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University of Stirling
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Title of Project The Impact of Persuasion, Placebo, and Openness to

Experience of Autonomous Sensory Meridian
Response
Student ID 2114896
Supervisor Dr Paul Dudchenko
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Student Contribution It was the idea of the student to investigate
Statement (maximum Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response.
of 150 words)
However, the project supervisor suggested the general
design, which involved measuring whether ASMR is
the result of a persuasion-induced placebo effect. In
addition, the project supervisor contributed by
answering queries about the project via email and
face to face meetings, and by providing detailed
feedback on the methods and results section of the
manuscript. Overall, all data collection was
obtained by the student. All appendices, apart from
the openness to experience questionnaire, were
constructed by the student. Qualitative content
analysis was performed by the student. Regarding the
coding of information to maintain the double-blind
aspect of the study, another party was involved. This
person is the students current partner. Overall, the
entire manuscript was written by the student and
amendments were made as per comments from
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The Impact of Persuasion, Placebo, and
Openness to Experience on Autonomous Sensory
Meridian Response
2114896
Words: 7,933
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the
Requirements for the Degree of BSc (Hons) Psychology
Academic Year 2018

Running Head: AUTONOMOUS SENSORY MERIDIAN RESPONSE
Abstract
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a term used to describe an
unusual sensory phenomenon, characterised by a physical tingling sensation in the body
that is thought to have a positive effect on physical and mental well-being. Some of the
positive effects include reduced levels of pain, increased relaxation, and improved
mood. The ASMR response is commonly elicited by specific auditory and visual
triggers. These triggers are usually in the form of whispering and personal attention
and appear to form the basis of ‘ASMR role-play’ videos on YouTube, which have
been growing in popularity since around 2010. Research on ASMR is limited, though
it is thought that some individuals may be more predisposed to the experience than
others, perhaps due to differences in brain neurology and/or their levels of openness to
experience. However, no research appears to have examined whether ASMR is simply
the result of a placebo effect, in that people may simply be imagining its associated
outcomes. To explore this, 92 male and female undergraduate students were
experimentally exposed to either ASMR or neutral stimuli and received either
persuasive information about ASMR or neutral information. The current study was
also interested in measuring the relationship between participant’s levels of openness to
experience and their ASMR responses. Results were obtained using Likert-scale
questionnaires relating to ASMR outcomes and levels of openness to experience.
Overall, results indicated that although ASMR stimuli elicited moderately greater
tingling responses, persuasive communication had little overall impact at eliciting a
placebo effect. Openness to experience and ASMR were also not associated.
Key words: ASMR, placebo, persuasion, phenomenon, tingling, whispering,
personal attention, openness to experience
i
AUTONOMOUS SENSORY MERIDIAN RESPONSE
ii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Paul Dudchenko from The University of
Stirling for assisting with the general design of this research and suggesting exploring
whether ASMR can be explained in terms of a persuasion-induced placebo effect.
Also, for being very supportive throughout my final undergraduate year and for
providing feedback on the methods and results section. Additionally, I must also pay
thanks to my partner Trisha, my father Peter, and my previous psychology lecturer
Phyllis Copeland for supporting and inspiring me to attend university. Finally, I would
like to dedicate this work to two other very influential and supportive people – to my
late grandmother, Margaret, and Trisha’s late grandmother, June.
Thank you for our memories
iii
The Impact of Persuasion, Placebo, and Openness to Experience on Autonomous
Sensory Meridian Response
In science, some unusual phenomena exist which lack empirical research (del
Campo, 2016). For example, many people can identify with frisson, characterised by
an unusual sensation of shivers throughout the body during moments of emotional
arousal (Harrison & Loui, 2014). Frisson can be elicited by various types of stimuli,
such as emotional music and/or videos (Clover & El-Alayli, 2015; Grewe, Katzur,
Kopiez, & Altenmuller, 2010), and is thought to be associated with the personality trait
openness to experience (Clover & El-Alayli, 2015; Nusbaum & Silvia, 2010).
Additionally, many people can identify with a phenomenon known as misophonia
(Edelstein, Brang, Rouw, & Ramachandran, 2013), which is characterised by a distinct
hatred of sounds such as chewing and pen clicking (Schroder, Vulink, & Denys, 2013).
Another unusual phenomenon which appears to lie at the opposite end of this
misophonic continuum is Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (Barratt & Davis,
2015; Barratt, Spence, & Davis, 2017; del Campo, 2016; Smith, Fredborg, &
Kornelsen, 2016). Rather than eliciting negative emotions, ASMR – which is
characterised by a unique tingling sensation in the head and body – may have potential
clinical uses for improving physical and mental well-being. From this perspective, the
following will discuss the nature of ASMR; why it may only be experienced by some
individuals and not others; the potential clinical health benefits of ASMR; the
similarities of engaging in ASMR and other types of clinical therapies; and whether
ASMR is simply the result of a placebo effect, in that the associated outcomes may be
imagined/perceived.
1
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR)
Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a term which was coined
in 2010 by an individual on social media named Jennifer Allen (Garro, 2017;
Lossifidis, 2017). The term is used to describe a highly subjective sensory experience
(del Campo, 2016) involving a tingling/static sensation throughout the head and body
typically when someone is provided with very close intimate personal attention and/or
is whispered to. Other so-called ASMR triggers can also include tapping, low pitched
sounds, crisp sounds, and slow movements (Barratt & Davis, 2015). However, the
history of the phenomenon is difficult to ascertain as only recently has it appeared in
the literature (Young & Blansert, 2015).
Since 2010, there has been a substantial increase in ASMR related media
appearing online. When one accesses www.YouTube.com and enters the abbreviation
‘ASMR’ into the search tab, numerous videos become available. Material uploaded by
Isabel Imagination ASMR (2017), Gentle Whispering ASMR (2017), and ASMR
Darling (2017) are extremely popular, each with millions of views combined. What
appears to make ASMR stimuli unique is that it is focussed on very personal role-play
activities, where the viewer is provided with an imaginary personal experience. Two
very common personal ASMR experiences involve medical examinations, as produced
by ASMR Darling (2017), and having one’s hair cut (Whispers Red ASMR, 2015).
Throughout each experience, the viewer is provided with high levels of care and
personal attention, and is spoken to in a very quiet, soothing manner. It is also worth
noting that other sounds, such as tapping fingernails (Izzy D, 2016) are also popular
among ASMR media users. It appears that it is the nature of these combined
auditory/visual experiences that provoke an ASMR response in viewers.
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ASMR as a Subjective Sensory Experience
Given that the phenomenon has only recently gained scientific attention, the
exact cause and mechanisms which underpin ASMR are not yet fully understood.
What is known, however, is that ASMR is only experienced by certain individuals.
These individuals have been referred to by researchers as sensitive (Barratt & Davis,
2015; Smith, Fredborg, & Kornelsen, 2016), suggesting that individual differences are
involved in the experience.
Research by Smith, Fredborg, and Kornelsen (2016) studied ASMR using
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). From here, they were able to gain
insight into whether the brains of individuals who experience it were different to
controls. To do this, the researchers examined the functional connectivity of an
important resting-state network, known as the default mode network (DMN), in 11
individuals who claimed to be sensitive to ASMR. The data was then compared with
11 controls participants. From their research, they found that the functional
connectivity within the DMN in sensitive participants was significantly different to that
of controls. In the brains of sensitive participants, there was less functional
connectivity in areas such as the right superior and middle temporal gyri, precuneous,
superior frontal gyrus, and posterior cingulate. There was also less connectivity in the
left superior temporal gyrus, medial frontal gyrus, and medial dorsal thalamus in the
brains of participants who were sensitive to ASMR. However, there was also
increased connectivity in the brains of sensitive participants in areas involved in
executive control and visual resting-state networks. In terms of what this suggests
about ASMR, it may be that these differences in brain regions and reduced connectivity
in sensitive individuals may result in the sensory type experiences commonly reported
3
(Lin, Tseng, Lai, Matsuo, & Gau, 2015; Ro et al, 2007; Schweizer et al., 2013; Smith,
Fredborg, & Kornelsen, 2016).
Additionally, it also appears that, like frisson (Nusbaum & Silvia, 2010; Clover
& El-Alayli, 2015), the personality factor openness to experience may also affect
whether someone will be able to have an ASMR experience. Recent research by
Fredborg, Clark, and Smith (2017) investigated the role of the personality trait
openness to experience on ASMR. In their study, 290 participants who were classed as
sensitive to ASMR were compared with 290 control participants. All participants
completed the Big Five Personality Inventory (John & Srivastava, 1999). In addition,
participants regarded as sensitive also completed a questionnaire relating to their
ASMR phenomenology. As predicted, participants who were sensitive to ASMR
showed significantly higher scores on the openness to experience scale. Therefore, it
seems that there may also be distinct personality factors involved in whether someone
will experience ASMR.
The Potential Clinical Benefits of ASMR
Although there is a lack of research with regards to the causes of ASMR and
who it works for, it does seem to have numerous clinical benefits. In 2015,
researchers found from a study involving over 400 participants who were familiar with
ASMR that 98% agreed that it helped them to relax (Barratt & Davis, 2015). The
benefits of relaxation have been found to substantially improve health outcomes, such
as improving mood (Forbes, Fichera, Rogers, & Sutton, 2017; Palmer, 2017) and
decreasing levels of anxiety (Manzoni, Pagnini, Castelnuovo, & Molinari, 2008). In
addition, it was found in the same research by Barratt and Davis that 82% of people
agreed that it helped with sleep. Given that insomnia in the United Kingdom has been
reported to be of a major health concern (NHS Choices, 2011), and that long-term use
4
of insomnia medications may adversely affect people’s cognitive and mental health
(Kramer, 2006), this finding is also of great clinical importance as it may offer people
with an alternative treatment option that is not associated with negative side-effects.
Furthermore, Barratt and Davis also found that 70% of participants agreed that ASMR
helps with stress, and that it may reduce levels of pain. This could subsequently lead
to an interesting avenue of research on chronic pain, as it seems that many individuals
suffer from pain that is difficult to manage with conventional treatment options (Danise
& Turk, 2013; Mao & Kitz, 2017).
In terms of how ASMR may work to achieve these positive outcomes, Young
and Blansert (2015) have suggested that it may be akin to a form of mindfulness, in that
individuals are essentially taking time out from their daily lives to engage in this type of
media with the intention of feeling better. Mindfulness has indeed been shown to
produce positive psychological effects, such as improved subjective well-being and
behavioural regulation (Keng, Smoski, & Robins, 2011), which are similar outcomes to
those reported by Barratt and Davis (2015). In addition, Young and Blansert also
compared ASMR with meditation and hypnosis, as each involve a degree of
susceptibility and engagement. If ASMR is indeed like these other already established
therapeutic techniques, then perhaps more research is required to ascertain whether the
positive outcomes associated with it can be applied to a wider population. Following
this, it may then be possible to recommend ASMR stimuli as an intervention for
varying psychological and/or physical disorders. However, before broadening ASMR
research to investigate its use with wider populations in clinical contexts, further
research will also be required to determine more about how it works, such as through
what mechanisms it produces desired outcomes. Aside from mindfulness, meditation
and hypnosis, it could be that ASMR may simply be the result of a placebo effect.
5
The Placebo Effect and Persuasive Communication
The placebo effect has been defined as a psychobiological phenomenon which
is associated with perceived positive physical and/or psychological outcomes
(Benedetti, Mayberg, Wager, Stohler, & Zubieta, 2005). A common explanation as to
how it works has been discussed by Kirsch (1985) in terms of what he referred to as the
response expectancy hypothesis. Simply, when we are led to believe that something is
beneficial for us and that it will result in improvements, we are likely to behave in a
way that produces the outcome in a process of classical conditioning. The power of
this effect has been seen in many different areas of research, such as in cognitive
research involving creativity (Rozenkrantz et al. 2017) and in studies involving
psychological treatments for mental illnesses, such as depression (Wampold, Minami,
Tierney, Baskin, & Bhati, 2005). The placebo effect is also very commonly studied in
medical science when testing the efficacy of pharmaceutical medications, such as anti-
depressants (Kirsch, 2014). If individuals are responding equally well to medication
that contains no active ingredient, then the benefits of the intervention are thought to be
psychologically perceived, which is an extremely important finding when assessing
whether a treatment is effective or not.
In relation to how response expectancies and placebo effects are formed,
persuasive communication has been previously considered as a key contributing factor
(Colloca & Miller, 2011). For instance, persuasive suggestions have been previously
shown to produce different outcomes relating to people’s expectations of whether a cup
of coffee contained caffeine or not (Kirsch & Weixel, 1988). In addition, persuasive
communication has also been reported to reduce pain in patients undergoing surgical
treatment for irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) when they were informed that the
intervention had previously alleviated pain in other patients (Pollo, Amanzio,
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Arslanian, Casadio, Maggi, & Benedetti, 2001). Furthermore, in a study which looked
