GUIDE FOR INSPECTION OF REFINERY EQUIPMENT
CIIAPTER XV
INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL EQIJIPMENT
l50t scoPE
The primary purposeof this chapteris to presenta
guide for instrument inspection. It is not ittended as
a maintenancemanual, although some of the inspectior
procedures suggested may appea! to belong ia the
categoryof preventivemaintenance.Theseprccedures
cover the majority of types of sta.ndard commercial
instrumentsand associatedequipmentused in moden
refineries. Particular attention is given those instru-
merts which afiect saJetyand continuity of operation.
Instrumentsare classifiedaccordingto t!?e of meas-
urcment or function performed. The broad classifica-
iions of instrumentsa(e: flow, level, temperature,
pressure,automaticconlrols, control valves, and ara-
Ilzers. The vadous t,pes of measurementinstruments
car be further classified acco(ding to the pdnciple of
operation. Some oI the principles upon which opera-
tion of instrumentsis basedate: difierentialDresswe.
v crcaledby 8o$ inrougha rciffictionin tbe lini: buoy-
ancy of a float; tbermal expansionof liquids or gases
in a constant-volume system; generation of electricity;
and amlysis of a characteristic property of a product.
B.ief descriptionsof the various types of inskuments,
together with ilustrations of typical instaflations, are
outlined in this chapter. The inspection of many instfl-
ments also includes checking hansmissionsystems,
power supplies,seals,purges,panels,and othe( asso:
ciated equipment- Inasmuch as the jnspectionof all
of these types of associatedequipmentmay not be
coveredin otherchaptersof thjs guide,suchequipment
is ilustrated and discussed in the followjng pages.
Refnery operationsarc, to a Feat de$ee, dependent
upon accuratsand reliableinstrumentation,Measure-
ment and cont.ol systemscan be relied upon only if they
are iDspectedpe odically and se iced by competent,
specially trained persoDnelrvho are faniliar with both
Process requirements and instrument furctions. Some
instruments are inspected by calibration. A thorough
mderstanding of hstument design atrd function, the
l:nowledge of calibratiotr procedures, and the necessary
skil with which to make accurate measuements and
delicate adjustments are all necessaryto assureproper
inspection and calibration; therefore, instrumerts should
be inspected only by qualifred personrcl. Throughout
this chapter, the use of the term "inspectof' shall be
a, construed to mgan a persotr or persons qualified to
Erform the insllument insDection,
t"t?
In plants which have rcgulat instrument depanments
and where the instruments are not normally inspected
by the regular plant inspector, the instrument inspector
a.ndthe plant inspector should collaborate in the inspec-
tion of control valves, level-float cages, instnrment air
and hydmulic systems, and similar instrument equip
ment where metal thickness measurementsor pressrue
testing are rcquired.
Inasmuch as this chapter is a gxide to instrument
itrspection procedures, the subject of insta ation meth-
ods has not been included. For recommendations on
prcper installation of iDstrumerts, reference should be
made to API RP 550: MoftnI on Installation ol Re-
fnery Instraments and Contol Slttems. This chapter,
thereforc, outlines only the equipment which requircs
inspection, develops the methods and ftequercy oI
rnspection, and discussesrccotds and reports which
should be maintained on the various rlpes of inst -
metrlsand s)\tems. For speci6cioformarionon various
makes of instruments, rcfercrce should be made to
marufacturen' instruction manuals and to any of sev-
eral good publications itr this field. An excellent book
of recenl date is the Industial Insttument Servicing
The q?es of equipment requidng inspection include:
1. Flow instuments.
2. Level inshuments,
3. Temperalureinstruments.
4, Pressureinstruments.
5. Automatic cortrols.
6. Control valvesand positioners.
7. Transmission systemsfor measurementand cotrtrol.
8. Seals,purges, and winterization equipment.
9. Instrument air-supply systems.
10. Hydradic-pressure systems.
11. Electdc power systemsfor instruments.
12. Inshument parcls.
13. Analyzersard samplingsystems.
14. Alarns and shutdown devices.
15. Miscellaneous inst ments, such as speed, elecxi.
c?1.and time rincludingcycle rjmer,) iDstrumeotsand
cara roSgers.
+ Grady C. Carou, Ir.lusttial thsntment Sedicihp Eafld-
b o o l , M c G r a q - H i l l P u b l i . h i d gC o . , l n c . , N e w Y o r k ( t a 6 0 J.
J
 INSTRUMTNTsAND CoNTRoL EeutpMENT
1502 REASONS FOR INSPECTION
l502.Ol Ceneral
lnspections are made to detemine the physical con-
dition oI equipment as well as the tt?e, mte, and causes
oI deterioration. With such data knowr, safety catr be
maintahed; continuity of operation can be improved;
product qualily can be assurcd; rate of deterioration
can be rcduced; and futurc reDah or reDlacementre-
quircmetrts can be predicted a;d scheduGd,
1502.02 Safety
Thorough inspection will rcveal conditions which, if
left uncouected, might cause failurcs ihat could r€sult
in seriousprocessupsetsor otlrcr conditions detdmental
to equipment and perhaps to personnel.
1502.03 Conrinuity and Efrciency of Op€rarion
Extemal inspections perfolmed during ope&ting
periods may resrilt in the detection of mechatrical de-
fciencies. Also other defects, such as plugged lines,
bent valve stems, loose packing, loose connections,
undue vibration, or other evidencesof malfunction. mav
be fomd. Properaoalysisand evaluatjonof rhesecon-
ditions, Iollowed by corrective maintetrance,car rcsult
in prolonged life of equipment, extended continuous
rundng periods, imp(ovement oI opemtions, and in-
cleased overal emciency.
1502.O4 Frequency and Time of Inapecrion
(Generar)
The need, as well as the lrequency, oI instrument
inspections is pdmarily determined by severity of se -
ice atrd overall efiect on plant operation. Additionaly,
some ilems of equipmenl can be isolated readily,
whereasothers can odly be inspectedduring shutdowm.
These facto$ arc considered itr the following general
rccommendationswitl respect to lrcquency aod time oI
inspection for all items of itrstrument equipment. When
the suggestionsdo not fit a particular set of individual
needs, a good practice is to make frequent inspe.ctions
initialy and then adjust the inte al as a pattern of
experiencedevelops.
I5O3 CAUSES OF DETERIORATION
l5O3.Ol General
CotosioD or erosion can be exDectedon the sudaces
of all bshument equipment which is exposedto process
fluids and on the unprotected sudaces of equipment
which is subject to the attack of moislule, salt air, fungi,
and atry corosive vapon which may be Fesent itr a
refinery atmosphere. Fatigue failure, mechanical abuse,
wear of moving pats, or overanging or exceedingthe
mechanical or electdcal limits of the inshument or anv
com"po.nentare other general causes of deterioratiotr
\l ;
1503.02 Cor'roiion ,*
;,'
Generally, corrosion is not a common causeof instru-
ment deterioration or failure because the efiects oI
conosiotr can be minimized or eliminated throush the
useoI p(oper materia]sor insrallationrechnique.
I503,O21 INTERNAL CouosroN: Corroilon may
occur on any inslrumentpan sbich con(actsprcces;
fluid. The sevedty of the aonosion is depenaletrtupon
the concetrhatiotr ard nature of the corro_siveasefis m
lbe fluid aDd rhe resistioceto corrosiooot the ;atedal
of conshuction. Ll general, co osion of msuumena
part\ wbich coDtactprocessfluid is oor a seriousprob-.
rembecdusethe<epartsarenormallymadeofcorrosioD_
resstatrtmalerialor are \ujlably pro(ectedrhroughthe
u<eor cealsor purgesv9tems.Corro.ion is mosl olten
encountered in contol-valve bodies, orifice plater,
chambers
of ceflai0le\el insLrume0L..gagegla.ses, or
olber deviceswfuch must be instdled so-ttru, rn.r ar"
directly eiposed to the proce<sfluid. The effeclsof
corosion are usually apparent hom visual inspection;
pitting altd rust fomation are obvious sipns.
1503.022 EXTERNALCoRRosroN: Deteriomtion
resulting from attack by moisture, salt air, Iungi, and
coffoei\elapors in t]e atmospbereis Lhemost common
lontrol exrerDal conosion.ln bot.bumidctimares. rhi\
rs lbe mos(prevdenLcauscoI failureof eleclricaji0sl(u-
v'
ment components. Oxide or salt formation on metal
surfaces subjecl to such coffosion can usuallv be de-
te.ctedby visual ob.ervarjoD. ln addition, ;lecLrical
componetrts may alco sbowsuchslmptomsas tutrgus
growths.A "le q or dislofledcapacitort usualtya
swe sim oI such detedoration
1503.03 Eroeion
Oritce plates, control valves, the(mowells, and other
compoDenr\exposedto Souing fluids Day be subject
lo erosion. dcpenditrgupoo the characteri(ticsof tle
fluid and the operating conditions. Some causes of
1. High pressuredrop.
2. High velociry.
3. Solids-bearing slreams.
4. Fluidized solids streams.
5. Flashingliquids.
1503.04 MechanicalDeterioradon
Mechanicaldeterio(adoDis Dot readily apparenrro
- inspeclor.and in mosr cases
tbe t}e cause can only
be determinedaJrera failure has occurred. Tbe exceD-
rion 10 tlis is mechmical abuse.whicb can usuallybe \a,
oetecteoby vlsuattospection,
 PREPARATToN
FoR lNspEcrroN
1503.041 FATrcuEFdLUREaNDWEAI oF Mov-
rNG PAnrs: Fatigue failure and wear of moving parts
are usually caused by oscillatory operation over a nar-
row portion of the instrumentrange. This conditionis
usually encountered where mechanical vibration or
Processoscillations are present.
1503,042 MEcsANTcAL ABUSE:Mechanicalabuse
usually rcsults in obvious damage,such as broketr glass,
bent valve stems, and dented or cracked insftument
housings. In general, failure from mechanical abuse is
causedby accidents,misuse,or carelesshandling oI
equipmenl- Control-valve stems have been bent or
distorted from excessivetorque as a result of the use
ol valve wrenches on the handwhe€I. Many failures
have also beelr causedby the use of various instlument
componentsas step stools when climbing or when trying
to reach inaccessiblelocatiorN.
15O3.O43 EXCEEDTNG INSTRUMENT LrMrTs:Ovet-
ranging or exceedingthe mechanical or electrical limits
of an inshument or instrument component is often a
cause of instmment Iailure. In the majodty of such
cases tlis is tle result of improper opemtion of, or
improper specification for, the instrument. A common
failure of this type results ftom the use of a presswe
gage without sufrcient consideration either for its in-
tended range of operation or for the material of con-
struction. A brass bourdon tube may be suitable for
150-psigsleamservicebut not for 150-psighydrocarbon
sewicewith suffur present.
15(X PREPARATION FOR INSPECTION
Unlike major pieces of equipment, such as vessels
and furnaces, many measurement and control devices
may be inspected and replaced or repahed, if rccessary,
while the process plant is in operatiotr. Itr some cases
the device may bave to be blocked ofi, vented, and
&ained. These operations should be attempted only
by a person familiar with both the processand the safe
handling of the equipment and fluids involved. Fluids
at elevatedtempemturesand toxic chemicalspresent
particular problems. If the device is part of an auto-
matic conhol system, tho plant operatot must be in a
position to place that portion of the plant afiected on
Deviceswhjch may be in djfty service (crude oil,
slurry, bottoms, etc.) must be cleanedthoroughly in
order for the inspection to be worthwhile. Special care
must be exercisedin cleaning deviceswhich are in acid
or caustic service. For further information on safe
procedures, reference should be made to Chapter V,
Pteparution ol Equipuent lot Sale Enb and Wotk.
r5o5 TOOLSREQUmED
Insuument and co rol equipmentusually is small
in size and rather complicated mechanically or elec-
rrically. ReliabiliLyand precisionare of prime impor-
tance. The pafiicular problems associatedwith meas-
uremert ard conhol devicesate related to the fact that
such equipment operates under the influence of forces
and movements of smal magnitude. Delicate paxts,
close clearances,and geneml complexity make the in-
spectiotr and repair of such devices a special problem.
Many of t]rc tools required for inspection come under
the definitiotr of test equipment. Orc oI the most im-
po{ant items required is a complete set of the manu-
facturer's parts lists and maintenance instructions Ior
each make ard type of inshument.
In addition to the commotr hand tools (screwddver,
assorted wrenches, and pliers), the most useful tools
and test equipment are listed in Tables I to 5.
TABLE l-Insperion Tools @d T€sr EquiDmenr for
Took onl Test Eqtuiptuent
Machinisfs inside midometds.
Poriable maDometer calihated up lo
50 i!. !LO.
Ponable mercury nanometer with
scale mdked to rad i! inches of IL"o
(u! 10 250 in. H"o).
Ponable oerc!ry manometer marked
to rcad 3 lb to 15 lb or a precision lesl
gaee o{ the same ruge.
A permanendy hounted shop ro-
nometer calibrated np to 250 ir, H!o.
Permarcntly mouted shop manome-
ter calibra€d from 3 lb to 15 lb-
Precision ai. regllator-
Pr@ision comparfton roimeters for
calibraiine small rotameteB, o. weieh-
type tanks for calibrdtio! of higher
volrme rotameteB, Calibration of rc-
tameters may also be made with air
through the use ot a volun€tric flow
Posilive-displacement Precision voluae rank of sufrcient ca-
ald rotating lacity io give a fesombte time-period
check for merer invoived.
Clearanceeages.
Stop watch.
Stadard or calibrated ncEr.
Note: Fefer to API Stdnlat.l 1101: Measu/ement oJ perG
leun Liqui.l E drccarbons by Pasnire Diqla..n nt Meter.
T4BL[ 2-ltr.petion Tooh trd Tcsr Equipmpnl fol
Tools ad Test Equipment
Vacnuh to 10,000psig:
Calihated t.si gaees,
Wate! dd mercury Dtuomete6.
Pointer lnllers and set.
10 INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL EQUTPMENT

