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The primary endocrine organs include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, and placenta. These glands secrete hormones that regulate processes throughout the body, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress response. Secondary endocrine organs like the heart, kidneys, and digestive tract also secrete hormones, though this is secondary to their main functions. Tight feedback loops involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and target organs control hormone secretion and blood levels. Abnormal hormone secretion can occur if an endocrine gland over or under produces hormones.
The primary endocrine organs include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, and placenta. These glands secrete hormones that regulate processes throughout the body, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress response. Secondary endocrine organs like the heart, kidneys, and digestive tract also secrete hormones, though this is secondary to their main functions. Tight feedback loops involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and target organs control hormone secretion and blood levels. Abnormal hormone secretion can occur if an endocrine gland over or under produces hormones.
The primary endocrine organs include the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, and placenta. These glands secrete hormones that regulate processes throughout the body, including metabolism, growth, reproduction, and stress response. Secondary endocrine organs like the heart, kidneys, and digestive tract also secrete hormones, though this is secondary to their main functions. Tight feedback loops involving the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and target organs control hormone secretion and blood levels. Abnormal hormone secretion can occur if an endocrine gland over or under produces hormones.
Endocrine glands: derived from epithelial tissue or ectoderm
Primary endocrine organs: function in hormone secretion
Limbic system: reptilian part of the brain, shared by many organisms, control very basic processes, heart rate, emotional responses, fight and flight Hypothalamus & pituitary, pineal glands (circadian rhythms) Thyroid & parathyroid glands: regulate metabolism and parathyroid regulates calcium Thymus: T-cells Adrenal glands Pancreas Gonads Placenta Secondary organs: hormone secretion occurs secondary to another function (don't memorize) Heart, liver, stomach, small intestine, kidney (epo), skin Has roles in digestion and related metabolic functions, osmoregulation, calcium metabolism, growth, reproduction
Primary Endocrine Organs
Hypothalamus & pituitary gland: regulate many body systems Releasing hormones (ctrh) Anterior & posterior pituitary Pituitary is connected to hypothalamus by the infundibulum Neural connection b/w hypothalamus & posterior pituitary Posterior pituitary is derived by neural tissue ADH or vasopressin: synthesized in the paraventricular nucleus. Regulates water balance. alcohol inhibits ADH secretion, instead of reabsorbing water it releases, lead to dehydration Stimulated by increase in plasma solute [], target cells are in kidneys Response: increase water reabsorption, decrease urine output, promote constriction of arterioles Oxytocin: supraoptic nucleus, milk ejection, uterine contractions (target cells in uterus and breasts) ADH and oxytocin are released by exocytosis when the neurons receive a signal (neuroendocrine reflex). These are neurohormones Blood connection b/w hypothalamus & anterior pituitary Anterior pituitary is derived by epithelial tissue Portal system: Links two capillary beds, hypothalamic tropic hormones more concentrated in the portal blood than general circulation Capillaries are sites where compounds can be exchanged b/w blood & tissue. Blood then goes from capillary beds via veins back to the heart Hypothalamic neurosecretory cells secrete tropic hormones into the portal system, which travel to the anterior pituitary via a portal vein then enter a second capillary bed. The portal system allows the tropic hormones to be delivered directly to the target cells in the anterior pituitary i/o being diulated and degraded in general circulation. Greater effect on hormone release Tropic hormones regulate secretion of other hormones
Anterior and posterior pituitary glands don't communication. Have different