at cognitive-behavioural interventions for pain, it was found that response expectancies
partially mediated the effects of the treatment on pain (Milling, Reardon, & Carosella,
2006). Thus, it seems that people’s psychological expectations are heavily involved in
the effectiveness of a treatment. However, previous literature has also demonstrated
that persuasion has very little effect at reducing placebo-induced pain (de Jong, van
Baast, Arntz, & Merckelbach, 1996), which is contrary to the hypothesis that
persuasion may provoke a placebo response.
The current study
Based on the research discussed, the primary aim of the current study is to
address the gap in the literature involving the placebo effect relating to the outcomes
associated with ASMR. As a secondary aim, the current study will also explore the role
of openness to experience on ASMR outcomes. This is based on the hypothesis that
openness to experience may be involved in whether someone is likely to experience it
or not. Neurological factors are not investigated. To investigate these issues,
participants will be experimentally exposed to either an ASMR or neutral video and
will receive either persuasive information about the effects of ASMR or will receive
neutral information. By giving participants information that is designed to persuade
them about ASMR and its claimed benefits, it will be possible to measure whether the
associated outcomes are the result of a placebo effect. In terms of measuring ASMR
outcomes, a response questionnaire is used. These outcomes are designed to reflect
those discussed by Barratt and Davis (2015). Additionally, levels of openness to
experience will also be recorded using an established questionnaire (John & Srivastava,
1999) from which mean responses will be correlated with mean ASMR responses.
7
In terms of predictions, the current study has outlined four hypotheses. First, it
is predicted that those who receive persuasive information about ASMR will report
having more of an ASMR experience than those given neutral information. Second, it
is expected that there will be a relationship between openness to experience and
ASMR. Third, it may be that participants will report ASMR outcomes regardless of
the type of information they have received. Lastly, it could be the case that no overall
ASMR effect is reported by participants, also irrespective of the type of information
they had received.
Methods
Participants
A total of 92 (N = 92, Mage = 21.05, SD = 5.76) participants were included in the
current study. The age range was 18–47, consisting of 14 males (Mage = 23.79) and 78
females (Mage = 20.56). All participants were first and second year undergraduate
students at The University of Stirling, Scotland, and were required to be at least 18-
years-old to participate. They were recruited via opportunity sampling through the
university’s research portal ‘Psychweb’, which enabled them to match themselves to a
suitable experiment as a partial fulfilment of their degree requirements. Overall, the
sample was generally non-biased, in that 75% (n=69/92) did not know about ASMR
prior to the study.
Materials
Participant information sheet. A participant information sheet (appendix a),
which was designed to describe the nature of the research without persuading
individuals about ASMR, contained information about relevant details involving the
nature of the study, such as eligibility criteria and the requirements of the research.
8
Consent form. Participants were also required to read and complete a consent
form (appendix b). The consent form contained further details about the research and
was required to obtain their consent to proceed.
Debrief form. The current study also required that participants are debriefed
after participation (appendix c). The debrief form detailed the full nature of the
research, which included some details on the basic design and why some participants
were assigned to a control condition. The debrief form also provided details on
ASMR, including some background research, why it has become popular, what people
appear to use it for, and what the rationale of the current study was.
Openness to experience questionnaire. The current study also required that
participants complete two questionnaires. The first questionnaire (appendix d) aimed
to obtain openness to experience scores. This questionnaire was in the form of a
Likert-scale. The Likert-scale items in this questionnaire ranged from 1 = (strongly
disagree) to 5 = (strongly agree) and included 10 openness items. The openness to
experience questions were extracted from the Big Five Inventory (John & Srivastava,
1999), with higher scores indicating a greater tendency to be more open to experience.
ASMR response questionnaire. The response questionnaire (appendix e)
aimed to collect several dependent variable responses which were specifically related to
the ASMR experience. This questionnaire was designed by the researcher in the form
of a Likert-scale, with scores ranging from 1 = (no response) to 5 = (extreme response).
There were nine items in total. Questions one to seven were designed to gain
information on the following: tingling, relaxation, sleepiness, well-being, frisson,
negative experience, and euphoria. Question eight aimed to gain qualitative
information about participant’s attitudes towards engaging in similar stimuli in the
future. Question nine asked participants if they were aware of ASMR.
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Type of information. The current study also required that participants receive
either (a) persuasive information (appendix f), or (b) non-persuasive information
(appendix g) before being presented with the stimuli. Each of these were different in
terms of level of detail. Persuasive information was constructed to create a persuasive
response expectancy about ASMR. This information informed participants about
ASMR appearing in The Guardian, which discussed its increasing popularity among
social media users. Additionally, participants were informed of the key findings by
Barratt and Davis (2015), such as that 98% of people engaged in ASMR to relax, 82%
to help with sleep, and 70% to alleviate stress. Participants were also informed of
some common ASMR triggers. Further, participants were informed about an anecdotal
ASMR experience which had been included in their research. Conversely, non-
persuasive information was designed to be completely neutral. This information was
designed to simply inform the participant that they would be presented with a short 20-
minute video, and that they would be required to complete another questionnaire. This
information did not contain anything relating to ASMR to minimise persuasion.
Apparatus and Stimuli
Apparatus. The computer used was an HP Compaq 8000 Elite SFF Business
PC, operating on Windows 7 Pro with an Intel Core processor. The monitor was a
standard Lenovo LCD computer monitor. Size was not displayed. The headphones
used were basic and unbranded, with foam ear-pieces. Furthermore, a small plastic tub
containing numbers one to four was used to randomise the group assignment.
Experimental stimuli. The experimental stimuli were a video titled ‘ASMR
Doctor Roleplay - Yearly Exam’ (ASMR Darling, 2017) and was extracted from
YouTube (www.YouTube.com).
10
Figure 1. Experimental stimuli involving a role-play medical examination.
Reason for use. This video was selected for several reasons. First, it was
deemed a suitable video as it did not contain any suggestion about ASMR. Second, it
was relatable in that it was conducted in a common environment (a medical
examination room). Third, the video appeared extremely popular on YouTube, with
over 2.6m views at the time of the current study. Fourth, it did also not rely on more
than one microphone. Lastly, it was relatively short (22:23 minutes) in comparison
with other videos.
Control stimuli. The neutral stimuli, which was used as a control measure,
was a video of a similar nature - ‘Head-to-Toe Nursing Physical Assessment’
(Somebody Bored, 2017) - and was also extracted from YouTube
(www.YouTube.com).
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Figure 2. Neutral stimuli involving an educational medical examination.
Reason for use. This video was selected as a control as it was a similar length
to the experimental video (22:59 minutes), similar nature (i.e. a medical examination),
and was also conducted by a female. The video was a medical examination performed
and was uploaded for educational purposes. It was not intended to produce an ASMR
effect. This video was also recorded from a third person perspective. It should be
noted that this video does not appear on YouTube at the present date (08/02/2018).
Design
A 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of info: persuasive/non-persuasive)
double-blind, between-subject design was utilised, whereby all participants (N=92) and
researcher were blind to the independent variables. There were also nine dependent
variable responses being measured (appendix e). Levels of openness to experience
was measured to enable a correlational analysis. In terms of how participants were
assigned to each group, four small pieces of paper, each with a number from one to
four, were placed into a small tub and randomly selected by each participant. Each
number represented the condition of which they were assigned to and had been
previously coded as the following by another party: ASMR = 1, neutral = 2, persuasive
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= 1, non-persuasive = 2. The type of information was also placed into an envelope by
another party and numbered accordingly. Thus, when participants selected their
number, they were randomly assigned to one of four groups (table 1). During this
process, it was also important to ensure that the sample remained consistent throughout.
To do this, participant numbers were not placed back into the tub until the fourth
participant had completed the study. This ensured that an even number of participants
were assigned to each group throughout the study.
Table 1.
A two-way double-blind between-subject design showing four separate groups.
Type of Video
Type of Info ASMR (1) Neutral (2)
Persuasive (1) 1 (n = 23) 2 (n = 23)
Non-persuasive (2) 3 (n = 23) 4 (n = 23)
Note: n = 23 participants per group; numbers 1–4 represent group.
Procedure
Initial pilot runs of the experiment did not detect any faults, therefore the study
was uploaded to Psychweb and multiple time-slots were allocated. Of those who
participated, one experimental token was awarded. At the beginning of the
experiment, participants were provided with the information sheet then asked to read
and sign the consent form to confirm participation. They were then randomly assigned
to one of four conditions (see table 1). Following this, they were required to complete
the first questionnaire on openness to experience. Participants were then provided with
either persuasive or non-persuasive information based on which condition they were in.
13
A video was then selected from a choice of either one or two, which was directly
related to the condition of which they were assigned to. Following completion of the
video, participants were instructed to complete the response questionnaire and were
subsequently debriefed about the study. They were also provided with a participant
number and thanked for their time. In total, the experiment took approximately 30
minutes to complete and was carried out over a period of eight weeks.
Ethics
The current study was granted ethical approval by the University of Stirling’s
ethics committee. Participants were made fully aware of this prior to participating.
Details on ethics were displayed on Psychweb and in the participant information sheet.
Data analysis
Primary analyses. Cronbach’s reliability analysis revealed a high internal
consistency within the ASMR response scale (α=.72), particularly when question six, a
non-ASMR question, was excluded (α=.80). Thus, relevant ASMR responses were
subjected to a two-way, between-subject analysis of variance (ANOVA). Question
eight and nine were also excluded from the statistical analysis due to the nature of the
questions. The two-way ANOVA enabled to test for significance of two main effects
(type of video & type of information), and whether an interaction effect was present
between these. This analysis also showed that the following variables violated
Levine’s assumption of homogeneity: tingling (p=<.01), frisson (p=.02), negative
experience (p=<.01), and euphoria (p=.01). A natural logarithm transformation (Ln)
failed to normalise the variance within these. However, it was deemed reasonable to
proceed using the two-way ANOVA due to its general robustness against violations of
homoscedasticity (Schmider, Ziegler, Danay, Beyer, & Buhner, 2010).
14
Secondary analyses. The secondary analyses provided an opportunity to
examine the data in additional ways, such as correlating openness to experience with
ASMR responses. Additionally, a small-scale content analysis on the term relaxation
(including terms relax and relaxing) was carried out on question eight. Furthermore,
the overall data set was also analysed holistically across all levels of each independent
variable. These results were interpreted using independent sample t-tests.
Effect sizes. The current study reports two key effect sizes: partial omega
squared (ωp2) and Cohen’s d. The following benchmarks are widely used in scientific
research (Cohen, 1988; Field, 2013; Richardson, 2011), though they are somewhat
arbitrary and should only be used as a relative guide.
Partial omega squared (ωp2) values:
<.0099 = trivial; .0099-.0588 = small; .0588-.1379 = medium; >.1379 = large
Cohen’s d values:
<.20 = trivial; .20-.50 = small; .50-.80 = medium; >.80 = large.
Results
Tingling responses
Previous research suggests that ASMR can elicit a physical tingling sensation
throughout the head and body. Thus, a 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of
info: persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject ANOVA was performed to explore
this. It was revealed from the ANOVA (figure 3) that a statistically significant main
effect of video was present (F(1, 88)=6.74, p=.01, ωp2=.06), with the mean ASMR
responses significantly higher (M = 2.52, 2.48) compared with neutral responses (M =
15
1.57, 2.13). It was also revealed that the main effect of type of info was non-
significant (F(1, 88)=1.08, p=.3, ωp2=<.01). Furthermore, both main effects were not
qualified by a significant interaction (F(1, 88)=1.47, p=.23, ωp2=<.01). Overall, the
results suggest that ASMR stimuli appear to provoke tingling responses relative to
control, but the way that ASMR was portrayed prior to the study had no impact.
Figure 3. A bar graph with standard error of mean (SEM) bars and double asterisks
** showing a highly significant main effect (p=.01) of type of video on mean tingling
responses in both persuasive and non-persuasive conditions. Responses were
measured on a scale from 1 (no response) to 5 (extreme response).
Relaxation responses
Previous research also suggests that ASMR may induce relaxation. In the
current study, participant’s relaxation levels were also analysed using a 2 (type of
video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of info: persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject
ANOVA. It was revealed (figure 4) that there was a non-significant main effect of
type of video (F(1, 88)=2.14, p=.15, ωp2= .01). It was also revealed that the main effect
of type of info was non-significant (F(1, 88)=2.14, p=.15, ωp2=.01). Furthermore, an
16
interaction between these was not determined (F(1, 88)=2.14, p=.15, ωp2=.01). Overall,
the results suggest that ASMR stimuli does not increase relaxation responses relative to
control. Furthermore, the way in which ASMR was portrayed prior to the study also
had no impact.
5
MEAN RELAXATION RESPONSES
ERROR BARS = SEM