TABLE 3 -lospe.rior Tooh lnd Tesl Equipmenl for tem. Ii addition, this record should include lotations
TcnDc'rurc rostrude'E of oans used.maior repairsmade,and commentccon-
Trpe ol |nnflm.nl Tools aul Test Equipmeht cerningunu.u"t problemswhicb aFectlhe reliabilityof
Filled{ys1em ad ti- Temperalure tesl tath' the measurhesvstem,
Derelopinf aird maintajoinginspeclioorecofds cln
Resistance thcfmometei Test lhermometer or tesl b'ih' become i time-consuming and expensive part of the
Precision{alibrated iesislors inspection pro$am if records are not kept in simple
Therdocouple llst lhemocouPlo. folm. A complete recofd file may contain three Epes
T$t Potentbmer€L of records,namely:
Ra.diationpyromcter TestPolentiodete! 1. Basic data.
Muffe furnace
ror 2. Field notes.
A .et of lelepbone\ wiu bc ounr ''eful
"oud-po+e-ed rbermo'ouple lead sre totr_ 3. Continuousrecord.
ommlnicdtiuo $hne chec[iDg
Basic data includes item nmber, manufacturefs
serial number, model number, and all technical data
T{BLE 4 -lnepr.rion Toot dd TGt Equip-cnr for
Lercl-M€asuing lnstM<Drg necessary to determine the funclion and physical de-
.criDtionot lhc equipmeol Thesedrla. rogelherwilh
Trpe oJ lnstrune Taols and Test Equipftehl
sc'le
lhe manulactureii drauings :rnd in+r crion 'heet".
Float or dieplacer Sda[ lhrfoln
complete a permanent record file
Head or difforellial Sce Tables I and 2. Field notes consist oI notations made in the field by
the inspector concening measurementsrconditions as
'fabb for found,lepairs made, and parts rcplaced. some com-
s-lnlpe.rion Tools snd T€r fquipncnl
Ilechnic !trd Antlrri'al rtrsimmorq oanie.u.i a 6eld work-ordcrform $hich oulunes{be
of tbe insFclion to be pertormedand which
SDarc electrotic larts ud vacurm tu!q. "cope
(at leasr 10,000 ohms per volt oo direcl_current coniains sDacefor the inspector's comments and data.
Voll-ohldeter
Another ;ethod is to isste a sketch of the installation
Vaoum tube voltmeter, dir@t-current, wbjchcontaiDs all pel-tiDent
inlbrmrlionconcernrng Lne
inspeclion(ope and procedurcs Thj' \kelch would
Mutual-conductaD@-tvp. tube checker. ako contain spacefof the inspector-snotes
V&uum tube oiliivoltmeter, alicrniting_curren!
Radio fFquenct sisnal senerator.
The continuous rccord should include a history of
all inspections pedormcd on the equipmeflt' the type
Radio frequercy meter' of inspeclions teriofmed,drlei ot inspectionc, repdir'
Impedmce meNuring lridge, made, materiali used, and any other pednert infor-
maljon helpfulin determiningfulurc inspeclionrequire_
Milimmete! direct-cnrent ments and equipment retirement.
Hed-operated mesger.
15O6,02 Reports
UDon conclusion ol an inspection, it is desiiable to
1506 RECORDS AND REPORTS
maki a report covering the reaultsof tle inspection, the
1506.0l Recotds work perfonned, and rccommendations for future re-
pairs. This report should be sent to tbe appropdate
Inspection rccords arc important becausethey serve departmentsfor their informationand necessary action.
as a basis for a scheduledmaintemnce program Their
vatue,bo\etet. depe0ds uponwhelhefibe information
recordedis useld and su$cienllycompleteto delermine I5O7 FLOW INSTRUMENTS
maintenancerequirements. Files with meaninglessdata l5o7.0l Deecriprion of TYPes
se e no useful purpose; therefore, judgment must be
exercisealin deiiding the type and amount of detail Head metet is tllle tetm zpplied to that class of flow-
requestedin re.ord forms. metering devices wbich utilize a difiercntial pressure
ilecord torms wjll lx omeubat with each tlpe ol for measurement- Flow late is obtained inferentialy
i$trument involved. For example, with a glass stem ftom the difierential pressure caused by flow past or
thermometer it would be of little value to record any- tirousb a Dfjmrrv elemenrwhich i\ inserledin ibe 8ow-
thins more than lhe size,range.<ervice.location.and lne.tieam. a .eiondrry devicemea.urestbe variatioD'
freqien$ ot replacement.on the olher hxnd lbe in-diflereDliatpres:ure.which may be in the ordet of a
.ecordfor a flowmetersbolrldcontaina tull descriplion few inches of water to severalhundred inches of wator,
of instalatiotr in€luding the primary device' line size, and either indicates or rccords this differential or tans-
t\oe ot laps, serialDumber.and model numbersof the mits to other instruments sigmls which are Proportional
qls_ to the difierential. Fig. 1, whi€h shows the distribution
iarior. cd.ponenr.which makeup the metering
 FLow INSTRUMENTS ll

1507.012 SEcoNDARy DEvtcEs: Severaltypes of

measuring deviccs are used to determine the difierential
producedby the primary elcnent. Except for the glass
manometer,rvhichis only an indicatingdevice)second-
ary devicesare avajlableas indicating,rccording,trans-
mittiry, and/or controllinginstrunentsin any combina-
tion. These devices, most of which are available for
either pneunatic or electric transmissior,include:
1. Mechanicalmercury rneier (Fig. 9).
2. Belows meters(Fig. l0).
3. Diaphragn transnitters (Fig. 11).

FIG. l-Prineipl€ oI Flom€r€r of Difrcrenti.l"Presur€

Tvl €.

of pressurein an orifice-typemeter n, illustratesthe

principleof this type of instrument.
Arca meter ]s the term applied to that twc of instru-
ment which operateswith a comtant dillerentialpres-
surc acrossa varying area. such a meter usually is
instaled directiy in the flowing stleam.
Volumetric meter or positiye-.lisplacement meter is
(A) Concenrric,Eccentric,and sesDcnraloriice Plates.
the term applied to that type of meter which measures
and dischargessuccessivediscrete volumes of fluid.
Such meters are installed directly in the flowing stream
and usually indicate irtegrated flow rather thatr flow

Thermal, mass velocity, sonic or ultrasonic, and

electronic systems are among other classes of flow-
meters,but theseare not commonlyfound in retneies
and are therefore not iflustrated in this chapter.
1507.011 PRTMARY DlvrcEs: The primary ele-
mentscommonlyused wit]l head metersinclude:
l. Orifice plates (Fis. 2).
2. Flow nozzles(Fig. 3).
3. Vertud tubes(Fig.4).
4. Pitot tubes (Fig. 5).
5. Flow tubes (Fig. 6).
The primary element generally used for atea meteN
is the tapered-tubeor rotaneter (FiC. 7).
Volumetric meters irclude the nutating-disk, oscil-
lating-piston, reciprocating-piston, rotary-vane, rotary- (B) Flalse Mounied Orince Plales.
bucket,and turbinett?es (Fig. 8 ). FIG. 2 -'orilice Plat€s.

I
J
t2 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUIPMENT

O --------*.-
-T

Cobmon 'rylie of Ftoe Nozzlc,

i B ) F l o \ N o ? z t e t n {r l t a r i o n .
IIf,.3-tslo$ Nn2r..

