to
reduce the occurrence of accidents at hazardous locations will have been prepared and
costed. Candidate projects will be submitted for evaluation in accordance with the processes
and steps detailed in the Road Accident Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook.
The first stage of the project cycle for the Road Accident Reduction 1. IDENTIFY
hazardous
locations
Hazardous
Locations
PREPARATION
Program is the identification of hazardous locations. The objective 2. INVESTIGATE
hazardous
locations
Potential
Projects
of this stage of the process is to establish which locations are the 3. FORMULATE
candidate
projects
Candidate
Projects
EVALUATION 5. APPRAISE
road safety outcomes for the community for each peso spent on
DELIVERY
7. DELIVER
projects
Specific Location – Intersection or short mid- Average of 3 major accidents per year over the
block section (length<500m) past 2 to 3 years
Road section – Longer than 500 meters Average of 3 major accidents per year per
kilometer of road length over the past 2 to 3
years
The criteria are focused on major accidents, since fatal and serious injury accidents have the
greatest impact on the community both in terms of economic and social costs.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
At this step in the project cycle, the aim is to draw on all sources of information and data to
produce a list of hazardous locations that will be considered for treatment action. The primary
source of information to establish the worst accident locations is TARAS. Other possible
blackspot sites may be identified from other sources and these should be given due
consideration.
The process of identifying hazardous locations can be broken down into the following four
steps:
Step 1.1 Analyze accident data using TARAS to establish the locations with the worst
accident history
Each of these steps is described in detail in the following Sections, followed by a step-by-
step guide to identifying hazardous locations.
Accident data on the National Road Network is maintained in TARAS. Data on road
accidents are collected and recorded in TARAS in a way that allows them to be analyzed
within the system and produce a range of standard and user defined outputs in the form of
reports, charts and maps that are suited to specific needs. Minimal knowledge of the TARAS
program is required to produce many of the standard outputs. For detailed information on
the use of TARAS, readers should refer to the TARAS Users Manual.
To establish the most hazardous locations, a report that lists the worst accident sites should
be produced from TARAS. The report must cover a period of at least two years, preferably
three, to be consistent with the criteria for identifying blackspots shown in Table 3.11. The
standard TARAS Rank report for worst accident sites will produce a list of all sites in the
designated area that meet the minimum accident criteria. Reports can be produced for each
DPWH Region and/or District as required. They can also be produced at a National, Province
or Local Government level.
Maps showing hazardous locations can also be produced. These are useful to gain a visual
appreciation of the distribution of blackspot locations. They also will show where clusters of
blackspot locations exist along a particular road or within a confined area. These may need
to be investigated as a group, rather than individually, to determine if there are common
factors that are contributing to the accidents.
Samples of typical reports and maps from TARAS are included in Appendices A, B and C.
1
In the early phase after implementation of TARAS only limited data may be available. During this phase
at least one complete year of data would be desirable.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Possible blackspots can also be identified from a number of other sources, such as Regional
or District DPWH engineers, community members and local government officials. The local
knowledge of hazardous locations from such sources often provides valuable additional
information, particularly about the cause of accidents.
Sites nominated from such sources should be checked against the reports of worst accident
locations produced from TARAS in Step 1.1. If the site is included, proceed to the next step,
otherwise the accident history of the nominated location should be extracted from TARAS. If
the recorded accident history does not meet the minimum criteria for identifying blackspots,
the location should not be included on the final list of worst accident locations unless there is
an alternative source of reliable data on major accidents at the site (for example police
records that have not been recorded in TARAS). Sites that do not meet the blackspot criteria
could be reviewed under the Road Safety Audit Program and eventually included for
treatment in the Accident Prevention Program.
Having identified blackspot locations in Steps 1.1 and 1.2, the next task is to compile final
listings, from which sites will be selected for detailed investigation.