4
2
PERSUASIVE
NONPERSUASIVE
1
ASMR NEUTRAL
Figure 4. A bar graph with standard error of mean (SEM) bars showing participants
mean relaxation responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-
persuasive conditions. Responses were measured on a scale from 1 (no response) to 5
(extreme response). All effects are non-significant (p=>.05).
Sleepiness responses
It is also apparent that ASMR may help with sleep. Again, participant
responses were subjected to a 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of info:
persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject ANOVA (figure 5) to explore this. It was
revealed that there was a non-significant main effect of type of video (F(1, 88)=1.95,
p=.17, ωp2=.01), a non-significant main effect of type of info (F(1, 88)=0.33, p=.57,
ωp2=<.01), and a significant interaction effect (F(1, 88)=9.24, p=<.01, ωp2=.08).
Bonferroni adjusted simple effects were obtained by altering SPSS syntax which
subsequently generated a 2 x 2 pairwise comparison. From this, it was revealed that
17
persuasive information is more effective at eliciting sleepiness for ASMR stimuli
compared with neutral stimuli (F(1,88)=9.85, p=<.01, ωp2=.09). Overall, the results
suggest that the increased sleepiness levels for ASMR stimuli is the result of the
placebo effect.
Figure 5. A bar graph with standard error of mean (SEM) bars and double asterisks
** showing a highly significant interaction effect (p=<.01) on participants mean
sleepiness responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-
(extreme response).
Well-being responses
The phenomenon of ASMR is also thought to improve general mood and well-
being. Thus, this was investigated using a 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type
of info: persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject ANOVA. It was revealed from
the analysis (figure 6) that there was a non-significant main effect of type of video (F(1,
88)=2.52, p=.12, ωp2=.02). It was also revealed that the main effect of type of info was
non-significant (F(1, 88)=0.43, p=.52, ωp2=<.01). These effects were also not found to
18
interact (F(1, 88)=0.23, p=.64, ωp2=<.01). Overall, the results suggest that ASMR stimuli
does not improve well-being, and that the way ASMR was portrayed prior to the study
had no impact.
5
MEAN WELL-BEING RESPONSES
ERROR BARS = SEM