(A) Vennri r ubeConsrrucrion.

(B) lnslalled Venturi Tube
FIG. .l-ycnhfi TdtJ..
 FLow INSTRUMENTS 13

ffi
flm

TUBES
PITOT
F PITOT
VENTURI
(A) Types of Piiot

t,;4I
r , N. , Me A c lrF l l ,;!

(R) rnsiallation of Piiol-V.nturi Flow Elcmcnt-

FIG. s-Pnor Td€s.

FIC. 7 Rorrmrrer Insrdhdon.

GENT1LETUBE
 I\s rR U M [,N Ts A N D C oN rR ol - E eurpMrN T

(A) Posilivc'Dhpllcernenl \1e(er. (C) Tnrbine Flowneter-

FI(t, 8-Volumelric

(-^) Mechanical Mercury Marometer. (B) Mechlnical-Nlcrctr.y-TypeFlop Tiansmitler, Confoller,

FIC. g-It".hsnicrl ltcr.urv lttteF.

 Frow INSTRUMINTS 15

(A) Clrnway of Bcllows Type Flos

FIG.

(B) Pneumatic Diapnrlgh Ftow t!.dsniller (C) tlect.ic Dilphrasn Ftow Tmnsmittq
Insiallarion, rislalation.
FIG. tl-Dnrptr}.em Transnft r.rs.
t6 INSTRUMENTS AND CONTRoL EQUIPMENT
1507.02 Frequency md Time of Inspecrion
1507.021 PRTMARY DEucEs: Primary flow ele-
merts atrd volumetric meteriq devices, such as orifice
plates, venturi tubes, rotameters, and positive-displace-
ment meters, .nay become unreliable or inoperative
from fouling, corrosion, erosion, or faulty insta ation.
Wheo theycdnoorbe isolaledlrom lhe proce.s.primary
flow elements should be inspected visualy during each
shutdown. If they are accessiblewithout a shutdown,
they sbould be examined at least once a year. The need
for further detailed checks, measurements,calibrations,
or rcpails may then be determined.
1507.022 SEcoNDARyDEvrcrsr Secondaryde-
vices, such as transmitters,rccorders,and controllers,
should be checked for compatibility with primary ele-
ments and for conformanc€ witl original designs each
time t}ey are inspected. Additional routine checks and
calibrations by qualifed personnelwill dependupon t]le
process requirements and plart practices. Tlmse de-
vices which are located in a cortrol house or are other-
wise conslandyused by operatingpersonnelwill auto-
matically receive an inspection each time they are used.
Equipment which is remotely located or which, for
some othe( rcason, is infrequently subjected to a com-
plete inspection should be visualy checked at regular
intervals. Initially, once a month is not too frequent an
interval. However, if a high degree of accuncy is
rcquired, t]rc frequency may have to be increased.
r507.OS Merhods of Inspedion
l5O7.O3l PRTMARY DEvrcEs: Inspectionof the
primaxy elementsrequires careful micromelcr measure-
ments of the throat of tlrc ormce, flow nozzle, or
ventud tube and comparison with original design di
mensions. Pipe approachesto the pdmary element and
the leads from tlrc elemeDt to the fust block valves
should be cleaned carefully oI all forei$ natter.
Costly units, such as tlrc flow nozzle and venturi tube,
can sometimesbe corrected for even, smooth wear by
recomputation oI tle coefficient and by making use of
the lrue element dimensions. This should be done when
throat wear changesthe dimensions so as to give from
0.2 to 1 per cent increasein area,dependingupon the
importance of ihe measurement. When the sharp edge
of an orifice has become nicked or noticeably rcunded,
the plate should be replaced or remachined and re-
computed.
The pitot lube is fte only primary element usually
designed for removal while the line is in se.vice. In
some casesthe odfice is also mounted in a special fitting
which allows itrspection by rcmoval while the line is in
service. The ventud tube and ffow nozzle can be in-
spectedorily during a shutdown period.
1507.032 SlcoNDARyDEvrcEs: Manometer in-
speciionusuallyconsistsof checkingthe meter beadng
shaft for teedom of movement and for proper lubrica-
tion, cleaning,checking for mercury quartity and proper
sealing, and conducting a water-column head test.
Difiercntial-pressue devicesor manomcterswhich do
not contain merclrry are checked fo( plugged leads,
freedom of travel of balance elements, and proper
lubrication, as well as for accuracyof calibration. Some
manometersof this type can be checkedfor calibration
accuracy by means of special weights supplied by the
manufactuler. The use of such ueights permits a quick
check to determine whether a gorous calibration is
necessary,in which casethe useof a water-column head
test may be recommended,Someinstrumentscan only
be checked by means of water-column head tests. A
water-columnhead test to 0.5 per cent of ful-scale
deflection for the manometer is usually satisfactory lor
average refinery work.
Normal inspection of the area meter secondarydevice
consists of checking and calibrating the tansmitter.
The "float" and tapered tube can be inspected for foul-
ing or wear only dudng shutdowns.
1507.033 VoLUMETRTC METERS:+Field inspec-
tion consists of observation of register operation and
visual inspection for leakage. Strainers should be
checked for clogging or breakage, and air eliminaton
.hould be cbeckedlor proper operarion. Shop inspec-
tion consistsof dismantlingand inspectitrgcomponent
parts for binding, wear, erosion, corrosion, and dirt
A11worn parts m st be replaced. The rcpair of parts
is seldom economical or satisfactory. Calibration may
be made by comparisonwith a standardmeter or by
passing a measured volume through the mete( to a
calibratingtank.
For prccesswork, accuracyis usuallyheld to I per
cent on the test run, Some of these instruments can be
calibratedto witlin 0.1 per cent, or less,it required.
1507,034 RECoRDERS:Recording mechanisms
usually involve a spdng-wormd clock, an air motor, or
a small synchrcnous motor driving a chart. The clocks
and motors should be checked for time accuracy; their
chart hubs should grip the chart securely; and the chart
plate lugs should alow the chart to rctate freely. Pens
should be checked for proper inking and pressure on
the chart. The lenglh of the pen arm should be such
that the pen point will coincide with the time arc on
the chart and that the Den will exDerienceno interfer-
ence from the pen-arm litting device or other pens.
Motor Nindings of the electrical drive should be checked
for overheating and moisture. Defective clocks should
be replacedwith new or rebuilt units.
+ Refer 10 API Standard 1101.
 LEVEL INSTRUMENTS t'7

I5O8 LEVEL INSTRU}IENTS
1508.O1 Descriprion of Types
Level is measurcdby observationof gagc glasses;
by the sensingof float buoyarcy or position;by head
or difierentialpressureor temperaturevariation; and
by eleclrical and electronic instruments measuriDg
changcsin conductivity,capacitance!or nuclear phe-
nomena. Types of level instrunrentswhich lnay (with
the exceptionof gageglasseswhich indicateonly) serve
to indicate, rccord, transmjt, or control, in any com-
bin.rtion, Iiquid lcrcls or liqujd liquid irrerface levels
in open and closcdvesselsinclude:
1. Cageglasses (Fig. 12).
2. Floaltype tank gagcs(Fig. l3).
3. Hydrosiaticheadpressure(Fig. 14).
4. Difierentialpressurc(Fig. 15).
s. Floats(Fig. 16).
6. Displacers(Fis. 17).
7. Electronicinsrruments(Fig. 18).
8. Nuclear-tlpc instruments.

(A) Not llluDinated_

HG. l2-C,sc-CI!s I.stalldion.
18 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUPMENT

Y,,

(A) FloafType Tant Case. (B) FloalType TanL case Ilslatlation.

FlG. l3-Float-Type Tank cage,

v,.
 LEVET INsTRUMINTs 19

1A) Connant Dilierential Relay for Liqlid Level lleasuri.E.

(A) Hydrostalic Head Pr!$urc

as Uscd for Level
Nlcasurcmenl.
FlG. 14 Eydrosratir Herd Pr€sslr.
 liIC. 16 lilonLTrpt Lryrl Tr{nsmirrrr.

lIC. l5 DilT'renrirl-P.es!trre-ftpe l.i{ruid L$d

Trrnsmit€r.

(A) Crrnwayor Oi.ptacerTypcLcvcl Inslrume (B) Displacer-Tlpe Level Insirumcnl lnsiallation.

FIC. U-Displa.€FTne L€rel hllrun€nr.
20
 TEMPERATURE INSTRUMENTS
FIG. la-Electronie Level lnshumcn".
1508,02 Frequency and Time of Inspecrion
Lerel instrumenrs $hich rre in,lalled in process
vesselsunder pressurecan only be checkedwhen a
unit is not operating. They sbould be hspected visually
aI eachrurnuround to determine whelherrhe) requirc
intensiveinspectionor maintenance,or borh.
Gage glasses,exterml displacers,difierertial-head,
type devices,etc., which can be isolaredby rneansof
block valves,should be jnspectednor lessthan once a
year. More frequent inspection of rhese deviceswill be
neededonly if extreme accuracy is requhed, it they arc
ir severeservice, or if they are essentialto proper unit
operation.
r5OB.03 Mefioda of Inspectiol
Block valvesard piping usedwith level insrruments
are discusseditr Chapter ){l, Pipe, Vah'es, and Fi ines.
Valves and piping wil be subject to pressure test wirh
other equipment, and leaks or any defects will usually
be detected and eliminated.
a. GaBe GkLtses: Inspect glasses visually. Check
packing glands and valve seatsin gage cocks.
b. Float Tank Gases: Float. cable, or tape seal,if
used-and pulleysmay be inspectedvisuallylor defects.
Binding or friction catr be determinedby manual
operation.
c. Diferc tial-PressurcInstumentt: Inspectlon prc-
c€dureis the sameas oudinedfor flowmeters(seePar.
1507.032).
d. True Floats: Dismantle unjt and visually inspeci
float, float shaft, bearings, and siuffing box for defects.
Check for binding or friction in sr ffing box.
e. Dirplace : Djsmantle unir and visually inspect
displacer, torquc tube, and bearings or flexurc element
for detects. Make sure the torque tube or flexure ele-
menl i. holdinglhe di.placec in propersuspension d
ihe displacer is not rubbingegain"tlhe sidcot rhecage.
J. Ekctroni Instruments: Probes and probe insu-
lators must be free of deposits and dirr, and the probe
must not touch any part of the vessel in which it is
suspended.Tubes should be checkedand rcplacedif
faulty in any respect. Relay action may be checked
by shoninglhe probe(o groundo( by acrual) rarying
lhe liquidlevelin the vcs,el.Manulacrurer's Ireraturc
generall) outli0e.specificlrouble-(hoodDg aDdchecking
procedures.and should be relerredto when in\pecting
the inshument.
g. NucleaFTrpe Insbuments: Nuclear-type inst{u-
mentsrequirea radioactivesourcewhich is mountedon
a vesselor a line. Thesesourcesarc a possibleradiation
hazard and should be identified as such by suirabte
signs.
Marufacturerj instruction manuals should be fol-
lowed closely in checking nuclear-type instruments in
orcler to prevent undlre radiation exposureto penonnel.
Only those individuals traircd in ttrc handling of radio-
active matedais and cognizant of rcgulations set up by
re$rlalory bodies should be permitted to .work directly
with the source of radiation. These individuats should
also be responsible for the radiation source and fo(
measrrementof mdiation levels before work is per-
formed in the immediate arca by anyone.
I5O8,031 CALTBRATToN oF LEVELINslRLrMENrS:
Calibration of level instruments may be accomplished
by checking indicated level againsrgage glassindicarion
when the unit is operating, or by manually filing the
instruments with liquids of suitable gmviry. However,
lbr high{emperature se ice, where the temperature
difierential existing ir the system will cause the gage
glassandlor the otherleveldevicesto readinaccurarely,
iXis preferableto calibrateby meansof a water column
or le.l gige.
1508.032 RECoRDTNG MEcEANTsMs: Refer to
Par. 1507.034,"Recorders."
I5O9 TEMPERATURE INSTRIJMENTS
l509.Ol D€scription of T"vpe6
Temperature measurementsare made by determining
the elTect produced by temperature on primary ele-
ments, which includes electrical generatioD,change of
electrical rcsistance, and thermal expansion of solids,
liquids, or gases. Pdmary elementsrequiing inspection
l. Liquid-in-glassthermometers(Fig. l9).
2. Bimetallicelenents (Fig. 20).
22 I Ns TRUM E N T s A N D C o \ T R o L E e u [ 'M E N r