• specific locations (intersections and short mid-block sections less than 500 meters in
length); and
Locations on the lists should be ranked based on average accident rates (i.e. major
accidents / year or major accidents / km / year as appropriate). This will allow accident rates
to be readily checked for compliance with the criteria for identifying blackspots. Checking
compliance at this stage will minimize the possibility of wasting resources on investigation
and the development of a project that would be screened out during the evaluation phase.
Preparation of the lists using an electronic spreadsheet, such as Microsoft® Excel®, can be
useful as the data can be readily sorted. A copy of an Accident Blackspots Ranking
spreadsheet that can be used for recording this information is in Appendix J. This
spreadsheet also includes columns for addition of data and the formulas required for the
Project Evaluation phase of the project cycle.
The lists of worst accident locations should be updated annually to ensure they reflect the
most recent accident data and that resources continue to be focused on the most hazardous
locations.
Priority for site investigation and subsequent steps in the project cycle is generally given to
those locations with the highest accident rates.
Sites at which there have been treatment works recently implemented (say, within the past
two years) either under the Road Accident Reduction Program or another road infrastructure
program, should be filtered out and not investigated unless accident records show that the
previous treatment has not improved road safety.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Due consideration should be given to proceeding to the investigation step for sites where
there have been significant safety concerns raised by the community or local officials even
though the accident rate may be lower than would normally warrant investigation.
The actual number of locations to be investigated will depend upon the resources available
to undertake the investigations and subsequent project development activities as well as the
level of funding available to implement accident reduction projects.
Step-by-Step Guide
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Step Explanation
Step 1.1 Obtain reports and maps of worst accident locations from TARAS for the
designated area.
Analyze
Accident Reports and maps should be produced for at least the most recent two,
Data preferably three, years for which complete accident data is available.
Maps will indicate where accident sites are clustered in an area or along a length
of road.
Step 1.2 Review locations nominated from other sources (e.g. Regional or District DPWH
engineers, community, local government officials). Is the site included in the
Review
TARAS report of worst accident locations?
Locations
Nominated If yes, proceed to Step 1.3
from Other
If no, extract accident data for the site from TARAS and/or check alternative
Sources
reliable source of accident data
Does the accident history meet the criteria for identifying blackspots (Table 2.1)?
If yes, include in listings of worst sites.
If no, do not consider the site any further for the Road Accident Reduction
Program.
Step 1.3 Compile lists, ranked by average accident rate based on the information from
Steps 1.1 and 1.2 for specific locations (intersections and mid-block lengths less
Compile
than 500 meters) and road sections. Do all locations listed conform to the minimum
Listings of
accident criteria for identifying blackspots?
Worst
Accident If yes, proceed to Step 1.4
Locations
If no, remove non-conforming locations from the lists then proceed to Step 1.4
Step 1.4 From the listings of worst accident locations, select the sites to be investigated taking
into consideration the following factors:
Select Sites
for • Give priority to sites with the highest number of major accidents
Investigation
• Consider sites where there is a high level of community concern
• Impacts of recently completed treatment works
• Other planned road infrastructure projects that may affect a site
• Resources available to undertake investigations and the development of
projects
• Funding available to implement projects
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
PREPARATION
hazardous locations for which investigations would be conducted. 2. INVESTIGATE
hazardous
locations
Potential
Projects
identify the predominant accident types and patterns and by the 4. SCREEN
EVALUATION
5. APPRAISE
project Project
6. PRIORITIZE
using multi-
Prioritized List
of Projects
criteria scores
DELIVERY
7. DELIVER
projects
The road traffic system comprises three elements – the human, the vehicle and the road.
The interaction between these elements is complex and the road user, whether a driver, rider
or pedestrian, is required to continually process information and make decisions. The safe
operation of the road system requires these decisions to be correct. Good road and traffic
engineering can assist by ensuring that the road user is presented with a road system that,
as far as practicable, is predictable, minimizes the need for complex decisions by guiding,
warning and reducing the number of potential conflicts and is forgiving so that the
consequences are not severe if mistakes are made.