embryological origins. Hypothalamus and the pituitary: control of tropic hormone release Neural input to hypothalamic neurons Axis: relationship b/w each hypothalamic tropic hormone, anterior pitutiary tropic hormone, target endocrine gland Hormonal: feedback loops, short loop and long loop negative feedback Short loop: inhibition of the hypothalamic tropic hormones by the anterior pituitary Long loop: the hormone whose secretion is stimulated by the tropic hormone feeds back to the hypothalamus and often the anterior pituitary also Circadian rhythm
Question: what might be challenging when studying feedback mechanisms of
hypothalamic-pituitary portal system? Question: What might cause GH deficiency? How would you treat it? Pineal Gland Glandular (epithelial) tissue in the brain Secretes melatonin: derived from tryptophan, melatonin alters the release of GnRH, contributing to reproductive cyclicity in some species Thyroid Gland Produces thyroid hormones (T4, T3) Regulate metabolism, important for normal growth & development Produces calcitonin: regulates (Decreases) calcium levels in blood Parathyroid gland Parathyroid hormone PTH: act on bones (release), kidneys (reabsorption) , intestines (absorption), regulator of blood calcium (increases it) Vitamin D3 synthesis Question: a 9 year cat was diagnosed with hyperthyroidism and had surgery to remove her thyroid. All seemed well until she started to seem more restless than normal and twitched more often (involuntary muscle movements). What might have happened? Thymus Secretes thymosin: promotes T-cell maturation Most active in young Produced by a variety of other cells also Adrenal glands: adrenocorticoids (cortex) Above the kidneys, cortex derived from epithelial tissue Produces adrenocorticoids (steroids) 3 layers: zona glomerulosa, fasciculata, reticularis Mineralocorticoids: secreted from zona glomerulosa Aldestrone: regulates sodium reabsorption & potassium secretion Glucocorticoids: secreted from zona fasciculata & zona reticularis Cortisol: regulates metabolism & stress response Sex hormones: secreted from zona fasciculata and zona reticularis Androgens: reproductive function Adrenal glands: catecholamines (medulla) Secreted by chromaffin cells 80% epinephrine, 20% norepinephrine, <1% dopamine Hormone release is under neural control Pancreas Has both endocrine and exocrine functions Exocrine: acinar cells & duct cells, secrete into GI tract Islets of Langerhans Alpha cells: glucagon Beta cells: insulin Delta cells: somatostatin, regulates digestion & absorption of nutrients & regulates secretion of other pancreatic hormones F cells: pancreatic polypeptide, inhibits exocrine secretions of the pancreas & gallbladder contractions Gonads Endocrine and non-endocrine function Produce gametes & sex hormones Testes: testosterone & androstenedione Ovaries: estradiol, progesterone Placenta Estrogens, progestrone, human chorionic gonadotropin hCG is produced by the placenta Estrogen & progestrone are produced by the corpus luteum, then by the placenta
Rate of secretion Endocrine cells alter hormone secretion in response to: Neural signals: directly Hypothalamus (tropic hormones), posterior pituitary (ADH & oxytocin), adrenal medulla (epinephrine) Humoral signals: hormones, ions, metabolites Ex: regulation of blood glucose levels Ex: regulation of K+ levels (high K+ --> adrenal cortex --> aldosterone --> kidneys to excrete in urine) Transport Carrier proteins increase half life of proteins by decreasing the rate of hormones' metabolism Rate of metabolism/excretion Hormones are metabolized by target cells in the blood & in the liver Endocytosis --> lysosomes Those free in the blood by proteolytic enzymes Also by enzymes in the liver Hydrophobic hormones (steroids, 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3, and thyroid hormones) are metabolized more slowly, have longer half lives bc they are transported in blood bound to carrier proteins and can be stored temporarily in fatty tissue
Abnormal secretion of hormones
Hypersecretion: too much Ex: gigantism (Acromegaly) The blood levels of tropic hormones tend to be lower bc increased negative feedback from the hormone regulated by the tropic hormones Hyposecretion: too little Ex: diabetes mellitus type 1 Primary secretion disorder: abnormality in the endocrine organ secreting the hormone Secondary secretion disorder: abnormality in tropic hormone production Hypothalamic tropic hormones Excess CRH, Increases both for ex ACTH and cortisol levels Anterior pituitary tropic hormones Increase ACTH and cortisol, decrease CRH due to negative feedback