3. Bulb-rypeo. lilled syslems(Fig. 2l). Secondarydevices,which nay indicate,record,

,1. Thcrmocouples(Fig. 22). hol, or transnlit.in any conrbination,include:
5. Resisiancebulbs (Fig. 23), includingsolt actuati.g i. l'\rorerer. ulLl porenrio.ner(r.
rl ig 25r.
regulators. 2. Relistancethernometers(Fig. 26).
6. Radiation ptrroneter (Fig. 2,1) only occasionally 3. Filled-s)sten instrumcnts (Fig. 27).
uscd in refineries. :1. Receiver-tlpeelectronicinstfunents (Fig. 28)

w:
l JG. 2o-Bnnerallir Thdnonr.r.r.

FlC. 19 Indnsrrinl-T),p{, Lnltid-n}chls Th.rn,on,tFr,

(A) Lrsallcd Fillcd Sysren Dial Type {B) Fillcd Sysletu Renrotc indicating 1C) Fillcd-S_vslemRemote Reco ing
lhc f m om c lc f , Thermometer. Thcrmoneter.
FIG. 2l-l'illed-Ststem Th.rNom€rtrs.
 .f 23
trN{PERA'TUREINSTRUNIEN'IS

(B) lnstalled ThernocoupLe.

FIG. 24 Rndi.rion PlroNelr Conshuclion.

lB) Pyroncicf coDtroller. iCl R e\.fdi nq P vroo ctc .

Nlullipoint Indicar
FIC. 25-Pyromerers and Potcntiom.&,rs.
I

24 INSTRUMINTSAND CoNTRoL Eeurr'MENr

(A) Fillcd-Syslem
SelfActu (B) Cas Fillcd l-empe.ature Transnilrer. ( C ) F i l l c d - ! y s l c m T e m t e r J r u r eRe co r d e r ,
aled Regrlator.
FIG. 27-lilled-Srsr€m In$.umurs.
 PRESSURE INSTRUMTNTS
FlG. 28-El€ctronic
1509.02 Frequency an{ Time of Inspection
Primary devic€s arc generally installed ill wells so
that they can be removed for inspectionany time a
device appears to be malfunctioning. In highly corro-
sive or erosive seflice, the well should be checked
dudng each tumaround. Thc measuing inshDnent or
secondary device, or both, generally can be iffpected
at any time without a shutdown. A good practiceis
to check these devices ollce a year unless expelience
indicatesthat this intervalcan be extended.
1509.03 Merhods of In8pecrion
Visual iffpection should be made for mechanical
defects,Ioosewires,moisture,and corrosion.Acc racy
checksshouldbe madeby comparisonwith a standard.
It is rccommended that defective pdmary elenents,
weakbatteries,and standardcellsbe replaced lt is also
recommendedthat the calibrationof pdmary systems,
except thermocouples,be made in the shop by com-
paison with a standard at three points within the range
of the secondaryelement. Thermocouplewire should
be standardized in the shop. A field check shodd be
made of each thermocouple, and the thermocouple
should be rcplaced if its accuracy is questionable.
Resistance butbs, except for temperature-difference
mcasurement,should be accurate to within 0.5 F.
Thermocorples which calibrate within 3 F in the range
of 0 F to 1,000F are consideredsatisfactoryfor process
work. Other primary elements should be sufficiently
nc"eirtr.Cunrr.[cr-
accurateto pfoducean accuracyof 1 per cent of full-
scaledeflectionof the secondaryelenent.
For recordingmechanisms, refer to Par. 1507 034
1510 PRESSURE INSTRUMENTS
l5l0.OI Description of Typ€s
Pressuremeasurements are made by determiningthe
anount oi mov€mentproducedby the force of a fluid
exerted on a primary element. The force per unit ot
area is lrsuallyexpressedin pourds. The wod "pres-
sure" includes: l, gage pressurcas measuredby the
expansion of spiral of helical bourdon tubes, the djs-
placementof fluid in manometerslor the motlon of or
2. difier-
torcee\erledupon bello$srDd diapbragms:
pressure; ard, 3, vacuun or absolutep(essure,
ential
rvhichis also neasrred by any of the previoudy men-
tioned means. Pdnary elementsrequiring inspection
1. Bourdontubes,spring,spiml, and helical (Fig 29).
2. Diaphragms(Fig. 30).
3. Bellows(Fig. 3l).
4. Manometers(Fig. 32).
l5l0.Oll SECoNDARY DEvIcEs: Secondaryde-
vicesmay indicate,record,control, or transmit,in any
combination, by means ot pneumatic, electric, or hy-
draulic systems.
26 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUTPMENT

(A) C SprineBonrdonTube. (B) Sliral Bolrdon ]-ube. (C) Helical Boudon Tube.
FIG. 29-Bourdon Tutrca.
l
AUToMATIC
G, 32-Uercurx Manometer.
1510.02 Frequency and Tinc of Inepecrion
Primary devices are generally installed with block
valvesso that the instrumentscan be isolatedftom the
process.This permits checkingas frequenllyas oper-
ating conditionsdictate or experienccwallants. In so
doing, plant salety practices should be followed care-
{ully to insure that high pressure and leaking valves
do not crcate a hazard.
Generally, an annual visual inspection wil show the
nced for precisecalibrationsor maintenance.lnftu-
mentsin severefouling or corrosiveservices,as well as
thoserequiringthe higheslaccuracy,shouldbe checked
carefully at least once a ),ear. This ftcquency may be
increasedif perfonnanceor reliabiliiy declines.
Processconnections canbe chcckedonly dudng shut-
down. Tbey shouldbe inspectedfor evidenceof plug-
girg or corrosion. Thosewhich show signsof deteio-
ration shouldbe checkedwith extra care and scheduled
for replacementif below specified standards.
The secondaryrecording instrumentscan almost
always be checked without shutting down the process
unit. Operating expedenceor signs of malfunction wil
indicatethe needfor inspectionmore than once a year.
CoNTRoLLERS 2'.7
1510.03 Methodr of Inspedion
Inspect pressure-measuring instruments and thei(
connecting leads for leal(s, distonion, vibration, plug-
ging. and maintenanceot seals. The rack.. pin'oDs.
and linkages should be inspected for excesslvewear
and misalignment.Crackedor distortedbourdontubes,
bellows,and diaphmgms,as well as wom racks,pinion
assemblies,clips, and linkages,should be replaced.
Broken glassshouldbc replacedin order to properly
protect the instrumentfrom corosion, moisture,and
dftt. Instrumentswith a mnge of more than 100 in. ot
water should be checked on a dead-weight tester, with
a mercury column, or by compafson with an indicaring
or recordingtest gage.
Indicating or recording lost gagesare f(equently used
as secondarystandards-both in the shop and in the
field-as a basis of comparison. In the held the tesr
gage is connected to the same pressu(c as the service
Sage. This method of testingis olten used when it is
undesirableto removeihe seNicegagefiom its mount-
ing. Test gages should be calibraredby me mosr
accuate mcthods available; and, wherever possible,
maximumerror shouldbe not more than 0.5 per cent
oI the full-scale reading of the gage. Manometer-type,
low-pressure bellows or diaphragm inshuments should
be checked with a water column, usiry an air-loading
system. Remote transmissionrec€ive$ shouldbe cali-
brated as outtined in the manufa€turcrs'servicemanuals.
Insol'ar as pmctical, the plant should calibmte alt
pressureinstrumentsto the accuracyof the manufac-
turcr's guaranlee beforc rctuning them to service, giv-
ing special atlention to test gages and gagesjntendcd
for critical service. Exact calihation should be obraircd
at the expectedoperating pressur€. Test gagesare often
furnished with a calibration list checked ar perhaps
lnree or mofe pomts.
For recordingmechanisms, reler io Par. i507.034.
ISII AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS
I5l1.0l Descdprion of Types
An automatic controller is a mechanismwhich meas-
ures the valuc ot a variable quantity or condition and
corrects or Iimits the deviation of this measured value
lrom a selected referencc. An automatic controller
includes both the measurirg means and the conholling
means (see Fig. 33).
l5ll.0l I VrasLrRr\c MFA\s: The measurin!
means consists of those elementsof an automatic con-
troller which are involved in ascertaining and com-
municating to the con[olling mechanism the value of
the processvadable. The efiect producedby a devia-
tion of the processvariablemay be a changeof pressure,
force, position, or electrical poiential or rcsistarce. This
sectior of the automatic conttoller may indicate or
record or lnay be a blind controller.
28 IN S T R U M IN Ts,{ N DC oN TR or-E eurpN rrN r