Figure 3.1 shows the typical mix of human, vehicle and road environment factors involved in
road accidents. The diagram shows for example that around 95% of accidents involve an
error by the road user, whilst 24% involve a combination of human and road environment
factors.
H u m a n fa c to rs
(9 5 % )
Road
e n v iro n m e n t
24%
fa c to rs
(2 8 % )
67%
V e h ic le fa c to rs (8 % )
While the road environment is a contributing factor in a little over one quarter of road
accidents, improved engineering of the road and roadside can have an impact on a larger
proportion of accidents by modifying driver behavior or by ensuring that the severity of the
outcome of an accident is minimized. For example, if a driver strays off path on a country
road when talking on a cell phone, he / she has more chance of regaining control of the
vehicle if the shoulders on the road are paved. In addition, the outcome of a resulting
accident is likely to be less severe if there are no hazardous objects (poles, trees etc) close
to the road.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
The process of investigating a hazardous location can be broken down into the following five
steps:
Step 2.1 Collect the accident data relevant to the hazardous location
Step 2.2 Presentation of the accident data in a format which facilitates analysis
Step 2.3 Analyze the accident data to establish accident patterns and common
characteristics
Step 2.5 Review the information and formulate conclusions regarding causes and
possible solutions
Each of these steps is described below, followed by a step-by-step guide to the investigation
of hazardous locations.
The first step of the hazardous location investigation phase is to collect all the accident data
and information relevant to the site being investigated. The primary source of accident data is
TARAS.
TARAS Data
A range of standard and customized outputs is available from TARAS for both intersections
and mid-block sections of road. The most commonly used and useful TARAS output to assist
with the investigation of a hazardous location is the Listing report. A sample is attached as
Appendix B. This report will generally provide most of the accident data that are required for
the investigation phase. For each recorded accident, the report includes information on:
• overall accident severity (fatal, serious injury, minor injury) as well as the injury level
of each person involved;
• accident type, including the Traffic Accident Description (TAD) (refer to Step 2.2 for
explanation of TAD);
• light (day, night etc) and weather conditions (wet, dry etc);
• location details, including type of traffic control (e.g. traffic signals), type of road
surface etc.
The period over which accidents are to be included in the investigation should be as long as
possible so that accident patterns and trends can be established. A minimum of two years of
accident data is desirable and a maximum of five years should be adopted. Accidents that
occurred more than five years ago are likely to have limited relevance to current conditions.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
In the period immediately following the implementation of TARAS, limited accident data may
be available. During this time at least one year of data would be desirable. It should be kept
in mind that the evaluation of a blackspot project that is developed as a consequence of an
investigation will generally be assessed using the average accident rate over the most recent
two or three years.
Accident histograms or bar charts can also be produced from TARAS. These can be used to
highlight particular characteristics and accident patterns at a hazardous location. Common
factors that can be displayed on histograms include;
• TADs;
• collision types;
• time of day or day of the week;
• vehicle types;
• weather condition; and
• light condition.
A sample of a histogram in the form of a TARAS Summary report is attached as Appendix C.
Histograms alone rarely provide sufficient information to allow accident patterns to be
explained. However, they can provide a strong visual representation of particular
characteristics of accidents at a hazardous location.
A TAR form is filled out by the police following an accident. The TAR is the source of the
information about an accident that is housed in TARAS. During the course of a hazardous
location investigation most of the information pertaining to each accident can be accessed
through TARAS without the need to see the TAR forms. However, for many, if not most
investigations, it is desirable to obtain a copy of each of the accident forms relating to the
hazardous location as they can aid in developing a better understanding of the causes of the
accidents that are being investigated. Comments provided by the attending police officer and
the sketch diagram of the accident that is provided on the form can be particularly
informative.
