conservation

and recycling
ELSEVIER Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

Wastewater characteristics
Samorn Muttamara
Environmental Engineering Program, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract

Characterization of plant influent, effluent, and internal process streams provides plant
operations personnel with the information they need to properly control treatment processes. To
obtain that information, the operator should determine the characteristics of the raw wastewater
and stream by collecting and analyzing representative samples throughout the plant. This paper
gives a basic understanding of wastewater characteristics and sampling necessary to operate the
plant.

Keywords: Wastewater; Characteristic; Sampling

I. Introduction

An understanding of the nature of wastewater is essential in the design and operation

of collection, treatment, and disposal facilities and in the engineering management of
environmental quality. Therefore, engineers, chemists, and biologists have been working
for many decades to develop wastewater purification and treatment facilities. The
chemists, in particular have been accredited for being responsible for the development of
test methods for evaluating the chemical and physical chemical changes involved. As
most water treatment processes are chemical reactions in nature the fundamentals of
wastewater chemistry are then necessary in understanding the wastewater characteristics
and hence in selecting, appropriate treatment technology to promote this understanding.
The information in this paper is presented in six sections dealing with:
• The physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of wastewater;
• Wastewater characterization studies;
• Wastewater composition;
• Unit loading factors;
• Variations in concentrations of wastewater constituents;
• Analysis of wastewater loading data.

0921-3449/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All fights reserved

SSDI 0921-3449(95)00052-6
146 s. Muttamara/ Resources, Conservationand Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

2. Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of wastewater

T h e physical properties and the c h e m i c a l and biological constituents o f wastewater,
and their sources, are listed in Table 1. The important contaminants o f interest in
w a s t e w a t e r treatment are listed in T a b l e 2.

2.1. Physical characteristics

Color. The c o l o r o f d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r is usually indicative o f age. Fresh w a s t e w a -

ter is usually gray, septic wastes i m p o r t a black appearance to the m e d i u m . Industrial
wastes m a y contain m a n y c o l o r i n g substances. C o l o r in the w a s t e w a t e r effluent, w h e t h e r
f r o m d o m e s t i c or industrial sources, is to be avoided.

Table 1
Physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of wastewater and their sources [4]
Characteristic Sources
Physical properties:
Color Domestic and industrial wastes, natural decay of organic materials
Odor Decomposing wastewater, industrial wastes
Solids Domestic water supply, domestic and industrial wastes, soil erosion, inflow-infiltration
Temperature Domestic and industrial wastes
Chemical constituents:
Organic:
Carbohydrates Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
Fats, oils and Domestic, commercial, and industrial wastes
grease
Pesticides Agricultural wastes
Phenols Industrial wastes
Proteins Domestic and commercial wastes
Suffactants Domestic and industrial wastes
Others Natural decay of organic materials
Inorganic:
Alkalinity Domestic wastes, domestic water supply, groundwater infiltration
Chlorides Domestic water supply, domestic wastes, groundwater infiltration, water softeners
Heavy metals Industrial wastes
Nitrogen Domestic and agricultural wastes
pH Industrial wastes
Phosphorus Domestic and industrial wastes, natural runoff
Sulfur Domestic water supply, domestic and industrial wastes
Toxic Industrial wastes
compounds
Gases:
Hydrogen sulfide Decomposition of domestic wastes
Methane Decomposition of domestic wastes
Oxygen Domestic water supply, surface-water infiltration
Biological constituents:
Animals Open watercourses and treatment plants
Plants Open watercourses and treatment plants
Protista Domestic wastes, treatment plants
Viruses Domestic wastes
 S. Muttamara/ Resources, Conservationand Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 147