4
2
PERSUASIVE
NONPERSUASIVE
1
ASMR NEUTRAL
mean well-being responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-
Frisson responses
To measure whether frisson was present, a 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2
(type of info: persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject ANOVA was performed on
participants responses. It was revealed from the ANOVA (figure 7) that there was a
non-significant main effect of type of video (F(1, 88)=2.5, p=.12, ωp2=.02). It was also
revealed that the main effect of type of info was non-significant (F(1, 88)=.01, p=.93,
ωp2=<.01). These effects were also not found to interact (F(1, 88)=1.95, p=.17,
ωp2=.01). Overall, the results suggest that ASMR stimuli, relative to control, does not
provoke frisson, and that the way in which ASMR was portrayed prior to the study also
had no impact.
19
5
MEAN FRISSON RESPONSES ERROR BARS = SEM
4
2
PERSUASIVE
NONPERSUASIVE
1
ASMR NEUTRAL
mean frisson responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-
Negative emotion responses
Misophonia is another unusual sensory phenomenon which appears to be
opposite to ASMR. To measure whether participants felt negative emotions, a 2 (type
of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of info: persuasive/non-persuasive) between-subject
ANOVA was computed. It was revealed from the this test (figure 8) that there was a
non-significant main effect of type of video (F(1, 88)=2.32, p=.13, ωp2=.01). It was
revealed, however, that the main effect of type of info was significant (F(1, 88)=4.73,
p=.03, ωp2=.04). This effect was not qualified by a significant interaction (F(1, 88)=1.7,
p=.20, ωp2=<.01).
20
Figure 8. A bar graph with standard error of mean (SEM) bars and a single asterisk *
showing a significant main effect of type of information (p=.03) on participants mean
negative emotion responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-
(extreme response).
Euphoria responses
Previous literature has indicated that ASMR can elicit a flow-like state. The
current study therefore aimed to explore a similar phenomenon known as euphoria. A
final 2 (type of video: ASMR/neutral) x 2 (type of info: persuasive/non-persuasive)
between-subject ANOVA (figure 9) revealed that there was a marginal non-significant
main effect of type of video (F(1, 88)=3.66, p=.06, ωp2=.03). It was also revealed that
the main effect of type of info was non-significant (F(1, 88)=.91, p=.34, ωp2=<.01).
Furthermore, both main effects were not qualified by a significant interaction (F(1,
88)=.51, p=.48, ωp2=<.01). Overall, the results suggest that ASMR stimuli does not
provoke euphoria responses relative to control and that the way ASMR was portrayed
prior to the study also had no impact.
21
MEAN EUPHORIA RESPONSES ERROR BARS = SEM
2
PERSUASIVE
NONPERSUASIVE
1
ASMR NEUTRAL
Figure 9. A bar graph with standard error of mean (SEM) bars showing a marginal
non-significant main effect of type of video (p=.06) for participants mean euphoria
responses for ASMR and neutral stimuli in both persuasive and non-persuasive
conditions. Responses were measured on a scale from 1 (no response) to 5 (extreme
response).
Qualitative ASMR responses
Participants were asked whether they would be interested in seeking out similar
stimuli in the future. A total of 22 (N=22) responses were obtained. A content
analysis relating to the word ‘relax’ (including terms relaxation and relaxing) revealed
that this word appeared more times (n=11) for participants exposed to ASMR stimuli
compared with neutral video stimuli (n=2). It was also found that this word appeared
11 times (n=11) when participants were given persuasive information compared with 3
times (n=3) for non-persuasive information. The following responses are some
examples of what participants thought about ASMR for those who had been exposed to
ASMR stimuli and had received persuasive information. A detailed account of similar
responses are presented Table 2 (appendix H).
22
“It was calming. Might be good for relaxation purposes”
“Yes, they are relaxing and maybe helpful for de-stressing after a busy day”
“Yes because of advice to relax due to joint hypermobility syndrome”
“Very relaxing watching the video. Watching videos of a similar nature would
probably help me relax, especially prior to going to sleep”
Correlation between openness to experience and ASMR
Previous research has shown that perceptions of ASMR may be related to an
individual’s level of openness to experience. To test this, a Pearson’s correlation was
performed on the entire sample (N=92) for all groups relating to ASMR questions.
Specifically, participants mean openness scores were correlated with their mean ASMR
scores. It was subsequently revealed (figure 10) that an extremely weak, non-
significant relationship exists between participants mean openness to experience scores
and their mean ASMR responses (r=.13, n=92, p=.22). Overall, mean levels of
openness to experience and mean ASMR responses for each participant do not appear
to be strongly correlated.
23
MEAN ASMR QUESTION SCORES