(B) IliniaLu.e Preumatic

reumatic Contol!er.
Contoller. (C) 'Stacl,ed lneumaticConlrollcr.
rIC. 33-,{urornlric ControllcE.
 CoNTRoL VALVES AND VALVE PoslrroNERs
l5ll,Ol2 CoNTRoLLTNG MEANS: The controlling
means consists of those elementsof an automatic con-
troler which are involved in producing a corrective
action. The coftrolling means may be powered by a
pneumatic,hydraulic,or electricsystem.
l5ll.02 Fr€quency and Time of Inspection
The inspection of automatic controllers, ot}er than
by visual observation,requires trained operating or
instrument personnel,or both, becauseperlormance
evaluation requires botl rmdentanding of the process
and faniliarity with the insbument. Unqualifiedpcr-
sonnel who attempt to check or adjust the cont(ollers
can seriouslyupset the operation of a unit. Such a
person should restrict his inspectior to obsewation ol
the record for instability or cycling. If insrabiliry o(
cycling appears lo be evident, he should notify the
operator, who wi[ then obtain help from qualified
An evaluation of control pedormance should be
made each day until operating experienceindicates the
desirability of exterdiry this interval. Detailed checks,
calibrations,or maintenancewil bc necessaryonly
whenand if performanceindicatessuchneed.
Pneumaticcontrollersare generallyvery reliableand
will remaindependabletor long perjodsof time if clean,
dry air is used and the caseis kept intact and tightly
closed. Since most pneumaticinstrumentsare so de-
signedthat a nozzle bleed dischargeswithin the case,
the instrument air car then purge the case interior.
However, weathering and salt air will deteriorate the
caseand possiblythe piping connectionstheretounless
the materialsare completelysuitable. Extelnal visual
inspection,as infrequentlyas oncea month,will usually
be sufrcient for mainaenanceplanning. It is important
i]lat the inspectorpromptly report broken glass,de-
fectivedoors or door gaskcts,or other visual evidence
tllat the caseseal is not satisfactory,inasmuchas the
intemal mechanismsof pneumaticcontrollersmay be
seriouslydamagedby continuedexposure.
Inspectionof electroniccontrollersis Senerallylim-
ited to obseNationof theh pefformance.Cbeckingol
tubesor plug-incomponents is usuallydoneitr the shop
during each turnaround. If experienceor manufac-
turers' recommendations iirdicatemore frequentcheck-
ing or replacementof thesecomponents,the periodic
substitutionof suchcomponentsmay be schedul€d,and
the inspectionof the substitutedparts becomesa sltop
job of testing,repairing,and calibrating.
Hydraulic controllers are generally in the minority
in a rcfinery. They are ruggedly builr and wil give good
resulis witl infrcquent attention. Inspection for con-
tamination of the hydraulic fluid is tlrc principal in-
spectionrequirement.Componentdeteriorationcan be
ascertainedby qualified personnel. Visual inspection
will probably not reveal potential problems. An annual
inspectionis desirableuntil opemtingexpeience indi-
29
l5ll.03 Merhods of Inspeoion
The inspectionof auromaticcontrollers is almost
in\rariably visual. If the instrumenr is a recording con-
troller, an examination of the conrrol record wi]l usually
reveal erratlc controller performance. It should be
emphasizedhere, however, that a poor control record
doesnot necessarilyindicate trouble with the controller.
When there is such a record an investigationshould
be made for possibledisturbanceselsewherein rhe
processbetore any adjustmentsot repairs are made
lo lhe con|loller. lroubte mr] at,o be cau,ed by
laully opcrationo[ fie control tatte. resulringtrom
excessivestufling-box friction, foreign material in rhe
bodyol Ihe rahe. lerksin rheair tine.or orbercau\ej.
rr'al\e operarion,hould. lbere,ore.also be checked
betore ary work is performed on the control insrrument.
If no houble is located outsidethe instrument,the
behaviofot thc ourpul ,ignat $irh re.pect to rhe
movementol lbe pen or poinler.hould br ob,erled.
Thi. {ill u'uall} iuggrhne\ or to.l nrotion;n
'eveatif either is prescnt.
the control mechanism,
When efatic controllerperformancehas beentraced
to the controlleritself,the instrumenrshouldbe checked
and repaired in accordancewith the instructions issued
by the manufacturer.
Controller performance should be free from con,
linuoLr, cycling. Wlen rhe proce,s n upser by load
chaDges or ol}ler dislurbances, fie coolrotrershould
re{lore,rabilir}in a re-,onrbb .hofl teo8rhof lime.
I he Inclrumenr mrnutacLurcr u,urlly issue(inslrucuoo,
tor methodsof adjustiq controllers.
For recordingmechanisms, refer ro par. 1507.034.
I5I2 CONTROL VALYES AND VALVE
POSITIONERS
l5l2.0l Description of Types
l5l2.0ll CoNrRoLVArvEs: Control valvesfie
availablein a variety of sizes,body designs,and actua-
tions. The type of controlvalveselectedtor a parricular
appUcrtionrs dependeDr upon the proce* require.
ments. Some of the more commofl types of contlol
valves used in refining unir applications are the dia-
Phragm-motor-operated valvesshown in Fig. 34. Fre-
quently! the appljcationsmay rcquire control valves
which are actuated by means other than rhe spdng-
opposed diaphragm motor; examples of three difierent
q'pes oi actuatorsare shown in Fig. 35. A control
valve occasionallyencounteredin refinerywork is the
vane or butte ly t ?e, an example of which is pre-
sentedin Fig. 36.
Outwadly, the valves appear similar in generat de-
sign; inwardly, there can be considerable difierences.
Fig. 37 illustratessome of the styles which provide
prcper conuol in refircry applications. The styte thar
is perhapsthe most commonlyusedin refinerywork is
shown in Fig. 37A and its atrernate for opposite aclion
in Fig. 3?D.
30 INSTRU\rENTS
^ND
1512.012 V^LVE PostrIoNERSiValve positioners
shownhereinafterare examplesof the equipmcntto be
found in any refinery. It would be inpractical to try
to jllustrateevery type and nake. Ho$ever, the few
types illustratcdin this sectioncan be used as a gulde
for identificationpuryoses. The manufacturer'sliteta-
ture shouldbe rcferredto in everyinstancelbr a com-
plete descriptionof the cquipment and principle ot
\..r!e po\irione.s. as cnrouorefeJin rcineri \o"k
IaI into the iollowing categories:
l Pneumatic.
2. Elcctroprcumatic.
3. Pneumatic-hydrautic.
Pneumaticpositionersarc furdshed either as side-
mountedaccessoryitems or are built onto or into the
contfol valvc itself. When fumishedas accessory ttems,
they are liequently providcd with bypasseswhich will
allo$r a controllerto operateits control valve dircctly
while the positioneris inspectedor se iced, or both.
This feature is not alwayspossiblcwith the b ilt-in
type of positioncr. Fig. 35A showsone type of side-
mountedvalve positionerinstalledon a conlrol valve.
Thc foxr forms of side-mountedposilionerwhich arc
available from one manulacturer arc shown in Fig. 38
Fig. 39 shows a commonly used sidemounted posi-
riorcr on a control valve with ovedding manual con-
trol. Fig. 34B and 35B both illustratepositioncfsbuilt
fIC. 3.'-Conbol Yalven
CoNTRoL EQUIPNTT:.Ir
onto the tops of piston-operatedvalvcs,and an exanplc
of a positionerwhich can be built inlo the top ol a
d'rfhf:,gnrr.tuureJ!Jlre i. .hoqn :n Fig.4
ThL.p\)si.rl desigrot pn(LnrulicpL'.irio.r.
-, va :e'.
dcp(nJin!on lhe Inuru'-rlufcr. The opcrul:ng princF
ples nay or nay not vary. The inteffal arrangenerts
of two connercirly availablepositionersare shownin
Fig. 41 to ilustrate lhe va ations in physicaldesign.
The schenalic diagran of one of the positionelsis
shownin Fig. 42.
Electfopneunaticvalve positionersare combinations
of electric-to-pneumatictransducersand pneumatic
valve positionen. Theseare availablein sidc mounted
srylesand, also,in siylesbuilt into the top diaphragm
caseof the control valve. An example(r1cach of the
two stlrlesis showr in Fig. 43. Elcctropnc matic posi
tionersdo not rcquire blpass valvesand arc furnished
with ferver air pressuregagesthan are the straight
pneumaticposirioners.
Pneumalichydlaulic valve positionersare uscd less
frequcntlythan are the straightprcumatic or clectro-
pneumatiopositioners.They are usua y installed in
combinationwith hydraulic valve actuatorswhere the
large force capabilityof a hydraulic systemis rcquired
to operatelarge valvesor dampersin accordanccwith
ihe signalsfrom pneumaticconirollers. Catalyst slide
valveson fluid catal)tic cracking unils are frequendy
actuatcdb)' a pncunatic-hydrarlicpositionerand ac-
t ator of the typc shownin Fig. 44.
(B )
 CoNTRoL VlLvEs A\D VALVE PosrrroNERs 31

(A ) ln.L iL i! Di,p hr c s m \ c lv e 1! r r , r o Eleciro!,rrdraulicVrlvc Actuaror,

rIC. 35-Valv. Adnatoru.

FtO. 36-8uu{:rdr YalYe.

32 I NSTRUM E N T s A N D C o N T R o L E a L r p M E N r '

1B) (C )
FIC, 37-Conhol-Ydr. Bodi€s.

(c)
FIG. 3t!-s €-Ioudted \alte Posirn,nert
 CoNrRoL VALvEs AND VArvE posrrroNtRs
33

fIC. 40-Top llotrnlnlg ldre posnion€r.

L
ltc. 4l-lrt€rnal AFang€nenr of V.l,€ posntoncrs.
 INSTRUNIENTS AND CoNTRor_ EeulFM|NT

FrG. 14-Pnrumrtic-H'rd..ulic

FIC. 't2-Srh€mtrdc Dirs.ah ol Valv{, Positi.ntr.

FIG. 43-Ele.rtupnr.umrtic \'.1v. Posnioners.