Table 2
Important contaminants of concern in wastewater treatment [4]
Contaminants Reason for importance
Suspended solids Suspended solids can lead to the development of sludge deposits anaerobic
conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged in the aquatic environment.
Biodegradable Composed principally of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, biodegradable organics
organics are measured most commonly in terms of BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) and
COD (chemical oxygen demand). If discharged untreated to the environment, their
biological stabilization can lead to the depletion of natural oxygen resources and to
the development of septic conditions.
Pathogens Communicable diseases can be transmitted by the pathogenic organisms in
wastewater.
Nutrients Both nitrogen and phosphorus, along with carbon, are essential nutrients for
growth. When discharged to the aquatic environment, these nutrients can lead to the
growth of undesirable aquatic life. When discharged in excessive amounts on land,
they can also lead to the pollution of groudwater.
Refractory organics These organics tend to resist conventional methods of wastewater treatment.
Typical examples include surfactants, phenols, and agricultural pesticides.
Heavy metals Heavy metals are usually added to wastewater from commercial and industrial
activities and may have to be removed if the wastewater is to be reused.
Dissolved inorganic Inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium, and sulfate are added to the orinal
solids domestic water supply as a result of water use and may have to be removed if the
wastewater is to be reused.

Odor. O d o r s in w a s t e w a t e r usually are caused by gases p r o d u c e d by the d e c o m p o s i -

tion o f organic matter. Fresh w a s t e w a t e r has a distinctive s o m e w h a t disagreeable odor,
which is less o b j e c t i o n a b l e than the o d o r o f septic wastewater. T h e m o s t characteristic
o d o r o f stale septic w a s t e w a t e r is that o f h y d r o g e n sulfide, w h i c h is p r o d u c e d by
anaerobic m i c r o o r g a n i s m s that reduce sulfate to sulfides. Industrial w a s t e w a t e r m a y
contain either odorous c o m p o u n d s or c o m p o u n d s that produce odors during the process
o f w a s t e w a t e r treatment.
O d o r s h a v e b e e n rated as the first c o n c e r n o f the public relative to the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
o f w a s t e w a t e r treatment facilities. In m a n y areas, projects h a v e been rejected because o f
the fear o f potential odors.
Solids. The total solids content o f a w a s t e w a t e r is d e f i n e d as all the matter that
remains as residue upon e v a p o r a t i o n at 103 to 105°C.
S u s p e n d e d solids are defined as the matter which can be r e m o v e d f r o m w a t e r by
filtration through prepared m e m b r a n e s . Volatile suspended solids for the m o s t part
represent organics and m a y affect the o x y g e n resources o f the stream, h o w e v e r , they are
not direct m e a s u r e o f total organics. S u s p e n d e d solids m a y cause the undesirable
conditions o f increased turbidity and silt load in the r e c e i v i n g water. A considerable
a m o u n t o f d i s s o l v e d solids m a y be added to w a t e r during its treatment and use. High
concentrations o f d i s s o l v e d solids m a y a d v e r s e l y affect r e c e i v i n g waters and or future
water uses.
Temperature. The m e a n annual temperature o f w a s t e w a t e r will vary, d e p e n d i n g on
148 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

geographic location, from 10 to 21°C (27°C). The temperature of wastewater is an

important parameter because of its effect on aquatic life, chemical and biological
reaction rates and the solubility limitations of gases such as oxygen depletion. Abnor-
mally high temperature can increase the growth of undesirable planktonic species and
fungi, while low temperature can limit the form of wastewater treatment selected as well
as possibly increase treatment time and plant size.