4
3
r=.13
p=.22
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
MEAN OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE SCORES
Figure 10. A scatter plot showing the relationship between participants mean
openness to experience scores and their mean ASMR-related response scores. ASMR
responses were measured on a scale from 1 (no response) to 5 (extreme response).
Openness to experience responses were also measured on a scale from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A non-significant relationship is presented (r=.13,
p=.22).
Overall effect of type of video
Participant’s responses for key ASMR questions were pooled to measure a
collective mean response rather than an individual response. To obtain participants
mean ASMR scores, their response scores (for questions one, two, three, four, five, and
seven) were summed and divided by six. This subsequently resulted in a mean overall
ASMR score for each individual participant, which were then summed and divided by
46. Mean responses were obtained from 46 participants who had been exposed to
ASMR stimuli and had received both persuasive and non-persuasive information.
Likewise, mean responses were also obtained from 46 participants who had been
24
exposed to neutral stimuli and had received both persuasive and non-persuasive
information. From here, an independent samples t-test (figure 11) found a highly
significant statistical difference between participants mean scores in each video group
(t(550), 3.78, p=<.01, d=.33, 95% CI ± [.20 - .63]). This was also the case when the
significant effect of tingling was removed from the analysis (t(458), 3.02, p=<.01, d=.28).
Overall, it appears that ASMR stimuli provokes greater responses compared with
neutral stimuli.
Figure 11. A bar graph with 95% confidence interval bars and double asterisks **
showing a highly significant ASMR response (p=<.01). The responses include both
persuasive and non-persuasive information and were measured on a scale from 1 (no
response) to 5 (extreme response).
Overall effect of type of information
Similarly, an analysis which measured the overall mean effect of type of
information for the same key ASMR response questions (one, two, three, four, five, and
seven) was performed. Mean persuasive responses were obtained by splitting the data
25
based on the type of information rather than based on video. Mean responses were
gained from 46 participants who had watched both videos and had only received
persuasive information. Their responses to the key questions were summed and
divided by six. Similarly, mean responses were gained from 46 participants who had
watched both videos and had received non-persuasive information. Their responses to
the key questions were also summed and divided by six. This enabled a comparison of
type of information whilst isolating the type of video. From here, an independent
samples t-test (figure 12) determined an extremely non-significant effect of type of
information (t(550), -.65, p=.95, d = 0, 95% CI ± [-.22, .21]). Overall, the type of
information given to participants had no impact.