The reports and histograms produced from TARAS provide the basic forms of presentation of
accident data. However, translation of the available information into alternative formats can
greatly assist the process of analyzing the data, identifying accident patterns and reaching
conclusions about likely contributing factors. Traffic accident data recording and reports use
Traffic Accident Description (TAD) codes to provide information about the accident.
A TAD code is a number that is assigned to identify particular accident types. For example, a
collision between a left turning vehicle at an intersection and another vehicle traveling
straight through from the opposing direction has a TAD code of 122.
The chart showing all TAD codes is included as Appendix E. Note that each column of the
chart corresponds with a particular grouping of accident types. For example, all accident
types that involve overtaking movements are in the same column and are part of the 150
series of TAD codes. This method of coding and classifying of accidents facilitates extraction
of data from TARAS and the accident analysis process.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Collision Diagram
Figure 3.2:
Collision diagrams are very effective in highlighting the predominant accident patterns at a
particular site. Collision diagrams can be prepared using information contained in a TARAS
accident listing, however, greater accuracy is assured if the TARs are used.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
• each accident is represented by arrow(s) and/or symbols for each road user or object
involved in the accident;
• arrows indicate the direction of travel or the movement being made at the time of the
collision. Generally, fatal, serious injury and minor injury accidents are represented
by a closed circle, an open circle and short bar respectively, at the point of contact;
• accident details, including date, time, weather condition and light condition, may be
included as labels (particularly if the diagram is relatively simple and uncluttered).
A TARAS Summary Report can assist in the presentation of accident data and in the
analysis of traffic accident attributes and patterns. These can be used to show a trend in
collision type (TAD codes), or other information relevant to the accident problems such as
accidents in the wet, accidents at night or accidents involving specific types of road users.
An example of a TARAS Summary Report is in Appendix C.
Histogram / Chart
A histogram or chart of traffic accident factors using a spreadsheet can also assist in the
identification of trends and in the presentation of data. These may show a pattern in accident
types or other data relevant to the accident problem.
An accident factor chart can be used to present accident data in a tabular format to assist
with analysis and identification of common factors. This type of analysis may be desirable
where manual examination of data is needed rather than the TARAS Summary Report.
Items of data in the tabulation would generally include TAD codes, accident severity, day of
week, time of day, light conditions, road surface conditions and the direction of vehicles or a
sketch of the accident. Sample accident factor charts (completed and blank) are in Appendix
F.
Analysis of the accident data is the first step towards diagnosing the accident problem at the
location that is being investigated. The objective of this step is to:
• formulate preliminary ideas about the road environment factors that may be
contributing to accidents.
The data collected and presented in Steps 2.1 and 2.2 provide the basis for a desktop
analysis, although the investigator may have pre-existing knowledge of the site which will
add value. Careful and systematic examination of accident listings, histograms, collision
diagrams and accident factor charts is required to identify the predominant accident types
and patterns and establish possible links to the road environment. Examination of a site
plan, if available, would also provide further understanding of the site.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
It is not unusual to have two or more common accident types at a particular location.
Conversely, at some locations the accident types might be quite diverse and there may not
be a dominant type. Under such circumstances it becomes more important to systematically
and logically examine the data to determine any common factors and patterns, and relate
these to site conditions and driver behavior.
At this stage some consideration of possible treatment options would be desirable so that
implications of various treatments can be considered during the next step in the process
when the site is inspected. However, at this point it is important not to jump to conclusions,
as subsequent steps in the process are critical to a full understanding of the situation and the
successful outcome of the project preparation process.
The next step is to inspect the intersection or section of road that is being investigated. The
objectives of the site inspection are to:
• gather information on road and roadside features and conditions that may be
contributing or relevant to the accident types and patterns; and
When conducting a site inspection it is important to remember that a road accident is a rare
event. While many thousands of road users can safety pass through an intersection or along
a section of road without incident, occasionally an accident occurs when someone fails to
cope with the road environment. The reasons for this breakdown are not always obvious.