2.2. Chemical characteristics

Organic materials. Organic compounds are normally composed of a combination of

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, together with nitrogen in some cases. Other important
elements, such as sulfur, phosphorus, and iron, may also be present. The principal
groups of organic substances found in wastewater are protein (40 to 60%), carbohydrates
(25 to 50%), and fats and oils (10%). Urea, the chief constituent of urine, is another
important organic compound contributing to wastewater. Because it decomposes so
rapidly, undercomposed urea is seldom found in wastewaters.
In addition, wastewater contains small quantities of a large number of synthetic
organic molecule structure. The presence of readily bio-degradable organic matter in the
receiving water will reduce the oxygen resources of that water. The presence of
non-biodegradable or difficult-to-degrade organic material complicates the wastewater
treatment processes. Some of the deleterious effects of this non-degradable fraction
include the imparting of color and odor to the receiving water, the possible toxic effects
on aquatic organisms, and the additional treatment costs required for downstream usage.
Inorganics. The common inorganic constituents present in normal wastewater include
chloride, hydrogen ions, alkalinity causing compounds, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and
heavy metals. The trace concentration of these substances can greatly affect organisms
in the receiving waters through their growth-limiting or eutrophic characteristics. Algae
and macroscopic plant forms are capable of using inorganics as substrate in their
metabolism. The major elements which serve as inorganic metabolities are carbon,
ammonia-nitrogen, and phosphorus. The nutrients alone are not offensive in normal
concentrations; however, if natural conditions permit, the growth of algae or other plants
causes the formation of an organic source in the receiving water creating a potential
demand on the oxygen resources of the natural water.
Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are present in all natural waters in forms available
to plant life. In most natural waters, phosphorus is present in significantly lower
concentrations than nitrogen or carbon. Phosphorus, however, is required in extremely
small concentrations to sustain algae growth. Undesirable algal growth has been reported
where inorganic phosphorus levels were in the range of 0.01 to 0,05 mg/1. Nitrogen,
required in higher concentrations than phosphorus for algal growth, generally is more
available because it may be used in several inorganic forms, and because atmospheric
nitrogen may be fixed by certain algae. Depending on conditions in the stream,
inorganic carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus may be the rate-limiting factor for algae
growth. Careful study of the nutrient balance and plant life form in a water body is
necessary to determine which nutrients should be removed from a wastewater discharge
to most effectively retard algae growth. Organic forms of carbon are also believed to
 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 149

stimulate growth of algae beyond that which would occur if the bicarbonate-carbonate
system were the only carbon source.
Gases. Gases commonly found in raw wastewater include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and methane. Although all should be considered in
the design of treatment facilities, attention is most frequently given to oxygen, hydrogen
sulfide, and methane concentration within the treated wastewater.
Dissolved oxygen is required for all aerobic life forms either within the treatment
facility or in the receiving water. In the absence of aerobic conditions, oxidation is
brought about by the reduction of inorganic salts such as sulfates or through the action
of methane forming bacteria. The end products are often very obnoxious. To eliminate
possible nuisance conditions in the wastewater treatment facility and in the natural
waters receiving the effluent, it is important that an aerobic state be maintained.

2.3. Biological characteristics

Plants and animals. The quantity and species of micro and macroscopic plants and
animals in a receiving body of water should be viewed as the final test of wastewater
treatment effectiveness. Within the treatment facility, the wastewater provides the
perfect medium for good microbial growth, whether it be aerobic or anaerobic.
The bacteria and protozoa are the keys to the normal treatment plant, biological unit
process and to the natural biological cycle in receiving waters. In the presence of
sufficient dissolved oxygen, bacteria convert the soluble organic matter into new cells
and inorganic elements. In turn, these are substrates for higher orders of living things,
thus causing a reduction of organic loading through the build-up of more complete
organisms and or removal.
Within a wastewater treatment plant handling domestic waters, bacteria, with concen-
trations ranging from 105 to 108/ml, will be the dominant microbial species, with other
organisms achieving varying degrees of importance depending on unit process and
design. Consequently, wastewater treatment is directed toward using and removing the
common bacteria along with organic and inorganic components.
Water quality in a receiving body of water is strongly influenced by the biological
interactions that take place there. The wastewaters discharged to receiving waters
become a normal part of the biological cycle, and it is the effect of these waters on
aquatic organisms which should be the ultimate consideration of treatment plant
operation. The communities and types of organisms usually considered in biological
examination of receiving waters include zoo- and phyto-plankton, periphyton, macroin-
vetebrates, macrophytes and fish.
Viruses. Because of the increasing awareness that enteric viruses can be waterborne,
attempts have been made to identify and quantify virus contribution to receiving waters
via wastewater treatment plants.
Virus removal in wastewater treatment plants is dependent on the type of plant and
on the degree of treatment achieved. Normally, some of the estimated 200 to 7000 virus
infection units per 1000 ml in raw water will reach the receiving waters. There, the virus
may eventually be transmitted through the food chain or water usage to a host organism.
150 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

3. Wastewater characterization studies

Wastewater characterization studies are conducted to determine (1) the physical,

chemical and biological characteristics and the concentration of constituents in wastewa-
ter, and (2) the best means of reducing the pollutant concentrations.

