TRAFFIC SYSTEM

COMPONENTS &
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
OF TRAFFIC FLOW

DR. NORDIANA MASHROS

Road traffic system consists of road users ,
vehicles and road network that interact
between one and another.

It is important to study each of these

elements for the planning, design, and
analysis of an efficient, safe road traffic
system.
1) Road Users
• Consist of drivers, passengers, motorcyclists,
cyclists, pillions, and pedestrians.

• Characteristics and behaviour of a driver are

influenced by three factors:
1. Physical
2. Environment
3. psychology
Physical Factors
• Two main factors considered are:

1. Perception–Reaction Time
2. Cone of vision
Perception–Reaction Time of a driver
It is a combination of four consecutive tasks:
1. Perception - the driver sees a control device,
warning sign or object on the road.
2. Identification - the driver identifies the object or
control device and thus understands the stimulus.
3. Emotion - the driver decides what action to take in
response to the stimulus, for example to step on the
brake pedal, to pass, to swerve or to change lanes.
4. Volition - the driver actually executes the action
decided on during the emotion task.
Perception–Reaction Time of a driver
Perception-Reaction time of a driver varies and is influenced
by factors such as:

Age, fatigue, complexity of a situation, drivers physical

characteristics, alcohol or drugs, etc.

Average time: 0.5 – 2.5 seconds

Environmental Factors
These include:

• Weather & lighting

• Traffic volumes
• Road geometry
Psychological Factors
• Motive of the journey
• Emotion
2) Vehicles

• Characteristics of vehicles on roads vary

in terms of shape, dimension,
performance, etc.

• Road must be designed to cater almost all

types of vehicles.
3) Road Network

• Varies in terms of standards and geometry

• Categorised into 5 for administrative purposes:

1. Toll highway
2. Federal highway
3. State road
4. Urban road
5. Rural road
Fundamental theory of
traffic flow
Common traffic parameters that are of
traffic engineers / planners interest
include:
- planning,
• Traffic Flow or Volume
designing &
• Speed evaluating the
effectiveness
• Density or Concentration of traffic
• Headway engineering
measures
Traffic flow parameters can be classified as:

• Macroscopic – which characterizes the

traffic as a whole (flow, speed, density).

• Microscopic – which studies the behaviour

of individual vehicle in the stream with
respect to each other (spacing, headway).
(1) Traffic Flow or Volume (q)
Define as the number of
vehicles passing a
specific reference point on
a road section within a
specified period of time.
Traffic Flow or Volume (q)
(cont’d)
The count can be directional or all
directions.
Typical units:
vehicles/hour (hourly traffic) (vph),
vehicles/day (daily traffic),
vehicles/year (annual traffic), etc.
Traffic flow data is usually collected to obtain
factual data concerning the movement of
vehicles at selected points on the street.,
example:
(a) Annual Traffic
(i) To compute crash rates
(ii) To indicate trends in volume
(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) &
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

(i) To measure present demand

(ii) To programme capital improvements

(c) Hourly Traffic

(i) To determine peak periods
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies
(iii) To establish traffic controls
(iv) To determine geometric design parameters
• ADT – an average 24-hour traffic volume at a
given location for some period of time less than
a year.
• AADT - the average 24-hour traffic volume at a
given location over a full 365-day year.
• AADT - the average 24-hour traffic volume at a
given location over a full 365-day year.

• AADT = (Vol. 7 days in Mac + vol. 7 days in

Sept) / 14
• Exercise: Calculate (i) ADT for March &
Sept., and ii) AADT for the data below.
March September
Day (veh/day) (veh/day)
Monday 12000 11500
Tuesday 11500 11750
Wednesday 13460 12000
Thursday 10000 12100
Friday 15200 13300
Saturday 9800 11450
Sunday 12500 10000
(b) Average Daily Traffic (ADT) &
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)

(i) To measure present demand

(ii) To programme capital improvements

(c) Hourly Traffic

(i) To determine peak periods
(ii) To evaluate capacity deficiencies
(iii) To establish traffic controls
(iv) To determine geometric design parameters
• Exercise: Determine (i) the hourly volume, and
ii) the peak rate of flow within the hour.

Time Interval Volume for Time Interval

(vehs)
5:00 – 5:15 pm 1000
5:15 – 5:30 pm 1100
5:30 – 5:45 pm 1200
5:45 – 6:00 pm 900
 THINK ABOUT IT

Why might vehicle classification be helpful to

a traffic engineer?
Traffic composition:
Vehicular traffic consists of various types of vehicle –
i.e. various sizes, performances, and characteristics.
A vehicle is converted into an Equivalent Passenger
Car unit (PCU or UKP) For consistency in interpreting
road traffic performance, congestion, road geometry
and traffic signal analysis and design.
 Typical PCU values for roadways

Types of vehicle Rural road Urban road

Cars 1.0 1.0
Utilities & small vans 2.0 2.0
Medium lorries & large 2.5 2.5
vans
Large lorries & heavy 3.0 3.0
vehs
Buses 3.0 3.0
Motorcycles 1.0 0.75
Example application of PCU values:
• Traffic volumes on a section of rural road during morning peak hour
is 500 veh/h and during the evening peak hour is also 500 veh/h.

Can you comment on the traffic flow conditions for both situations? (e.g.
which peak hour traffic would you think is the busiest or congested
condition compare to the other?)