MEAN OVERALL TYPE OF INFO
95% ± CI
RESPONSES
1
PERSUASIVE NONPERSUASIVE
Figure 12. A bar graph with 95% confidence interval bars showing a highly non-
significant (n.s) difference (p=.95) between the types of information (persuasive & non-
persuasive) for ASMR related questions. The responses include those collected for
both ASMR and neutral stimuli. Responses were measured on a scale from 1 (no
response) to 5 (extreme response).
26
Discussion
The current study contributes to the growing body of research on the
phenomenon of ASMR by investigating whether the experience is the result of a
persuasion-induced placebo effect in a sample of 92 undergraduate students. This
subsequently resulted in several ASMR outcomes to be measured using a response
questionnaire, which are discussed in terms of how they fit with the outlined
hypotheses in relation to previous research. Specifically, these outcomes are discussed
in terms of how they compare with previous findings by Barratt and Davis (2015), who
have already suggested that ASMR may have potential clinical benefits relating to
physical and mental well-being. Furthermore, participants levels of openness to
experience were also recorded using a questionnaire, as previous research suggests that
this personality factor may be involved in whether someone will have an ASMR
experience or not (Fredborg, Clark & Smith, 2017). Due to the design of the current
study, general time constraints, and the lack of access to neuroimaging methods,
neurological factors were not studied. Therefore, no evaluations or comparisons could
be made in relation to previous research findings (Smith, Fredborg & Kornelsen, 2016).
Based on the most salient findings outlined by Barratt and Davis (2015), the
current study found substantial support for the hypothesis that the ASMR stimuli used
can provoke a moderately strong tingling response regardless of the type of information
communicated to participants. Thus, this outcome does not seem to be the result of a
persuasion-induced placebo effect as discussed in previous research (Colloca & Miller,
2011; Kirsch & Weixel, 1988; Milling, Reardon, & Carosella, 2006; Pollo et al. 2001).
Rather, tingling responses appear to be influenced by another factor unaccounted for in
the current design. However, other individual results which examined different ASMR
outcomes failed to provide any evidence that the ASMR stimuli could provoke a
27
response. For example, there were no significant results relating to the so-called
clinical benefits, such as improvements in levels of relaxation or well-being. This was
also the case when participants were asked about feelings of euphoria and whether they
experienced any frisson effects. However, qualitative responses from the content
analysis appear contradict the quantitative findings relating to relaxation. Simply, it
was noted that although the statistical analyses suggest that the ASMR stimuli does not
provoke increased levels of relaxation, people appeared to respond differently when
they were given the opportunity to comment on the stimuli. Of those who responded to
this question, many people described how ASMR may be a useful relaxation method
and that they were willing to seek out further videos in the future. Further research is
ultimately required to investigate why these responses were in opposition.
Furthermore, an interaction is reported relating to participants levels of sleepiness
following exposure to ASMR stimuli. By observing the nature of this interaction, it is
suggested that the increased sleepiness scores for the ASMR stimuli were the result of
the persuasive information, resulting in a persuasion-induced placebo effect. This
supports previous research (Colloca & Miller, 2011; Kirsch & Weixel, 1988; Milling,
Reardon, & Carosella, 2006; Pollo et al. 2001), and is contrary to findings by de Jong,
van Baast, Arntz, and Merckelbach (1996), who noted that persuasion is ineffective at
improving a clinical outcome.
Overall, the individual results reported in the current study relating to the
potential clinical benefits of ASMR are generally contrary to what has been previously
reported by Barratt and Davis (2015). In addition, relaxation outcomes appeared to be
somewhat conflicting when analysed using different methods. Therefore, it is difficult
to conclude if the so-called benefits relating to relaxation exist. However, when the
overall data for every ASMR outcome was pooled, greater response scores were
28
recorded after watching ASMR stimuli compared with neutral stimuli. The role of
persuasive information did also not appear to have any impact on this, indicating that
ASMR, when measured as a collective group of experiences, may indeed exist and is
unlikely the result of a placebo effect. If one interprets the data collectively rather than
individually, it would not be entirely reasonable to conclude that ASMR does not exist.
It is also observed that a small ASMR trend exists within the data which also indicates,
on a purely observational level, that ASMR may be detected in future research using
different stimuli and/or larger samples. However, this is a matter of individual
interpretation, as results were generally overall non-significant. Furthermore, the
current study was unable to provide any convincing evidence that the personality
characteristic openness to experience is associated with ASMR outcomes, as a very
weak positive correlation was determined. This finding seems to refute previous
research (Fredborg, Clark & Smith, 2017).
General Discussion
To investigate ASMR as robustly as possible, the current study utilised an
experimental design involving the use of a control group. This was to enable cause
and effect to be established, which is contrary to the survey method used by Barratt and
Davis (2015). By employing an experimental design, it was also possible to eliminate
some extraneous factors, such as distraction and noise, meaning that the results
obtained are an accurate representation of what could be achieved in similar
environments. Second, participants were required to attend to stimuli lasting
approximately 20 minutes. This was to minimise participant fatigue or boredom, as it
is apparent that some ASMR videos are very lengthy. Third, the current study drew its
conclusions from an overall neutral sample. It is apparent from previous research that
participants were familiar with, or sensitive to, ASMR (Barratt & Davis, 2015;
29
Fredborg, Clark, & Smith, 2017; Smith, Fredborg, & Kornelsen, 2016). In terms of
how this relates to findings, it could be argued that the previous research lacks validity,
in that if the response expectancy hypothesis exists, this may have biased previous
findings. Finally, the current study ensured that effect sizes could be generalised to the
wider population rather than the sample. It is understood that partial eta squared, which
is typically produced by SPSS, is a biased effect size measure (Field, 2013; Levine &
Hullet, 2002). To counter this bias, the effect size partial omega squared was used
throughout the current study, meaning that the power of the results represents a wider
population.
Despite this, the current study failed to address how much credibility the
participants thought the persuasive information had. The persuasive information was
constructed in a way in which the researcher deemed suitable. A future study could
address this issue by asking participants after the experiment whether they believed
ASMR could produce positive outcomes, and whether they felt the information given to
them was informative enough. It is unknown what participants felt about this
information and/or whether they read it properly, which may have reduced the
likelihood of capturing a placebo effect. Second, it was not possible to measure
physical responses, such as brain activity or heart rate, due to general practicalities and
time constraints. Although this may have made the research less representative of real
life conditions (ecologically valid), a future study could address this limitation to
measure whether the perceptual experiences associated with ASMR are related to
observable physical responses. Third, it was also not possible to compare the reported
effect sizes with previous ASMR research as there has been no peer-reviewed studies
which report these. It is commonly recommended to compare effect sizes with
previous literature (Lakens, 2013). Rather, effect sizes were compared with Cohen’s
30
somewhat arbitrary values (Cohen, 1988), which should be done with caution as these
values were originally constructed to be very general. To address this, further research
on ASMR is ultimately required, which would yield more effect sizes of which research
can be compared with. Lastly, the sample size was limited in terms of how it was
calculated. Future research should aim to use software such as G*Power to gain a more
robust power estimate.
From here, there are numerous other avenues of research relating to ASMR
that can be explored. For example, future research could investigate the effect of
ASMR on other devices, such as smart phones and tablets. It is possible that these
devices may produce different outcomes, as participants may feel more comfortable
while using them. In the current era, ASMR is likely to be accessed on more common
types of devices compared with standard desktop computers. In addition, a future study
should investigate ASMR using a completely neutral sample, whereby all participants
are unaware of ASMR. By doing so, a future study would be better able to minimise
previous confounding biases about ASMR, such as participant’s current knowledge
about it. Furthermore, a future study may benefit from measuring whether males and
females, or individuals with conditions such as autistic spectrum disorder, respond
differently to the stimuli which may form the basis of research relating to other
personality characteristics, such as empathy. Moreover, future research should also
investigate whether different types of ASMR stimuli, including whether it is performed
by a male, could impact the associated outcomes. It is evident that there are a multitude
of other types of ASMR stimuli available, therefore results could be different based on
what is presented to participants. Lastly, a future study should further evaluate whether
ASMR may be of medicinal use for conditions outlined by previous research (Barratt &
Davis, 2015). The research on ASMR appears to suggest that it may be useful in a
31
clinical context. Perhaps more research is required to ascertain whether ASMR could
ever be used as a potential treatment for physical or psychological conditions.
In summary, the current study analysed a series of ASMR outcomes which were
constructed to somewhat resemble those discussed by Barratt and Davis (2015).
Overall, it can be concluded that the ASMR stimuli was generally ineffective at
provoking responses, which contradicts their reported findings. In addition, it was also
noted that persuasive communication had very little overall impact on this, which is
again contrary to previous findings (Colloca & Miller, 2011; Kirsch, 1985; Kirsch &
Weixel, 1988; Milling, Reardon, & Carosella, 2006; Pollo et al. 2001). However, based
on the way in which the data presents itself and the observed ASMR trend, it remains
plausible that the phenomenon may exist in the population and is worthy of further
investigation by adhering to some of the outlined limitations and future directions.
32
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38
Appendices
Appendix A
Participant Information Sheet

Department of Psychology
Introduction
The following research is being conducted by David Swan, an undergraduate student at
The University of Stirling, and will form the basis of a final year dissertation. The
subject area for this research is psychology.
What is the purpose of this research?

As a final year project, I intend on researching a sensory phenomenon which has very
recently gained scientific interest. A simple breakdown of what you will be required to
do as a participant is detailed on page two.
Do you have to take part?

Taking part in this study is completely voluntary. You are entitled to withdraw from
the research at any time. You are also entitled to withdraw your responses/personal
information/data at any time. Please note that data which is anonymous may not be
able to be removed.
How old do I have to be?