3.1. Sampling

The sampling. There are two distinct types of samples, the discrete and the compos-
ite. The nature and composition of the system plus the information required will
normally determine the type of samples to be collected. However, sampling and
analytical effort are expensive resources, therefore, when circumstances allow, composit-
ing the discrete samples is to be recommended. Composite samples may be prepared in a
number of ways to produce information on variability, average composition, pollution
load or trends of performance. Sample types, therefore fall mainly into the following
categories [1].
- Discrete samples: Sometimes called a grab or sport samples, it is one that is
collected randomly and is retained separately for analyses. It is the simplest form of
sampling and gives some approximation on real condition at the time of sampling. If a
series of discrete samples is taken at constant increments of time or flow, the collection
of samples are known as discrete sequential samples. These samples are useful for
detecting fluctuation in composition, and discharge of pollutants, especially in industrial
effluent and storm-sewage investigations.
- Time-interval composite sample: This is the simplest form of composite, prepared
by collecting equal volume sub-samples at regular time intervals and combining in al
bulked sample.
- Flow-proportional composite sample: A flow proportional composite sample is
prepared in approximation to the flow rate during the sampling period. There are two
available schemes: first by taking samples at constant time intervals but varying the
volume of the aliquot composited in proportional to the flow. Alternatively equal
volume sub-samples are collected at variable time intervals that are inversely propor-
tional to the volume of flow.
- Sequently composite sample: The technique allows for the collection of a succes-
sion of short-period composites, each composite being held in an individual container.
For example, individual samples taken every 10 min during a 1-h period are collected in
one bottle to give a 1-h composite. This technique provides the advantage of a more
representation composite, especially during rapidly fluctuation conditions whilst retain-
ing the discrete sample information.
- Continuous composite sample (Fig. 1): This is basically an automatic technique,
where a sample stream is continuously abstracted from the main stream. The sample
flow rate may be constant, or varied in proportion to the bulk source, to produce a
flow-proportional composite. The advantage of this technique is that it ensures complete
coverage of flow and therefore approximates to a true monitoring system, although
lacking in analytical ability. Where flow and composition are significantly variable, the
sampling frequency must attempt to include all these variations. Generally, the greater
 S. Muttamara /Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 151

Fig. 1. Water-quality sampler used for collection of continuous field samples. (From Manning Environmen-
Corp.)

the frequency, the more representative will be the sample, although it is known that
regular or systematic sampling can lead to more precise summary values than intense
sampling at random intervals.
Sampling handling. A sampler is required to produce a sample of adequate size for
analysis: in general, a minimum volume of 500 ml is desired for a discrete sample, and 5
1 for composites. The sample containers should preferably be wide mouthed, easy to
clean and made from materials that will not interfere with subsequent analysis, due to
leaching or adsorption. Glass bottles are preferable to plastics, being easier to clean,
more readily inspected, and have smooth walls that prevent solids adhering to the
insides. Plastic bottles should not be used for sampling pesticides, hydrocarbons and oils
because of adsorption problems.
Natural, biodegradable materials will continue to break down during the delay
between sampling and transportation to laboratory. Where this is likely to affect the
analysis, the sample must be preserved by refrigeration (down to 4°C) or chemical
addition especially during sample collection. Dissolved-gas determinations such as DO,
CO 2, and H2S must be fixed immediately and stored in a cool, dark place, but certain
determinants (e.g., temperature) cannot be preserved and must be determined on site. An
indication of the requirements for common determination is given in Table 3.
All samples must be correctly labelled with basic information of the source, collec-
tion conditions, including the use of preservatives and the analysis required. To enhance
recognition, colour coded preprinted labels are useful and this avoids the use of complex
codes and non-standard abbreviations which are certain to cause confusion.
152 S. Munamara/ Resources, Conservationand Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