Consequently, the site inspection needs to be thorough and systematic so that any possible
road or roadside features that may have contributed to accidents are identified.
Prior to the inspection, obtain a copy of a plan of the site, if available. Examine the plan,
keeping in mind the knowledge gained from the accident analysis in the previous step, and
note any features that may require attention during the site inspection. However, continue to
keep an open mind on possible causes and treatment options.
Another source of site information that may be useful is the Road and Bridge Information
Applications (RBIA) database.
• The site should be driven and walked to gain the greatest possible appreciation for
the road and roadside environment from the relevant road user’s perspective. Where
appropriate, it may be necessary to ride by bicycle or motorcycle;
• The timing of an inspection may need to coincide with the predominant time that
accidents have occurred, for example a specific time of day or night;
• The inspection should extend beyond the immediate vicinity of the accident location
to ensure that all possible contributing factors are accounted for; and
• Take plenty of photographs of the site. These are useful for further review in the
office or when considering the implementation of a particular treatment. A video
recording can also be useful for further consideration.
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A record of the site inspection with relevant notes should be kept. An example of a typical
format, is included as Appendix G.
The final step of the investigation stage is to review all the information gathered about the
hazardous location and formulate conclusions regarding the causes of accidents and the
treatment proposal that is likely to be the most effective in improving safety at the location.
The outcomes of the accident analysis and the information gathered from the site inspection
need to be closely examined to determine if there are road or roadside improvements that
could be implemented to reduce the accident risk or whether there are behavioral factors that
may need to be addressed through enforcement or community education. In some cases a
combination may be appropriate.
It should be remembered that although the causes of accidents at a location may be related
to behavior, engineering solutions may also be appropriate. For example, at an intersection
where the speed is a major cause of accidents, the construction of a roundabout (rotonda)
may be a good solution, as it will force a reduction in vehicle speeds through the intersection.
If necessary, further information about the hazardous location should be sought at this stage.
The police, local government engineers and the community, particularly those living or
working near the site, can often provide valuable local knowledge that will add value and
assist in reaching a conclusion about the cause of accidents.
Step-by-Step Guide
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Step Explanation
Step 2.1 Collect all accident data relevant to the hazardous location to be investigated.
Collect the
Obtain accident listings and, where necessary, histograms from TARAS.
Accident Data
Obtain copies of all Traffic Accident Reports from the DPWH regional office.
Step 2.2 Present the accident data in a format that is best suited for analysis purposes
using some or all of the following:
Presentation of
the Accident TARAS accident listings
Data
TARAS histograms
Collision diagram
Accident factor chart
Spreadsheet analysis
Step 2.3 Carefully and systematically examine the accident data to:
Analyze the Identify predominant accident types.
Accident Data
Establish common factors and patterns.
Formulate preliminary ideas about the road environment factors that may be
contributing to accidents.
Step 2.4 Inspect the hazardous location to become familiar with the site, gather
information on relevant road and roadside features, and observe traffic operation
Inspect the
and road user behavior.
Accident Site
Drive, walk, ride through the site, as appropriate.
Step 2.5 Review outcome of accident analysis and information from site inspection, seek
addition information as required and formulate conclusions regarding the
Review the
treatment proposal that is most likely to be effective.
Information &
Formulate
Conclusions
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PREPARATION
treatment proposal. The objective of this step is to develop a 2. INVESTIGATE
hazardous
locations
Potential
Projects
EVALUATION
5. APPRAISE
project Project
6. PRIORITIZE
using multi-
Prioritized List
of Projects
DELIVERY
7. DELIVER
projects
It is rare that the investigation carried out in Step 2 will point to a single cause of accidents at
a blackspot location. Accordingly, there is generally a number of different remedial safety
treatments that could be applied either individually or in combination. In developing the
treatment proposal for a blackspot, measures that have proven to be successful in reducing
the incidence of accidents in similar circumstances should be applied.