The following study requires that you are 18 years or older.
What type of research will this be?

The current study will be conducted under experimental conditions. It will also utilise
two questionnaires.
What will you be required to do as a participant?

The study will take the form of a simple psychology experiment. The experiment will
be conducted in a psychology laboratory room and will last no longer than 30 minutes.
In this time, you will be required to do a few things. Please turn over for an outline of
requirements.
39
1. At the beginning, you will be asked to select a small piece of paper from a tub
which will contain a number from 1 - 4. This number corresponds to the
condition of the experiment which you will be assigned to. Based on this
number, you will then be required to watch a short video which the researcher
will set up.
2. Before you watch this video, however, you are required to complete a short
questionnaire which will ask you some questions. This questionnaire is
designed to gain some information about your age, sex, occupation and
responses to some questions about your general levels of openness to new
experiences. The questions within this questionnaire have been taken from the
Big Five Inventory, which is a very well-established personality questionnaire.
3. After completing the initial questionnaire, you will then be required to read a
short paragraph on a piece of paper. It is important that you read and
understand this paragraph. This paragraph will also contain a number on it.
This paragraph is for research purposes only and you do not require to
remember it.
4. Once you have read this paragraph, you will then be required to watch a short
20-minute video of which headphones will be required. These will be supplied
for the experiment. This video will be displayed on a standard computer
monitor in a psychology laboratory room within the University of Stirling. The
researcher will be outside during this process.
5. At the end of this video, you will again be required to complete another
questionnaire, which will ask you different questions. Once you have
completed this questionnaire, you will be provided with detailed information
about the nature of the study. At this time, you will also be provided with a
copy of your participant number which will enable you to withdraw your data
from the current study. You are not required to keep this if you don’t want to.
40
Ethical considerations:
The current study has been granted ethical approval by The University of Stirling
Ethics Committee. After an initial evaluation of the current research, there are no
special ethical considerations for this research. Minor changes have since been made.
What happens to participant data?

Participant information and data is fully confidential and will only be used for this
research. If you wish to withdraw from the study, your personal information will be
destroyed. Please be aware that participant data may be used in academic papers, such
as dissertations, and may also be used to form a class presentation. Please keep your
participant number if you wish to withdraw from the research, as this will enable the
researcher to locate your anonymous data within the dataset.
Correspondence:
For all correspondence regarding this research, please contact the following people
1. Researcher (David Swan) - das00073@students.stir.ac.uk

2. Research supervisor (Dr Paul Dudchenko) p.a.dudchenko@stir.ac.uk.
Alternatively, please contact the main Psychology Office located within the university.
41
Appendix B
Participant Consent
Please read below the following points in relation to what you understand from the
participant information sheet. To proceed, you will be required to give your full
consent in the form of a signature at the bottom of this paper:
- I have read and understood the participant information sheet for the current
research.
- I understand that participation in this study requires me to be 18 years or
older
- I understand that my participation is completely voluntary.
- I understand that I may withdraw from this research with or without reason.
- I understand that I may decide to withdraw personal data from the study at
any time.
- I understand that if data is marked as anonymous, it may not be withdrawn
from the research.
- I understand the nature of the research design and am aware about what I
will be required to do.
- I understand that all information recorded is fully confidential and will only
be used for this research.
- I understand that the study has been ethically approved and will not cause
physical or psychological harm.
- I consent to be a participant in the current study.
- I consent that my personal data and responses will be recorded and used to
form psychological research.
- I understand that by participating in the research, you give your consent for
your anonymised data to be used in scientific papers, a student
dissertation and presentations to academic and non-academic audiences.
- I understand that if I wish to withdraw from the research, I must do so
within 30 days of completing the study or my data may not be removed after
the work is published.
-
(PRINT NAME)
__________________________
Signature:______________________Date:_____________________
42
43
Appendix C
Participant Debrief
Thank you for participating in the current study.
The current study was designed to investigate a phenomenon called Autonomous

Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR). ASMR is a very recently studied area of
psychological interest. The ASMR community is extremely popular on YouTube and
Facebook groups, and has attracted millions of viewers and subscribers worldwide.
With this growing popularity and interest in mind, research on this topic has only just
begun.
A typical ASMR experience involves a YouTube user creating a simple video, usually
between 20-30 minutes in length, with the main focus being on ASMR triggers. ASMR
triggers, to name a few, generally include soft whispering, role-play, personal attention,
and light tapping sounds. Interestingly, individuals within the ASMR community
regularly report these sounds as causing tingling sensations around the head and scalp,
which radiate down the body. Other common reports also include deep relaxation,
well-being, and a sense of sleepiness. Previous research has also suggested that
ASMR may even help with sleep and mental health conditions, such as anxiety.
Depending on which group you were assigned to in the current study, you may or may
not have been exposed to an ASMR video. Because the current research was an
experiment, some participants will have been allocated to a control group and will not
have been exposed to an ASMR video.
Based on this information about ASMR, the aim of the current study was to investigate
the reported effects (i.e. tingling, relaxation and well-being) by bringing ASMR into a
controlled environment and introducing an independent variable. The key independent
variable which participants were exposed to was the short paragraph which contained
either persuasive information about ASMR, or neutral non-persuasive information.
44
In addition, participants in the current study were also required to complete a
questionnaire at the beginning which asked some questions about attitudes and
openness to experience. This information was required to also measure whether the
personality trait "openness to experience" may be involved in the effects of ASMR.
Previous research has suggested that people who score highly on "Openness to
Experience" questions are more likely to experience phenomena such as ASMR. By
using participant’s responses to these questions, it is possible to gain insight into
whether personality factors may be involved in this phenomenon.
45
Appendix D
Please complete the following information:
Age:____ Sex:______
Occupation:_______________________
Please now read the following questions carefully.

Simply answer the questions by circling your response
on the scale directly below the question:
1. I see myself as someone who is original and comes up with new ideas
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly disagree Disagree a little Neither agree nor Agree a little Strongly
agree
disagree
2. I see myself as someone who is curious about many different things

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
3. I see myself as someone who is an ingenious, deep thinker

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
46
4. I see myself as someone who has an active imagination
1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
5. I see myself as someone who is inventive

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
6. I see myself as someone who values artistic, aesthetic experiences

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
7. I see myself as someone who prefers work that is routine

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
8. I see myself as someone who likes to reflect and play with ideas
1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
47
9. I see myself as someone who has few artistic interests
1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
10. I see myself as someone who is sophisticated in art, music or literature

1 2 3 4 5
agree
disagree
48
Appendix E
Please read the following questions carefully.