Table 3
Preservation of wastewater samples [5]
Parameter Preservative Maximum holding period
Acidity-alkalinity Refreration at 4°C 24 h
BOD Refrigeration at 4°C a 6h
Calcium None required
COD 2 ml/1 H2SO 4 7d
Chloride None required
Color Refrigerator at 4°C 24 h
Cyanide NaOH to pH 10 24 h
Dissolved oxygen Determine onsite b No holding
Fluoride None required
Hardness None required
Metals, total 5 ml/l HNO3 6 mo
Metals, dissolved Filtrate/3 ml/l 1:1 HNO 3 6 mo
Nitrogen, ammonia 40 m g / l HgC12, 4°C 7d
Nitrogen, Kjeidahl 40 m g / l HgC12, 4°C Unstable
Nitrogen, ammonia 40 mg/l HgCI 2, 4°C 7d
Oil and grease 2 ml/I H2SO4, 4°C 24 h
Organic carbon 2 ml/i H2SO4 (pH 2) 7d
pH None available
Phenolics 1.0 g CuSo 4 + H3PO4 to pH 4.0.4°C 24 h
Phosphorus 40 m g / l HgCI 2, 4°C 7d
Solids None available
Specific conductance None required
Sulface Refrigeration at 4°C 7d
Sulfide 2 ml/l Zn acetate
Threshold odor Refrigeration at 4°C 24 h
Turbidity None available

a Slow-freezing techniques (to - 25°C) can be used for preserving samples to be anlayzed for organic content.
b For some methods of determination, 4 to 8 h preservation can be accomplished with 0.7 mL cone. H2SO4
and 20 mg NaNO 3. Refer to [1] for prescribed applications. (Footnote not in original reference.)
Note: 1.8 (°C)+ 32 = OF; mg/l = g / m 3.

Methods for sample analysis. Details c o n c e r n i n g the various analyses m a y be found

in Standard M e t h o d s [2], the accepted reference that details the c o n d u c t o f w a t e r and
w a s t e w a t e r analyses. S i m p l i f i e d techniques o f analysis for selected constituents m a y be
found in the U S E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection A g e n c y publication [2] M e t h o d s of W a s t e w a -
ter Analysis. As a general reference, C h e m i s t r y for E n v i r o n m e n t a l E n g i n e e r i n g by
S a w y e r et al. [3] is r e c o m m e n d e d .
Expression of analysis results. The results o f the analysis o f samples are e x p r e s s e d in
terms o f physical and c h e m i c a l units o f measurement. T h e m o s t c o m m o n units are
reported in T a b l e 4.

4. W a s t e w a t e r c o m p o s i t i o n

C o m p o s i t i o n refers to the actual amounts o f physical, c h e m i c a l , and biological

constituents present in wastewater. Data on the constituents found in w a s t e w a t e r and
 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 153

Table 4
Units commonly used to express analysis results [4]
Basis Application Unit
Physical analyses:
Mass of solution
Density kg/m 3
Unit volume
Volume of solute × 100
Percent by volume % (by vol)
Total volume of solution
Mass of solute × 100
Percent by mass % (by mass)
Combined mass of solute + solvent
Milliliters
Volume ratio ml/l
/
Milligrams
Mass per unit volume mg/i a
f of solution
Grams
g/m 3
Cubic meter of solution
Milligram
Mass ratio ppm
10° milligram

Chemical analyses:
Moles of solute
Molality tool/kg
1000 grams of solvent
Moles of solute
Molarity ff of solution mol/I
Equivalents of solute
Normality equiv/l
f of solution
Milliequivalents of solute
Normality g of solution meq/l

a mg/I = g / m 3.

septage are presented. Typical data on the individual constituents found in domestic
wastewater are reported in Table 5. Depending on the concentrations of these con-
stituents, wastewater is classified as strong, medium or weak. Both the constituents and
the concentrations vary with the hour of the day, the day of the week, the month of the
year and other local conditions. Therefore, the data in Table 5 are intended to serve only
as a guide and not as a basis for design.