The process of formulating a candidate project can be broken down into 5 steps:
Step 3.1 Identify treatment options that address the predominant accident types
Step 3.2 Develop a preliminary treatment proposal that will maximize expected benefits
Step 3.3 Review site constraints and modify the treatment proposal accordingly
Step 3.4 Prepare a concept design plan
Step 3.5 Prepare a cost estimate based on the concept design
Step 3.6 Write a hazardous location report
Note that Steps 3.2 to 3.5 may be iterative, that is, it may be necessary to review the
outcome of earlier steps if factors identified in subsequent steps make this necessary. For
example, when preparing a concept plan it is discovered that a satisfactory design cannot be
achieved without land acquisition and resettlement, which had not been expected to be
necessary, there may be a need to return to Step 3.2 and review the treatment proposal.
Similarly, if an expensive treatment is not viable, a lower cost option may need to be
recommended.
Each of these steps is described below, followed by a step-by-step guide to the formulation
of candidate projects.
The objective of this first step in the development of a treatment proposal is to identify the
engineering measures that would be most likely to be effective in reducing the incidence or
severity of accidents at the blackspot location that was investigated in Step 2 of the project
preparation phase.
As mentioned previously, it is likely that the final treatment proposal will comprise a number
of measures. At this stage, all possible treatment options need to be identified. In subsequent
steps the options will be examined and an overall treatment proposal will be developed.
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The choice of treatment also needs to take into consideration the appropriateness of a
treatment in the context of the road environment and road network at the location. For
example, traffic signals or street lighting may not be appropriate in a rural environment.
Table 3.4 provides guidance on the types of countermeasures that are applicable to some of
the common accident types at intersections and on road sections. Whilst the table is quite
comprehensive, it by no means shows the complete range of treatments and possible
approaches to improving safety at blackspots. Treatments utilizing new technology are
continually being developed and tested.
Left turn with • Clear obstruction if sight distance to opposing through traffic is
opposing inadequate.
through traffic
• Modify intersection geometry if visibility for left turn vehicles is
obstructed by left turn traffic from the opposite direction.
• If intersection is signalized, provide fully controlled left turn phase
(i.e. green, yellow and red left turn arrows).
• Provide exclusive left turn lane.
• Construct roundabout (rotonda) if low cost options are not effective
and traffic volumes are moderate to high.
• Ban the left turn movement if turn volume is low and there are
alternative routes.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Night time (all • Install / improve line marking (lane lines, stop bars, centerlines etc.),
accident reflective pavement studs.
types)
• Install / improve signages (warning, direction and regulatory).
• Install / improve street lighting if in an urban area.
Wet weather • Install / improve pavement markings (lane lines, stop lines,
(all accident centerline), and reflective pavement studs.
types)
• Install / improve signages (warning, direction and regulatory).
• Improve skid resistance of road pavement.
• Improve drainage of road pavement.
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Hit roadside • Consider all treatment options listed for run-off-road accidents.
object
(including • Remove the hazardous roadside object or relocate it to a low risk
bridge) location (usually beyond the clear zone).
• Replace rigid lighting poles or sign posts with frangible poles / posts.
• Where it is not possible to remove or relocate a hazardous roadside
object, install a safety barrier or impact attenuator.
• Install guardrail (fastened to bridge end post) on the bridge approach
to provide protection.
• Upgrade / replace hazardous bridge railing.
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Hit parked / • Prohibit parking - either full time or part time (e.g. during peak traffic
stopped periods only if accidents occurring during these times).
vehicle
• Provide indented parking bays or increase the separation between
the parking lane and the through traffic lanes.
• Relocate bus / jeepney stop or provide indented bays.
Night time (all • Install / improve line marking (centerlines and / or edge lines),
accident reflective pavement studs.
types)
• Install / improve signages (warning, direction and regulatory).
• Install / improve street lighting if in an urban area.