 TRANsMissloN SysrEMs FoR MEASUREMENT AND CoNTRoL
l5l2.O2 Frequency and Time of Inspedion
ty 1512.021 CoNrRoL VALvEsr Control valvesare
hequently instaled witl blocks and bypassesfor iso-
lation. Wlere this is done, an inspectioncar be made
during operation without sedously afiecting the process.
When isolating valves are rct provided, the portion of
drc valve exposed to the process stream can only be
checkedwhen the proccssequipment has been preparcd
for opening.
Factors which govern inspection frequency are:
1. Erosivenessof the flowing stueam.
2. CorrosivenessoI the flowingstream.
3. High prcssuredrop.
4. Extreme ambient temperaturesat tie valve operator.
5. Abnomal vibration.
Frequency of inspections will vary with the severity
oI these factors and with the materials of construction.
Opemting rcquirementsand experiencein the particular
service should govern the ftequency of inspcction. The
frequency can m.nge ftom once a week for highly
erosiveor corrosiveservicesto as seldomas onceevery
five years for ild services. Until a patterr develops,
it is good practice to inspect the equipment at lcast once
a year.
1512.022 VALVEPosrrroNDRs:Valve positioners
generallyrequireinfrequentinspections.The initial ad-
justment, cither at the time of installation or after
servicingthe control valves,wifl usually insure good
results for a long period of time. Malfunctioning, if it
doesoccur, will probably come from mechanicaldam-
ageor excessive vibration. A goodpracticeis to inspect
the valvepositionerwhenthe control valvejs inspected.
l5l2.O3 Merhods of Inspection
l5l2.O3l CoNrRoL VALVES: Valves should be
examinedvisuallyfor leakson packingglandsand valve
body and for conditionof packing. The valve operator
shouldbe inspectedfor actionand wear; the valvebody
and inncr valveshouldbe inspectedfor wear,conosion,
o( erosion. The wall thickness of the valve body should
be checkedat severalpoints with calipers and the meas-
urements should be €ompared with tle original values
to determinelossesas a rcsult of wear.
1512.032 VALVEPosrrroNERs:Valve positioners
should be checked for leakage and plugging in tbe air
circnit, for grounds,shorts,and loose connectionsin
tbe electriccircuits,and for wear or lailure of mechani-
cal pans, including gages. Lt the force-balance type ot
valve positiorcr particular attention must be given to
tle rigidity of the connection between the valve stem
and the valve positioner.
The action ol the valve positioner should be checked.
The full travel of the valve should coffespond to the
35
Iull range of the actuating medium as delivered by the
controllinginstrument.A carefulcheckshouldbe made
to insure that the valve stem starts to move at the lowest
specified signal delivered by the control instrument and
that the valve completesits t(avel at exactly the highest
signal delivered by the conlrol instrument. Any devia-
tion ftom theseconditions, unlessspeciflcally mentioned
in the valve specifications,should be considereda result
oI a possible defect- A]1 defective parts should be
replaced. Leaking comections should be tightened or
replaced. The valve positioner should be adjlrsted so
that valve travel correspondsexactly to the signal range
of the cortrol instrumert.
Hydrariic positioners should assumea definite posi-
tion for each value of co trol signal applied by the
controlling instrument. The pilot should be cleaned of
toreign matter and examined lor wear. The large main
hydraulic piston member should be examined for piston
leakage and wear when unsatisfactory peformance in-
dicatesdifrculty of this natue. Wom parts should be
replaced.
I5I3 TR,{NSMISSION SYSTEMS FOR, MEAS.
UREMENT AND CONTROL
l5l3.Ol Description of Typ€s
l5l3.0ll MEASUREMENTTRANsMrssroNSys-
TEMS: Measurementtransmissionsystemsconsist of
lines connecting locally mounted transmitters with indi-
cating, rccording, or contro ing instruments, or any
combinatiotr tlereol usually mounted on a conttol panel
somedista.nce away. The lines may be pneumatic(see
Fig.45), hydraulic,or electric.
1513.012 CoNTRoL TRANsMrssroNSysrEMs:
Control transmissionsystemsconsistot lines connect-
ing automatic controllers with otler automatic control-
lers, when cascaded,or witll the final control elements,
or with both. The lines may be pneumatic,hydraulic,
or electric,
1513.02 Frequenc.yand Tine of Inspecrion
Problems can be encourtered in pneumatic trans-
mission systems as a rcsult of cornponent failure or
leaks in the system. The dimculty may appearas atr
erroneous instrument rcading; no reading at all; insta-
bility; or cycliry of the measurementor contoller, or
both. Properly installed prcumatic transmission lines,
which are protectedagainstmechanicaldamage,dam-
age from fire, or other abuseand which arc constructed
of materials suitably resistanl to colfosion, seldom fail
in servic€. Therefore, insufficient expedence is avail-
able on which to predict failwe of such equipment.
During turnaround, immediately prior to startup, visual
incpecronshouldrcvealdamageto the transmis'ion
lift from abuseor corrosion, Pressuretestsand other
 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUIPMENT
;.N.ocoPPERcoN@rNGrusre
FIG. 45-Layour of ll€.su€m€lt
operationalchecksshould also be made during tum-
around. II the presenceof leaks is suspectedsuch
checksshould be made, if possible,during openrion
of the unit.
Hydraulic lines should be inspectedvisually once a
month for evidenceof leaks.
Frequencyard time ot inspecrionof electricaltrans-
missionlines is coveredin Secr. 1517 and in greater
derail in Chapter XrV, Electicdl Syxte''s.
t5l3.O3 Mefiods of Inspecrion
Air, hydraulic, or elechonicmeasurementand con-
trol signals should be within rhe ranges rcquired for
prcper operation of the equipment. Transmission and
control lines should be inspectedfor tightness,leaks,
plugg;ng. \bort(. and grounds.I ubingaod sire runc
should be checkedfor proxirnity to soutcesof eicessive
heal or for stray electrical fields which might affect
insuument pedormance. Electrical leads should be in-
spected carefully in all cases where shielding and
grouDding are necessaryfor proper operarion.
Il a more thorough insp€ctionof prcumatic trans-
missionlines by actualtestingis desired,ISA RP 7.1:
Pneumatic ContrcI Citc^it Prcssurc ferf, outlines a
good procedure. If a leak in a control line js suspected
during operatior of the unit, its existence can usually
.nd Conhol Trsnsmission Sy6r€h.
be rerified by putringthe instrumenrin !!seal!!posirion
and noringlhe drop in the conrrot-\dt\eajr p;c\ure.
I5I4 SEALS, PURGES, AN'D WINTERIZATION
l514.Ol Desoiprion of Type6
l5l4.Oll SEALS:Sealsare of two t,?es: l, fluid;
and, 2, mechanical.
Fluid sealsconsist of immiscible fluids which are notr-
reactivewith the measuredprocessfluid. Direcr fluid
seals (prccess fluid over seal fluid) are used when the
ceal Suid is heavierLhanlhe mea\uredprocessfluid.
Indirecrfluid redii (proces(Ruidunders;dt Buid) are
used when the seal fluid is lighter than the measured
processfluid (seeFig. 46).
Mechanical seals consist of metallic or nonmetallic
mechanical diaphragms in cortacr with ihe measured
process fluid. They are connected to thc instrument
mechanismby meansof a 6lled sysrem(seeFig. 47).
1514.012 PuRcrs: Purge.are pre,surized Suids
inuoducedinlo tbe processliDear rheprimaryelemenrs.
Purge rnedia must not be harmful to tlrc processor the
Dstrument. Purging prevents the process fluid from
enlering the inskument system.
l5l4.Ol3 WTNTERTZ{TroN oF INSTRUMENTS:
Whteization of inshuments and instument systemsis
 SEALS,PuRcEs, AND WrNTlRrzATIoN

TYPE A-LIOOID FLO W TYPE E- L O I J I OF L O W

(A) Fluid SealschematicDiasram

SEALFLUID

FLEXIBLE
DIAPHRAGM

nc. 47-Pr.ssnh caeewirh Diaplmsn S€d.

by n roulinepre\enlivemainlenance checkpfocedure.
(B) Fhid Seal Installation. uperaLmgexperience wiU generay indjcarelbe desir_
FIG. 46-Fluid Scats. However. in $e rbscnceot operrliog
experience,a gold practice is to perform this procedurE
a prerenrNemcasurelakeDro insuretbe properfuoc_ basis for mosr instruments. -For very
ronrng or cuch rtemc\ hen in\rJled on equipmeDr ll_-:i rmporknt T"*"1
proce(ing strcrmc. !there material balarce
handtrng proce- fluid,u hicbmdy be ad!erset]aRecred rtremererdarak u.ed for buins
o) cordweJthercondirions.Cold wea$er may cxuse lr-:'i'li,?'..'wbere
ano settng.moorhl)inlenslsare iDdicaLe.
processfluids ro freeze,congeat,or form hydrates within Normdlly.fiUed-s)srem mechanicat dirphragmseah
rtre Instrumenr componenls or piping.of $ithin both. useo,!rth,jnslrumentsls!emscrn only be in.pecred
wrnterl7rJion (seeFig.4s i, accomptirhed by an) one vrsuauy.rlnlt a hr,tof) of operalinge\periencehrs
or a combiniliono[ No or ' moreoarhe to osing: oeenoeveloped.rt j5 recommended lbat suchdiaphragm
L Tnnallation or;n,rrumetrt jn sealsbe checkedon ;m aonualbasis.
componenr\ hcared pro_
techonho ses 1514.022 Pl RcpDr \rcrs: the freqLrency of in_
2. Use of sreamjackersaroundinstrumentequlpmenr. specljon.for purge devicesrangesfrom o daity check
3. Steamtr-cingof in\lrumenrcomponenr. wnere.tugn accuracyi. desiredto as olien as lbe pri-
or piping. mary instrumentis inspected.
4. lntegral heatingelemertswithin the instrumenrcom_ . I514.O23 WTNTERTZATjoN EecrrpMENT:Winter_
ponents, rTauonneaques rcquire insnectionsalso. usually. the
proper.luncrjoDing of $e inslrumeor syslemwilt a esL
1514.02 Frequency and Time of Insp€dion tne \ittrsractor) condiLion ol rhe winrerizalrun slsrem;
bowNer,-a periodic visuil incpectionmay uncoverrm-
l5l4.O2l LTOUTD SEALSysrEMs: Inspectronoi peDdrng lailure. Tn,peclionof winrerizalion mea.ures
seal systems,other than for obviousIeaks,is generally can De made concurendy \rith the inspection of the
impracticable. Normally, faulty systemsare handled msrrumen systems,
38 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQIIPMENT

checkedfor leaks or plugging in the steamlines and for

proper insulation.
Heat enclosuresfor wintedzation should be inspected
for signsot deterioratiotr ftom accidental physical abuse
as well as ftom environmental conditions. If used,
steamtraps on jacketing and tracing applications should
be checked for performance; leaking traps are wasteful
ot steam. On occasion!stean traps becomeentirely
jnoperative. Insulation on winterizatiotr systems,
whetler for heat conservation or for protection of per-
sonnel, should be impected for general physical con-
dition as well as for finmess of attachment to the
equrpment.