5. Unit loading factors

When it is impossible to conduct a wastewater characterization study and other data

are unavailable, unit per capita loading factors is used to estimate the total waste
loadings to be treated.
The total solids in wastewater are derived from the domestic water supply, domestic,
commercial, and industrial water use, various non-point sources and groundwater
infiltration. Domestic wastewater solids include those derived from toilets, sinks, baths,
154 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

Table 5
Typical composition of untreated domestic wastewater [4]
Constituent Concentration
strong medium weak
Solids, total (mg/l) 1200 720 350
Dissolved, total (rag/l) 850 500 250
Fixed (rag/l) 525 300 145
Volatile (rag/l) 325 200 105
Suspended, total (rag/l) 350 220 100
Fixed (rag/l) 75 55 20
Volatile (rag/l) 275 165 80
Settleable solids (ml/1) 20 l0 5
Biochemical oxygen demand 5-day, 20°C (BODs, 20°C; rag/l) 400 220 I l0
Total organic carbon (TOC; rag/l) 290 160 80
Chemical oxygen demand (COD; rag/l) 1000 500 250
Nitrogen (total as N; rag/l) 85 40 20
Organic (rag/l) 35 15 8
Free ammonia (rag/l) 50 25 12
Nitrites (rag/I) 0 0 0
Nitrites (rag/l) 0 0 0
Phosphorus (total as P; rag/l) 15 8 4
Organic (rag/l) 5 3 1
Inorganic (rag/l) l0 5 3
Chlorides a (rag/l) 100 50 30
Sulfate a (rag/I) 50 20 30
Alkalinity (as CaCO3; rag/l) 200 100 50
Grease (rag/I) 150 100 50
Total coliform (No./100 ml) 107-109 107-10 s 106-107
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs;/.Lg/l) > 400 100-400 < 100

a Values should be increased by amount in domestic water supply.

Note: 1.SoC+ 32 = °F.

laundries, garbage grinders and water softeners. Typical data on the daily per capita
quantities o f dry solids derived from these and the aforementioned sources are reported
in Table 6. Assuming that the typical per capita wastewater flow is about 380 l / d , and
using the total solids value reported in Table 6 for medium-strength wastewater (720
m g / 1 ) the total solids contribution would be about 274 g / c a p i t a - day.
From an analysis of data on the composition of wastewater from a number o f
municipalities, it has been possible to develop unit loading factors for the principal
contaminants of concern in wastewater, as reported in Table 7. These values must be
used with great care, because wastewater constituent vary sidely.
If the per capita flow is assumed to be 380 l / d , the corresponding constituent values
would be as follows: BOD 263 r a g / l , suspended solids 315 m g / 1 , total nitrogen 39
m g / l and total phosphorus 11 m g / 1 . Using the data given in Table 6, the wastewater
would be classified as being about mid-way between medium and strong. If the per
capita flow were about 500 l / d , the corresponding wastewater would be classified as
medium in strength.
 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 155

Table 6
Estimate of the components of total (dissolved and suspended) solids in wastewater [5]
Component Dry weight (g/capita- day)
range typical
Water supply 10-20 15
Domestic wastes:
Feces (solids - 23%) 30-70 40
Ground food wastes 30-80 45
Sinks, baths, laundries, and other sources of domestic wash waters 60-100 80
Toilet (including paper) 15-25 20
Urine (solids, 3.7%) 40-70 50
a a
Water softeners

Total for domestic wastewater, excluding contribution from water softeners 185-365 250
Industrial wastes: 150-400 200 b

Total domestic and industrial wastes 335-765 450

Nonpoint sources 10-40 20 c
Storm water 20-40 25 c

Total for domestic, industrial, nonpoint, and storm water 365-845 495

a Variable.
b Varies with the type and size of facility.
e Varies with the season.
Note: g × 0.0022-1b.