Having identified the range of possible engineering treatments that should be considered to
target the specific accident types that have occurred at the blackspot under investigation, the
next step is to develop a preliminary treatment proposal comprising a package of measures
that are expected to achieve the greatest reduction in the frequency of accidents. However,
the benefits need to be achievable in a cost effective manner. The cost effectiveness of
candidate projects will be determined in the evaluation phase of the project cycle.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
It is strongly recommended that accident investigators have a good working knowledge of the
project evaluation process (Steps 4, 5 and 6 of the project cycle), which is set out in the
Road Accident Reduction Program: Project Evaluation Handbook. An understanding of the
methodology and the parameters used to conduct an economic evaluation and rank projects
in order of priority for consideration of funding will maximize the chances of producing
candidate projects during the project preparation phase that will be cost effective and more
likely to be funded.
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Accident Typical
Treatment Type Reduction Treatment
Factor (%)* Life (Years)
Signal installation 40 20
Fully control left turns (green, yellow & red left turn arrows) 20 20
Improve traffic signal visibility – remove obstructions, install
10 20
additional lights (including overhead)
Roundabout (Rotonda) 75 20
Geometric improvements, channelization islands (including to
35 20
restrict cross traffic movements), auxiliary left turn lane
Auxiliary right turn lane, realign right turn slip lane 15 20
Extend left / right turn lane 10 20
Prohibit left turns 10 10
Improve sight distance – clear obstructions, modify geometry
15 20
to improve visibility for turning vehicles etc
Signages – warning, advisory & regulatory signs 25 10
Pavement markings - centerlines, edge lines (including
25 10
profiled edge lines)
Reflective pavement studs (RPS) 15 10
Road re-alignment – on curves and at intersections to create
50 20
offset T
Improve superelevation on curves 20 20
Improve / provide gravel shoulders 10 10
Pave shoulders 30 20
Widen traffic lanes 10 20
Remove roadside hazards, install frangible poles 15 20
Road safety barriers – guards rails (including at bridge end
20 15
posts), wire rope & concrete, upgrade bridge rails
Flatten fill / cut slopes 10 20
Improve skid resistance, road pavement drainage 15 10
Indented parking, ban parking, indented bus / jeepney stop,
10 20
relocate bus / jeepney stop
Median strip 40 20
Passing lane (overtaking) 20 20
Pedestrian island, construct sidewalk, curb extension, curb
construction or widen shoulders to separate vehicles and 35 20
pedestrians
Install pedestrian operated signals 25 20
Install zebra pedestrian crossing (low speed roads) 15 10
Disallow right turn on red 10 10
Pedestrian fencing 15 10
Street lighting 25 10
*Note: Accident Reduction Factor and Typical Treatment Life values are NOT ADDITIVE.
The highest value is used if multiple treatments are proposed.
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The preliminary treatment proposal should target as many of the accidents at the site as
possible although the primary objective is to address the predominant accident types.
Optional proposals need to be considered, particularly where treatment costs are likely to be
high. Take, for example, a blackspot site where there has been a history of run-off-road
accidents on a low radius curve. Option 1 is to realign the curve and improve the
superelevation. This treatment would involve significant costs, particularly if land acquisition
is required. Option 2 is to paint edge lines and install warning signs and chevron alignment
signs. Option 2 would be less costly but would have a lower accident reduction factor (25%
compared to 50% from Table 3.5) and a shorter treatment life (10 years compared to 20
years). Ultimately, the evaluation process would determine which option is more cost
effective.
When developing the preliminary treatment proposal, consideration may also need to be
given to the volume of traffic and mix of vehicles at the site. At an intersection, this would
generally require maximum hourly volume data for turning movements (left turning, right
turning and through traffic) using each intersection approach, particularly during peak
periods. If the intersection layout were to be changed (e.g. for provision of traffic signals,
roundabout or addition of turn lanes etc.), this traffic volume information would be used for
capacity analyses during the peak hourly traffic flows. A turning movement count may need
to be arranged if the peak hour traffic volume data is not available or cannot be readily
estimated.