I5I5 INSTRUMENT AIR,SUPPLY SYSTEIIS

15l5.Ol Descriprion of Types
Imtrument air-supply systemsrange ftom small sys-
tems for individual operating units to large cental
systemsfor se ing more than one operating unit simul-
taneously. The number of components in any system,
whether large or small, is dependentupon many facton,
not the least of which is the quality of the instument
air desned. The supply system shown schematically in
Fig. 49 is a commonly used system for an individual
operating unit which employs the yard air supply as the
main source, with the local compresso$ strictly in
standby se ice. Someoperators prefer to use the local
l'IG. 48-Wintedz€d lielrl Inshnme't lNrrll{rion. compressors as the main source, with t}le yatd air
supply as standby. Any nunber of variationscan be
1514,.O3 Method of Inepecrion
Seals should be inspected to insure proper level of
seal fluid h the pot. A check should be made to deter-
mine if the flowins fluid has cofoded the sealing pots
a.nd il the inshument lines between the primary and
secondary elements slope continuously from tho meas- q
uied point to the rnstrument. Pockets in such lines
may occur as a result oI accidentaldamage;if they
do, they are a continuoussourceoI t{ouble and should I
3
Cracked or damageddiaphragms should be replaced. 9
The contents of liquid legs in any sealilg systomshould
be replaced by pumping liquid into tlle systemliom the
lowest points of that system. Any pockets ir the lead
lines should be eliminated. The valves in any sealing
system should be examined closely for leakage. Leaks
in the packing aronnd stuling boxes in the valves of e
any sealing system are probably the greatest source ol
lroubleerpefieocedin thi5 Llpe of equipmenl.
Purge systemsshodd bc inspected to insure that a
continuous stream of purge medium is flowing at a -
constant rate through the lead lines. In the case of
difierential-pressurc instuments, the flow of purge me-
dium should be approximately equal and constant in
each lead. All steam-traced installations should be FIG. 49-I4rrhc.r Air.Supplr SFlem,
 sYsrEMs
HYDRAULIC-PRESSURE
fourd when compadng instrument air-supply systems
of various refiningcompanies;somc of theseare:
L Motor-driven compressors in lieu ot steam com-
2. Use ol nonlubdcated compressors
3. Operatingpressurelevelsto suit local conditionsor
4. Intermediate-pressure instument air headers
A tafte cenrralsv.lemcan be similarLo the supply
s\srem;ho$D ;n rig +o. ercept lhar onl) rhe froal
reducing valves and possibly a unit fitter may be located
within the battery limits of an operating unrr
l5l5.O2 Frequency and Tine of Irupcetion
The successor failure of instrumentation in a reEnery
depenalsto a very large degee upon the quality of the
ins'trument air supplied to the components. It should
be clean,dry, and at a closelyregulatedpressure Fre-
aucnt ciecks shouldbe made lo a'certainthal lhese
condirion'"re met. Ob.eNalionof *)stempressure and
oil or moisture content should be a daily procedure
Because the jnstrumelt air system is so lmportant to
the oocrationot lhc plcnl. lbc io'peclon lor an)lhing
more rhatr \i:ible lautts shouldhe le[t Io quilited
"31fr';,"." o"""*o"qq
^". '^ALARM,@NrFoL
wns laA-RP5.r:
fIG. s0-qydrlDlic
39
l5l5.O3 Method of Inspeetion
Inspection oI air-supply systems should include
checks of filte$ ard associatedequipment for leaks and
proper operation. The oil and moisture content of the
iir ihould also be checkedto insule that it is not above
tolerable limits.
Where standby or emergency sources of air supply
are provided, they should be cbeckedfor proper opera-
tion by simulating a failure of the maitr source
Piping should be inspectedas outlined itr Chapter XI
1516 HYDRAUI-IC.PRESSURE SYSTEMS
1516,01 Deecriprion of Types
Hydraulic-pressure systemsmay be either small coD'I-
pact "packagcd" systems or large cental suppLy sys-
tems for a processunit or complete refinery ln either
case, the system will consist of stomge drums o( an
accumulatotto store the fluid under pressfie, pumPs
to supply the pressure, and assoied relief valves and
controls to assre satisfactory pedormance. The larger
certral system may also include a low-pressue storage
dNm and spare pumps for operadon dudng emergency
conditiom,
A schematic diagmm of a commonly used central
hydraulic supply system is sho\r'n in Fig. 50. An ex-
ample of a packaged hydraulic supply systemis shown
ir Fig. 51.
1
*Y
6-
r,\
x
SuPPly Stsl€m.
40 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUI?MENT
FIC. 5l-Packas€d HydRulic
1516.02 Frequ€ncy and Time of Inspection
The prop€r functioning of componentsdependsupon
the availabilityof a clean,regulatedsupplyat all times.
In someinsirumentsconlaminationmay also presenta
problem. Monthly checksshould be made until expe-
rienc€indicatesthe adequacyof less-frequent intervals.
Visual obse ation wil usualy not show potcntialfail-
ures. However,a drop in the hydraulicsystempressure
may serveas a hint of impendinghouble.
1516.03 Method of Inspecrion
lnspectionof tlle hydraulic systemconsistsof check-
ing for leaks,proper operatingpressuresjand cleanli-
nessand physicalcondition of the filter.
Where standby or emergencysourcesof hydraulic
supply are provided, thcy should be checkedfor proper
operationby simulatinga failure of the main source.
I5I7 ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS FOR
INSTRlrlrIENTS
l5l7,0l Descriprion of TypeB
Instruments which rcquire electric power for chart
ddves, measudngcircuits, ot transmissionor contrcl
circuits are nomally cornected to the refinery power
system. Many refneries are also equipped with standby
electrical power supplies for instrument circuits and for
certainlightingcircujts. Thesealtermte power supplies
can be standby generators,batteries, or other suitable
devicesarrangedto cut in either automaticallyor man-
ually. The besi sources of descriptive information on
power supply syslemscan be found in:
1. API RP 50AA: ReconnendeA Practicelor Classi-
flation ol Areas lor Electrital Installations in Petrcleum
2. API RP 540: Recommen.led Practicelor Ekctrical
I nstaLlations
in Petrcleun Refineries.
Supplr Systeh.
3. C.uidct.t In\pttiua ol Retn?r), Equipn"nt, Chap-
ter XIV. Electri(al sl'stens.
4. API RP 550: Manuat on Insta attrn ol Refinery
Insttunents and contrcl s!rtems.
1517,02 Frequency snd Time oI Inspedion
Electric power systemsfor instruments are idenrical
in pinciple with other electrjc power svstemsused in
refineries; therefore, recommendations ;oo.",","g .n"
trcqueDcy and t;meo[ in.pccrionourlinedin Ch;pler y
xlV appl) here al,o. Howe!er, lhere are in(l:rncer
where specialor additional artentionis requireal.At
present therc is very little uniformity in electdc (elec-
tronic) instrumerts: signalsand levels are difierent
among mrnufucrure|5l somr syqem\ u,e lube-rlpe
cUcurtsuherea\ olherc u'r solid-slatcor mionpri.-
amplifercircuirs:somesy\temsur. uf,.r",iog.'*r.o,
rhroughoutlrherexsorher\ ure comptelely djreci cur-
ren.; some systemsrcq ire regulatedpower supplies
whereas others can tolerate wide variations; and there
are systems rvhich use vadous combinations of these
teatures. Generally, each manufacturer has special rc-
quirementsfor his equipment;the manufacturer's litera-
ture shouldbe consultedfor recommendations concerr-
ing frequencyand lime of inspection.
Standbyelectical power suppliesshouldbe inspecred
as lrequently as the regxlar system. In additio& the
altematepower supply systemsshouldbe opemted at
least once a month by simulatingfaults in the regular
supply systems.Obvio sly, such resrsshoutdbe con-
ducted carcfully to minirnize the possibility of ptant
upsets.
1517.03 Merhods of Inspecrion
Elect cal power supply systems should be checked
for !hon.. grounds.looceconnecrioos.damrgedinsula-
lion and corrodedconduillo io,urethar rheyare ade-
quclelyprolecledagainstmechanical \.
drmage.
 INSTRUMENT PANELS

The operation of the system sbould be checked to
determinethat it is at proper voltagclevel and tbat the
t, voltage regxlation is within the limits required by the
instrDmentsthat the system supplies. If tbe control
equipmentis phase-sensitive in operation,this feature
of the systemshouldalso be checked. Vacuum tubes
.hould be checl'edor replacedas operatinSe\perience
dictates.
where standbyor emergency sourcesof powersuppiy
are provided, they should be checkedas carefully as
ihe main source, and, in addition, they should be
checked for proper operation by simulating a failure
of the main source.
I5I8 INSTRUMENT PANELS
l5l8.Ol Deaoiption of Typer
The purpose ot an insEumentpanel is to enable
operalingpersonnelto maintainefrcient and safe per-
formanceof the unit from a centrallocation. There are
four najor types of instrumentpanels: conventional,
graphic,semigraphic,and console.Fig. 52 througl 54
showexamplesof the graphic,semigraphic, and console