Table 7
Unit waste loading factors
Constituent Value (lb/capita. d)
range typical
Normal domestic wastewater without contribution from ground kitchen wastes
BOD 5 0.13-0.24 0.18
SS 0.13-0.25 0.20
Nutrients
Ammonia nitrogen 0.004-0.008 0.007
Organic nitrogen 0.013-0.026 0.020
Total Kjeldahi nitrogen 0.020-0.031 0.027
Organic phosphorus 0.002-0.004 0.003
Inorganic phosphorus 0.004-0.007 0.006
Total phosphorus 0.007-0.011 0.008
Normal domestic wastewater with contribution from ground kitchen wastes a
BOD 5 0.18-0.26 0.22
SS 0.20-0.33 0.26

a Values for nutriets are approximately the same as those shown for wastewater without contribution from
ground kitchen wastes.
Note: lb × 453.59 = g.
156 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

6. Variations in concentration of wastewater constituent

From the standpoint of treatment processes, one of the most serious deficiencies
results when the design of a treatment plant is based on average flows and average BOD
and suspended solids loading, with little or no recognition of peak conditions. In many
communities, sustained peak influent flow rates and BOD and suspended solids loadings
can reach two or more times average value. Frequently, peak flow rates and BOD and
suspended solds mass loading rates do not occur at the same time. In such a situation, a
design based on the concurrence of peak flow rates and constituent concentration may
result in excess capacity. Analysis of existing records is the best method of arriving at
appropriate peak mass loadings.
The principal factors that are responsible for loading variation are (1) the established
habits of community residents, which cause short-term variations, (2) seasonal condi-
tions, which usually cause longer term variations, and (3) industrial activities, which
cause both long and short-term variations.

6.1. Short-term variation

Typical data on the hourly variation in domestic wastewater strengty are shown in
Fig. 2. The BOD variation follows the flow variation. The peak BOD concentration after
occurs in the evening around 9:00 p.m. Wastewater from combined-sewer system
usually contains more inorganic matter than wastewater from sanitary-sever systems
because of the longer quantities of storm drainage that enter the combined-sewer system.
Peak flows and the ratio of peak flow to average flow are higher in combined-sewer
systems than in sanitary-sewer systems.

6.2. Seasonal variations

In combined sewers, seasonal variations in BOD and suspended solids are primarily a
function of the amount of storm water that enters the system. In the presence of storm

5OO 0,5

~.4oo

o
F l O W ~ O4.
~oo I 0.3.
200 0,2 N

g IL

tO0

I I I I [ O
12 M 4AM 8AM 12N 4PM 8PM 12M
Time of doy
Fig. 2. Typical hourly variation in flow and strength of domestic wastewater [5].
 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 157

J F M A M J J A S O N D
_--{
~E 50
z ' ~ s ]oo
''ZllJllii '
1.3
13
i'l~ L2 12
I.I
I0
0.9
08

~.1 ~, 1.2
1.2
"EI~ I.I I.I
E ,.o - - -o~. 1.0
•~ ~s S
0.9
< I 0.8 0.8
I I I I I I I ! I I I I
d F M A M J J A S 0 N D
Month

Fig. 3. Variation in BOD concentration and flow with time for the Calumet Sewage Treatment Works,
Chicago, IL [5].

water, average concentrations of these constituents will generally be lower than the
corresponding concentrations in domestic wastewater. For the seasonal BOD variation
for the influent to the Calumet Sewage Treatment Works in Chicago, the measured BOD
values are below average during the spring and summer months, the period correspond-
ing to the time of the spring thaw and the high summer rainfall Fig. 3.
Although the presence of storm water usually means that the measured concentrations
of most constituents will be lower, significantly higher BOD and suspended solids
loadings may occur during the early stages of a storm. This is the result of the so-called
'first-flush effect' which is most pronounced after a long dry period when material
deposited during the dry period is washed away along with any sludge that may have
accumulated. When higher initial concentrations are observed, they will seldom be
sustained for more than 2 h. After that, the dilution effect will be observed.