Prior to proceeding to the preliminary design stage, a review of the blackspot site should be
conducted to ensure that the proposed treatment proposal and options are practical and
achievable. The objective of this step is to ensure the appropriateness of the proposed
treatments in the context of the road environment and the road network. This may require
another site inspection.
The review should identify any properties that may be affected and if resettlement of persons
living on the site may be necessary. Property acquisition and resettlement of owners or
squatters can add substantially to the human and social impact of a project and result in high
project delivery risks in terms of cost and time required to resolve land issues. Where
appropriate, changes to the preliminary treatment proposal should be made to minimize or
avoid land acquisition and resettlement if possible.
Cross-checking of the treatment proposal against the outcome of the accident analysis, to
confirm that the major accident types and as many other accidents as practical have been
addressed, should also be conducted at this stage.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
The objective of this step is to produce concept or preliminary layout plans to a sufficient
level of detail to demonstrate that the treatment proposal is practical and able to be
implemented, to display its main features and impacts, and to provide a basis for the
preparation of a preliminary cost estimate. Minor projects such as those involving pavement
marking and signage works only, or minor changes to traffic signal hardware (e.g. the
installation of a traffic signal pole with overhead lights) may not require concept plans if a
clear description of the scope of the proposed works will be sufficient.
The concept plan is to be a two dimensional plan, which shows the following:
• Existing and proposed curb lines, traffic islands and / or edges of paved roadway and
shoulders;
• Location of utilities.
While a two dimensional plan only is required at this stage, some design in the vertical
dimension may be required to confirm the practicality of the proposed treatment and assist
with the preparation of a cost estimate. For example if level differences will require the
construction of a retaining wall to confine earthworks, some detail will be required to
establish the extent of the work so that costs can be estimated with a reasonable level of
confidence. As the design proceeds, it may be necessary to modify the treatment proposal
to account for any issues that arise.
• Alterations to utilities;
• Roadworks;
• Street lighting;
• Contingency; and
• Project management.
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Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook
Blackspot projects are typically small in comparison with other road infrastructure projects
and the changes in ongoing maintenance and operating costs associated with road safety
projects are not significant. Accordingly, they can be ignored in the economic evaluation
process and there is no requirement to estimate such costs.
The final step of the project preparation phase is to write an accident blackspot report. The
objective of this step is to document the outcome of the accident investigation and provide
details of the proposed treatment proposal. The report is to be submitted for evaluation of the
project and ranking for consideration for inclusion in the Blackspot Program.
• A concept plan (may not be required for pavement marking and signage projects);
Step-by-Step Guide
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Step Explanation
Step 3.1 Identify all possible treatment options that are applicable to the accident
types and patterns identified in Step 2.
Identify
Treatment Refer to Table 3.4 – Guide to Countermeasure Treatments
Options
Step 3.2 Develop a preliminary treatment proposal that will effectively target the
predominant accident types and as many of the other accidents as
Develop
practicable.
Preliminary
Treatment Use Table 3.5 as a guide to the effectiveness of treatment types.
Proposal
Working knowledge of the project evaluation process is recommended.
Develop optional proposals as necessary.
Step 3.3 Review the site, including another inspection if needed, to ensure
appropriateness of the proposed treatments in the context of the road
Review Site
environment and road network.
Constraints
and Modify Cross-check the preliminary treatment proposal to confirm that it
Preliminary addresses the predominant accident types.
Proposal
Amend the treatment proposal as necessary.
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Step Explanation
Step 3.6 Prepare a report to document the outcome of the investigation and
provide details of the candidate project.
Write an
Accident Provide details as set out in the report format in Appendix I.
Blackspot
Report
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX C
APPENDIX D
APPENDIX E
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX G
APPENDIX H
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX J
Accident Blackspots Ranking Spreadsheet for Site Data and Project Evaluation
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