Simply answer the questions by circling your
response on the scale directly below the question:
1. During and/or immediately after watching and listening to the video, I

experienced a tingling (static) sensation throughout my head and/or body:
1 2 3 4
5
None Very Mild Mild Moderate

Extreme
2. During and/or immediately after watching and listening to the video, I felt
a sense of calmness and relaxation:
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
sleepy/drowsy:
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
an improvement in mood/well-being:
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
49
5. During and/or immediately after watching and listening to the video, I
experienced frisson (shivers/goosebumps):
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
negative feelings and/or emotions
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
a sense of euphoria (increased alertness, excitement and well-being):
1 2 3 4
5

Extreme
8. Do you feel inclined to seek out further videos of a similar nature? If so,
please write below why. If not, please leave blank.
9. Have you ever heard of or engaged in ASMR related media before? Please
circle either YES or NO:
50
Appendix F
ASMR has recently been cited in the media (i.e. The Guardian) due to its growing
popularity on YouTube and Facebook groups. ASMR also now appears in the
literature (Barratt & Davis, 2015), and is beginning to pique genuine scientific interest.
From the research by Barratt and Davis, 98% of their participants engaged in ASMR to
relax, 82% to help with sleep, and 70% to alleviate stress. It was also found that 75%
of participants reported that whispering elicited tingling sensations, followed by
personal attention at 69%, and tapping sounds at 64%.
Additionally, many people have reported that ASMR promotes well-being. Some have
even said that it elicits feelings of euphoria and excitement, with one individual saying:
“I was totally amazed, I can only describe what I started feeling as an extremely
relaxed trance like state, that I didn’t want to end, a little like how I have read perfect
meditation should be, but I never ever achieved.”
With this literature/knowledge in mind, you are about to be presented with a short, 20-
minute video. It is important that you are fully alert and able to concentrate. During
this video, it is highly likely that you will experience a sense of deep relaxation and
sleepiness and may also experience a tingling sensation throughout your head and body.
These sensations may appear very suddenly or may take some time to develop. The
sensations are thought to be the result of Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response
(ASMR).
At the end of the video, it is likely that you will continue to feel relaxed for some time
and may even feel somewhat sleepy. This is a completely normal sensation and is in
response to being exposed to the video.
51
52
Appendix G
You are about to be presented with a short, 20-minute video. It is important that you
are fully alert and able to concentrate. During this video, it is important that you are
not distracted by anything other than what you see/hear in the video. Please simply
concentrate on what you see and feel. You will not be asked to specifically remember
anything in the video. You will also be required to use headphones which are supplied
as part of the experiment. After the video has ceased, you will be required to complete
another short questionnaire.
53
54
Appendix H
Table 9.
Participants responses in each condition when asked whether they would engage in
stimuli of a similar nature in the future.
Type of video Type of info Responses
ASMR Persuasive “It was calming. Might be
good for relaxation
purposes”
ASMR Persuasive “Yes, they are relaxing and
maybe helpful for de-
stressing after a busy day”
ASMR Persuasive “Yes, it was a
relaxing/pleasant
experience”
ASMR Persuasive “I am surprised how
relaxing ASMR is. I think
it might help me de-stress”
ASMR Persuasive “Yes, very relaxing”
ASMR Persuasive “Yes because of advice to
relax due to joint
hypermobility syndrome”
ASMR Persuasive “Very relaxing watching
the video. Watching videos
of a similar nature would
55
probably help me relax,
especially prior to going to
sleep”
ASMR Persuasive “It was calming, and it
relaxed me”
ASMR Persuasive “Possibly for relaxation
purposes (e.g. for getting to
sleep)”
ASMR Non-persuasive “Maybe for relaxation
purposes”
ASMR Non-persuasive “Not really, creeped me out
a bit”
ASMR Non-persuasive “Yes, it helps me to relax”
ASMR Non-persuasive “Felt very weird and
uncomforting, she did not
seem professional in any
sense. I would not leave
anything health related to
her with the attitude she
has”
ASMR Non-persuasive “Possibly as the
video/concept was
interesting”
Neutral Persuasive “I found watching the
examination interesting as I
56
was trying to guess what
the nurse was checking for”
Neutral Persuasive “It made me realise my
body was tense, but also
made me feel relaxed”
Neutral Persuasive “Yes, the topic seems
interesting”
Neutral Persuasive “Yes, worked effectively as
a relaxation technique for
my-self. Very useful as I
suffer anxiety”
Neutral Persuasive “I would like to view other
videos to research ASMR
out of curiosity”
Neutral Persuasive “I like the calm feeling
when watching videos like
this one and from past
experiences. The
experience of ‘frisson’ is
one that I enjoy”
Neutral Non-persuasive “Not unless she wanted to
get an idea of what a
session would be like for
study purposes”
57
Neutral Non-persuasive “Yes, I found it interesting
as it is something I have
never engaged in before”
Note: N = 22 responses were obtained across each group.
58
59
Correspondence
Researcher
o Mr David Swan
o Undergraduate BSc Psychology student
o The University of Stirling
o Scotland
o FK9 4LA
o Email: das00073@students.stir.ac.uk
o Telephone: 07950470912
Supervisor
o Dr Paul Dudchenko
o Associate Professor of Behavioural Neuroscience
o Office 3A85
o Department of Psychology
o The University of Stirling
o Stirling
o Scotland
o FK9 4LA
o Email: p.a.dudchenko@stir.ac.uk
o Telephone: 01786 467 664
60
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Psychology

Faculty of Natural Sciences

PSYU917 Research Project

Title of Project The Impact of Persuasion, Placebo, and Openness to

Supervisor Dr Paul Dudchenko

Word Count 7,933

Extension Requested Reason Tick

Other (please provide brief details below)

design, which involved measuring whether ASMR is

the result of a persuasion-induced placebo effect. In

addition, the project supervisor contributed by

answering queries about the project via email and

face to face meetings, and by providing detailed

feedback on the methods and results section of the

manuscript. Overall, all data collection was

obtained by the student. All appendices, apart from

the openness to experience questionnaire, were

constructed by the student. Qualitative content

analysis was performed by the student. Regarding the

coding of information to maintain the double-blind

aspect of the study, another party was involved. This

person is the students current partner. Overall, the

entire manuscript was written by the student and

amendments were made as per comments from

Openness to Experience on Autonomous Sensory

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Degree of BSc (Hons) Psychology

Academic Year 2018

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a term used to describe an

unusual sensory phenomenon, characterised by a physical tingling sensation in the body

experience. However, no research appears to have examined whether ASMR is simply

outcomes. To explore this, 92 male and female undergraduate students were

experimentally exposed to either ASMR or neutral stimuli and received either

also interested in measuring the relationship between participant’s levels of openness to

questionnaires relating to ASMR outcomes and levels of openness to experience.

tingling responses, persuasive communication had little overall impact at eliciting a

Key words: ASMR, placebo, persuasion, phenomenon, tingling, whispering,

personal attention, openness to experience

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Paul Dudchenko from The University of

whether ASMR can be explained in terms of a persuasion-induced placebo effect.

thanks to my partner Trisha, my father Peter, and my previous psychology lecturer

late grandmother, Margaret, and Trisha’s late grandmother, June.

Thank you for our memories

The Impact of Persuasion, Placebo, and Openness to Experience on Autonomous

Sensory Meridian Response

an unusual sensation of shivers throughout the body during moments of emotional

Additionally, many people can identify with a phenomenon known as misophonia

(Edelstein, Brang, Rouw, & Ramachandran, 2013), which is characterised by a distinct

misophonic continuum is Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (Barratt & Davis,

Kornelsen, 2016). Rather than eliciting negative emotions, ASMR – which is

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR)

Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response (ASMR) is a term which was coined

in 2010 by an individual on social media named Jennifer Allen (Garro, 2017;

history of the phenomenon is difficult to ascertain as only recently has it appeared in

the literature (Young & Blansert, 2015).

very common personal ASMR experiences involve medical examinations, as produced

auditory/visual experiences that provoke an ASMR response in viewers.

ASMR as a Subjective Sensory Experience

What is known, however, is that ASMR is only experienced by certain individuals.

involved in the experience.

Research by Smith, Fredborg, and Kornelsen (2016) studied ASMR using

controls. To do this, the researchers examined the functional connectivity of an

important resting-state network, known as the default mode network (DMN), in 11