6.3. Industrial variation

From the standpoint of biological considerations wastes from industry can be divided
into five groups. The characteristics of each group of these groups are based on the
effects on the receiving wasters. These groups are as follows:
- Those which influence the oxygen concentration or oxygen demanding wastes.
This group consists largely of organic substance which exhibit a biological oxygen
demand or certain substances that react chemically with oxygen.
- Those which exhibit toxic characteristics. This waste may contain either organic or
inorganic substances or both compound contained in these waste may be immediately
158 S. Muttamara/Resources, Conservation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159

20 I00

j r ? BOD

! I
15 75

o
.io 5O'_o
M.
o
m
|
.05 ,/-,4/ 25
I Flow I
,v,o-~ ,,~//

I I I 0
tTO 7/70 1/71 7/71 1/72 7/72 12/72

Fig. 4. Seasonal variation in BOD concentrationand flow at the WastewaterTreatmentPlant, Modesto, CA

[5].

lethal or their toxic may be accumulated. They may effect the aquatic organism directly
or indirectly through changes in the environment. Among the compounds which exhibit
toxicity are the heavy metals, acid-alkaline, inseticides, fungicides and herbicide, etc.
- Those which exhibit physical effects. The effects of inert wastes are largely
physical such as the formation of bottom sediments which cover spawning beds of fish
or present growth of aquatic organisms. They may form turbid mixture (oil) which
interfere with the use of water, decrease light for aquatic growth, may not increase water
temperature. The usual tests for inert substances are SS, TS, oil, and greases. Among the
substances in this group are silt, sand, sawdust, mine tailings, coal dust and heat.
- Those which promote excessive and undesirable aquatic growth. This group
includes those which contain substances that promote the growth of algae, bacteria and
aquatic weeds. The most common substances involved are N and P, either organic or
inorganic and carbonaeceous materials.
- Those containing radiological characteristics. Biological problems in this field
involve the concentration of radioactively in certain organisms. For instance, algae will
concentrate certain types of radioactivity. Fish and other edible aquatic organisms may
be the source of radioactivity in human food.
Once the total organic strength and the amounts of soluble and particular organics of
the waste have been determined the anticipated performance of the anticipated perfor-
mance of biological and chemical, physical treatment system can be generalized. Fig. 4
shows the seasonal variation in BOD concentration and flow at a wastewater treatment
plant.

7. Analysis of wastewater loading data

The analysis of wastewater data involves the determination of simple average or

flow-weighted average concentrations, mass loadings, and sustained peak mass loading.
 S. Muttamara / Resources, Conseroation and Recycling 16 (1996) 145-159 159

Mass loadings are usually expressed in kilograms per day and may be computed using
the following equations.
(conc, g / m 3) (flow rate, m 3 / s ) (86 400 S / d )
Mass loading ( k g / d ) =
1000g/kg
or
(conc, m g / 1 ) (flow rate, l / d )
Mass loading ( k g / d ) =
10 6 m g / k g

8. Conclusion

The physical, chemical and biological parameters are considered to be useful for
environmental engineers and scientists in determining the wastewater characteristics, its
degree of treatability, the effectiveness of waste stabilization in each treatment unit and
the potential effects of the wastewater on the environment.
Another point in wastewater chemistry which should be of concern is the reliability
of the chemical data obtained from laboratory analyses. The value of any laboratory test
depends on the methods of sampling and sample preservation, and on the experience of
the technician who carries out the work. It is suggested that the procedure outlined in
Standard Methods [2] or EPA Technology Transfer [6] be followed closely in order to
minimize as much errors as possible during the sampling and analysis.

References

[1] Schofield, T., 1980. Sampling of Water and Wastewater Practical Aspects of Sample Collection. Water
Pollution Control.
[2] APHA, AWWA and WPCF, 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 18th
edn. APHA, Washington, DC.
[3] Sawyer, C.N., McCarty, P.L. and Parkin, G.F., 1994. Chemistry for Environmental Engineering, 4th edn.
McGraw-Hill International Editions, New York.
[4] Metcalf and Eddy, 1991. Wastewater Engineering Treatment Disposal, Reuse, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill Inc.,
New York.
[5] Metcalf and Eddy, 1979. Wastewater Engineering Treatment Disposal, Reuse, 2nd edn. McGraw-Hill Inc.,
New York.
[6] EPA Technology Transfer, 1972. Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Wastewater
Laboratories. UEPA, Washington, DC.