rlc. 52-4r.phie Control Panel

(/
fIG. s3-S.mienphic Conrtul Pucl.
 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUI?MENT
flG. slr-Cdnsolc.Typ€ Conbol Panel.
instrument panels. The piping and ring for the panel
instrumentsare locatedbehid the panel. Fig. 55 shows
the rcar view of a commonly used instrument panel.
l5l8.02 Frequency and Time of Impecrion
Generally, instrument panels and the associated
equipment are inspected by the operating and instru-
ment persornel in the course of their normal activities.
This is done at the same time and in the same manner
as tl1e automatic contlollels arc checked (see Par.
1511.02). However, those panels which are either
remotely located or exposedto weather conditions can
be inspectedvisually on a routine basis once a year.
1518.03 Merhods of Inspecrion
Cenerally.an] inrpeclionor proet boardsis con-
cernedprimafily$iLh ihe pipiogaod wiringof air or -Y _
electric power and transmission leads ro the individual
mstruments mounted on the panel. These should be
checkedfor leaks,shorts,grounds,or looseconnections
(seeISA RP 7.1 for method). In addirion,rhe main
electrical gound on the parel should be checked for
tightnessand proper grounding. Individual hshument
mou ings shouldalsobe checkedfor dgidity.
I5I9 ANALYZERS AND SAMPLING SYSTEMS
l5l9.0l Desciiption of Typee
Anal)zersandsampling slsrens.$hich !ary io com-
pleiity according to the application, are two distinct
subiecr'.exch of which could be trerted iD a very
lengthy manner. However, to be practical, only some
of the more important points will be mentiotred.
An amlyzer is a device which pedorms an anal-
ysis (chemicalor otherwise) for some componentin
a stream (e.g., orygen in flue gas) or for some char-
acteristicof a product or component(e.g.,initial boil-
ing point or end poirt). Analyzerscan be simple,as in
the casc of a gas gravity meter wherein the gmvity is
determined either as a function of displacement or as
a furction of "drag." They can also be complicated,
as in the case of a chromatogaph or a distillation
ural),,er.shich rre dcruall)compleLe.)sremr in rbem-
sehi.. rte anrtlzerr"nuircruii. irsiructionmanuat v
should be consulted for a complete desc{iption ot the
unit under consideration.
Samplingsystemsare as important as, if not more
important than, analyzers because t]1e successof an
analyzer is greatly deperdent upon the sampling system.
In the simplest fom, a sampling systemmay be only a
piece of pipe or tubing bringing the process to the
analyze(.However,in many casesthe samplenust be
conditioned before it can be admitted to tlle analyzer.
Pressureregulators,coolers,heaters,scrubbers,pumps,
filters, and flow rcgxlators are some oI the items re-
quired in various sampling systems. Here, too, the
manufacturer's literature should be consulted for a de-
scriptiod of the type of sampling system furnished for
the application.
I5I9.02 Frequency and Time o{ hspection
From a performance and reliabitty point of view,
analyzers and sample systems are extremely critical.
However, because of their complicated nature, they
should be handled only by tlrcroughly tained personrlel.
Not only is the equipment itsell complex, but there are
hazards due to the presenceoI combustible and dan-
gerous materials. A person who is llot thoroughly
familiar with the design, opemtion, and maintenanceof
ihe equipment should restrict himself to visual inspec- \l,
 ALARMS AND SIIUTDoWN DIvIcEs
a-
l-
FiG, 55-Red Yi{:{ of Control l,.nel.
tion for leaksand obviousfaults. Inspeciionb) trained
personncljs recommerdedat varying intcrvalsof ftom
once a day to once a monih, dependingon thc type oi
analvzerand its importanceto the operation.
l5I9.O3 l|€thods of Inspeciion
Thc propcr operationof any analyzeris dependent
upon the proper operation o[ its samp]ing system.
Thereforc, the sample systen should be checkedfor
leaks, loose connections,and constants ppiy of air,
rvater, or steamas may be rcquired. The sample systcm
shouldbe checkedto insurethat it is cleanand that a
continual flow ol sample is dclivcred to thc analyzer
at the rcquired operrting pressureard temperature.
All caseswhere excessivebuildup of forcig! deposits
is encounteredsho ld bc reportedto the proper supcr-
visory or operatingpersonnel.
The analyzersshouldbc cleanedand sc iccd in ac-
corda.nce with the manufacturcr'srccommcndations as
,13
well as with nethods grincd through operating ex-
Fot recordingnechanlsns, rcrer b Par. 1507.034.
I52O ALARMS AND SHUTDOWN DEVICES
l520.OI De8cription o( Typ€B
Alarms and shutdowndcvicesmay be serup to work
independenrl). .'mLll.neou.l). or Jn.eq,cncc, rhe
philosophybeing govened by the nature of thc appli-
cation. In many jnstancesan alarm aloneis sufrcient:
lbr exrmple, on applicationsuhere jt is desirablerhat
warning be given when certain ncasured variables
(temperatures,ltows, pressures,
levels,ctc.) have devi
ated beyondaccepiablelimits. Shurdownsare initiated
in ordcr to protectpersonneland equipmentfrom any
possiblehazardsand disasterscausedby tlle deviation
ol ce ain measuredvarjablesbeyond the acceptable
limits.
 INSTRUMENTS AND CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Alarms are usually audibleor visual, or both The
audiblealarm can be soundedby a gong, bell, buzzer,
horn, howler, whistle, siren, or any similar dcvice
capable of creating a noise to catch the unit operator's
attentioD.Visual alarmstake the form of flags,sema-
phores,or steadyo( flashinglights which are mountecl
either individualy or in groups. In rcfinery applications
it is a fairly common practice to have the audible and
visual alarms actuatedsimultaneously.A centralized
alarm systemin common use is sho$n in Fig. 56.
Shutdown devices vary in design accordiry to their
application. In many instancesdiaphragm-operatedde-
vices with manual reset latches to prevent automatic
startupare used. In other instances,valveswhich lully
close or which divert flow or pressurefrom a particular
processcircuitare u\cd. tn stiu olher ionrnces.as in
the caseof mechanical equipment such as steam-turbitre
ddves and the like, shutdown devicesconsist of bellows
units built into the equipment; these, too, usually re-
quiremanualreselting beloreslarlingup rgarn
As slaledpreriourly, alarmsor shuldown devices are
actuated by ahedeviation of certain measuredvariables
bevond acceptablelimits. This actuation ca.n be initi-
ated in a number of difierent ways, depending upon
the application. A single-poirt or multiple-poilt strip
chart temperaturerccordcf will usuallycausea switch
l i :l
:,,
FIC. 56-Cenhalizcd
to be trippedbecauseof the positionof its pen or print
wheel caffiage. Pneumatic transmissioninstruments
can actuate tlle alarm system from a pressure switch
connectedto ihe transmitter output. Mercury- and
floaftype flow instruments can be provided with
switches aflanged to be tripped mechanicaly acco(ding
to the float positionor travcl. Many alarm systemsare
actuatedby pressuroor Ievelswitchesconnecteddifecdy
In the most comnon type of refining unit alarm
systemit is usually necessaryto have electfcal rclays in
the circuit in order to allow for "operator acknowledg-
nent," for lamp testing, for operating parallel noise-
producing devices,ctc. No attempt will be made to
describe these relays because of t}Ie great variety ol
types which may be rcquired for any goup of units.
Process flow diasrams and manufactuers' litemture
should be consultedfor propc( description of the system
under consideration.
Sone alarm systemsmay functior without thlg benefit
ol electrical circuits, although this situation is not too
commor in refineries. A good exampleis a process
unit with a steam-generatingauxiliary wherein the drum
level bal float direct]y actuates a whjstle ir the event
of eitherhigh or low waterlevels.
Alarm Panel.
 Mlsc!I,taN!ous
''"t' 1520.02 Frequency and Time oI Inapeoion
Recommendations for operational inspection fre-
quercy lange from once each shift to once a week.
For example, it is recommended that alam ligbts be
checkpd on each shift, whercas the compressor dry-
I
I
&um level dsl'ice can be inspected once a week. The
schedulemost suilable to each plan depends upon the
I impoftance of the device to the operation or the pos-
sible degree of hazard, or botlr. The alarm devices
should also be inspected regularly for potential me-
chanical failures. In any event, inspection of the alarm
atrd shutdown devicesshould be made at least'once
each shutdownor once a year, whicheverifrshorter.
A good practice to folow, if feasible, is to shut dowlr
the operating equipment by operating the alarm and
shutdowtr device.
Becausethe consequencesof failure of an alarm and
shutdowtr system vary from unit to unit and plant to
platrt.it i' recornmended rhar edch'\(rem be studied
iaretulll ror the risk<invo[@nd a .uiralteinspecrion
iDterval be developedas soon as possible.
152O.03 Methods o{ Inspectio
Inasmuch as alarms and emergency devices must
operate during emergencyconditions, their satisfactory
peformance is essential to saJe operation of rcfnery
(J units. Alarm devices,such as signal lights and howlers,
are generally electrical alld therefore inspection con-
sistsof checkingfor shorts,grounds,looseconnections,
damagedinsulation, and corroded conduit. Alarms not
housed in explosionproof or hermetically sealed con-
tainers should also be checked to insure that all relays
are clean and dust-free. Any pitted or bumed contact
points shouldbe replaced.
Emergency devicesmay be electrical, pneumatic, me-
chanical, hydraulic, or a combination thereof. They
may be usedto shut doqn pumps, compressors,or other
items of equipment for protection during abnonnal or
emergencyconditions. They may also actuatestandby
emergency equjpment, such as auxiliary pumps, com-
pressors,or generato$. Inspectionot electncaleme(-
gency devicesshould be the same as for the aforemen-
tioned alarms. Other emergency devices should be
inspectedfor leaks,fteedomof movementof all moving
I parts, proper air or hydraulic supply pressure,and
operating voltages. Those systemswhich can be put
through a simulatedemergencywithout disruptingnor-
:'
INSTRUMENTs 45
mal operation should be so cbecked as this is the most
efiective way of inspecting shutdown equipment.
I52I MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUMENTS
l52l,0l Deecriprion of Types
Many miscellareoustypesof instrumentsare usedin
rcfineries; the more common t)rpesarc:
1. Speed indicators, recorders,and governors (Fig.
5t).
2. Electrical voltmeters, ammete$, frequency meters,
and wattmeters(Fig. 58).
3. Time indicators, nning time meiers, and cycle ot
programtimers (Fig. 59).
4. Data loggem, rcmote tank gagereadout devices,and
counters(Fig. 60).
1521.02 Frequency and Time of Inspecrion
Most miscellaneous devices require infrequent in-
spection. Visual inspection can be made as often as the
instruments arc used or rcad. Insp€ction of mechanical
elements for wear or corrosion can be accomplished
once a year or at tumaroutrd. Impection which includes
calibration, such as inspection of elechical meters,
speedinshuments, and spdng-operated timing devices,
should be performed once a year or the fust time the
€quipment can be taken out of se ice after a year of
opemtion.
1521.03 Merhods of Inspection
In general, miscellaneousequipment-such as cycle
or program timers, data-logging equipment, computing
equjpmert, or spe€d conhollers-consists of vadous
mechanical, electdcal, or pneumatic componentsor any
combination thereof. The inspection procedures,therc-
fore, are generally concerned with checking lor any
leaks, sho s, grounds,loose connections,or fdction
between moving parts. This type of equipment is
usually adverselyafiected by dust atrd condirions of high
temperature and humidity. Care should be taken to
see that all open contacts arc clean and fte€ from
pitting or eorrosion. It is usualy possible to check this
type of equipmert wi&out advenely afiecting its normal
operation. In many data-loggingand computer instafla-
tions, a self-checking or self-inspecting operation is
built in by the manufactu(er and can be actuated as
requiredfor inspectionpurposes.
I--srRUNrENTs AND CoNTRoL EQUIPMTNT

(c)
FIc. s?-Sp€cd and Tihe Insrruh€nts,
 MIscELLANEoUs INSTRUMENTS

\tt

(A) Electrical M€ter Isiallalion.

FIG. s8-Elecllical er€r$
48 INSTRUMENTS AND CoNTRoL EQUIPMENT

( A) R !n n i n cl i m e M e re r.

FIC. 60-Dri! Losscr and Conhol Complt€r,

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GUIDE
FOR

INSPECTIONOF REFINERY EQUIPMENT

A CHAPTERX\
AND CONTROLEQUIPMENT
INSTRUMENTS

FIRST EDITION
1962