Answer:
It would be difficult for us to say which peak hour is representing the
congested situation as both traffic volumes are equal in terms of
veh/h.
Now,
If information of traffic compositions for both peak-hours
are available as follows:
For AM Peak: 50% cars, 20% medium lorries, 10% buses,
and 20% m/cycles.
For PM Peak: 30% cars, 25% medium lorries, 15% heavy
lorries, 15% buses, 15% m/cycles.

Can you describe the differences between the two peak

hour traffic in terms of traffic flow conditions?
Answer:
Let us express the peak hour traffic in terms of pcu/h, i.e.

AM Peak: (0.5x1+0.2x2.5+0.1x3.0+0.2x1) x 500 = 1.5 x

500 = 750 pcu/h
PM Peak: (0.3x1 + 0.25x2.5 + 0.15x3.0 + 0.15x3.0 +
0.15x1) x 500 = 1.975x500 = 988 pcu/h
This shows that the evening peak hour traffic is
busiest compare to the morning traffic.
 Exercise
• Express 500 veh/h in terms of pcu/h if the
composition of traffic is 40% cars, 20%
medium lorries, 5% buses and 25%
motorcycles.

• Assume 1 medium lorry = 2 pcu, 1 heavy

lorry and bus = 2.5 pcu & 1 motorcycle =
0.75.
• Method to conduct traffic volume count:
(i) Manual - typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle classification,
turning movements, direction of travel,
pedestrian movements, or vehicle
occupancy.
(ii) Automatic - typically used to gather data for
determination of vehicle hourly patterns,
daily or seasonal variations and growth
trends, or annual traffic estimates.
 Manual Count Method

• 3 methods:
– tally sheets
– mechanical counting boards
– electronic counting boards
 Mechanical counting board

Example Manual Intersection

Volume Count Tally Sheet Electronic counting board
 Automatic Count Method

• 3 methods:
– portable counters
– permanent counters
– Videotape

Pneumatic Road Tube and Recorder

 Another method to measure volume:

 Moving observer method
 License-plate observations
 (2) Speed (u)

Speed is defined as the distance travelled per unit time. The

parameter is usually used to describe the quality of journey
and the performance of road network in accommodating
traffic demand.

Types of speed:
» spot speed,
» journey speed,
» running speed,
» time mean speed, and
» space mean speed.
 THINK ABOUT IT

In one case, a radar gun is used to record

speeds. In a second case, a speed trap is
set up with road tubes. Which type of speed
can be obtained from the above cases?.
(a) Spot Speed
This speed is the instantaneous speed of a
vehicle passing a point on the roadway. If the data
for a group of vehicles is collected properly,
results from the sample should represent the
speed characteristics of the entire population of
vehicles passing the site.
 Definition of spot speed (cont’d)

Time taken from A to B = t

A Distance = S B

S
Speed = Distance/Time, i.e. speed 
t
If S  100 meters, then the speed measured is known as Spot Speed.
Typical use of Spot Speed data:
• To establish speed trends
• Traffic control planning
- establish speed limits
- determine safe speeds at curves
- establish proper location for traffic signs
- establish lengths of no–passing zones
- evaluate intersection sight distance
• Before–and–after studies
• Accident analysis
• Geometric design – i.e. road alignments and stopping
sight distance
• Spot speed collection methods
– Stopwatch method
– Radar meter method (hand-held or mounted
on a vehicle)
– Pneumatic road tube method
(b) Journey speed & Running Speed
Journey speed is the distance divided by total journey time. Total
journey time includes all delays due to traffic. Mathematically,

Journey speed = distance/total journey time

Running speed is the distance divided by running time, i.e. total

journey time minus delays. (Running time is the time that the vehicle is
actually in motion.)

Running speed = distance/(total journey time – delays)

Both speeds are usually as a result of travel time and delay study –
used to evaluate road performance.
 Example:
Evaluate journey & running speeds for the following situation
& interpret the result:

A B
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5

8 km

Average Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 32 minutes

Average Delays at each junction: J1 = 5 min, J2 = 5 min, J3 = 3 min, J4 = 4 min,
& J5 = 6 min.

Answer:
Average Journey Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min) /32 min = 15 km/h.
Average Running Speed = 8km x (1 h x 60 min)/(32 – 23)min = 53.3 km/h.
Interpretation:
Since Journey speed  running speed  drivers experience heavy traffic flow &
inefficient traffic control system at junctions. System requires improvements.
 Exercise:
Evaluate journey & running speeds

A B
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5

6 km

Average Total travel time including delay due to traffic = 30 minutes

Average Delays at each junction: J1 = 2 min, J2 = 2 min, J3 = 4 min, J4 = 2 min,
& J5 = 3 min.
• Methods to measure journey speed
 Moving observer method
 License-plate observations
 Moving observer method

• The observer makes a round trip on a test

section
• Assume the study is focused on a stream
of vehicles moving in the east direction
x y

East

West

x y
Length of road section, L
 Moving observer method

• From x-x towards east:

– No. of vehs that overtook test veh. (Y1east)
– No. of vehs overtaken by test veh (Y2east)
– Travel time (Teast)
• From y-y towards west:
– No. of vehs travelling in opposite direction (Xeast)
– Travel time (Twest)

x y

East

West

x Length of road section, L y

• Volume in east direction
– Qeast = (Xeast + Y1east – Y2east)/(Teast + Twest)

• Average travel time

– T east = Teast – ((Y1east – Y2east)/ Qeast)

• Average journey speed

–V east = L/ T east
 Example/Exercise
• Length of road section = 3.5 km
No. of Vehicles
No. of Vehicles No. of Vehicles
Travel Time Travelling in
Direction that Overtook Overtaken by
(min) Opposite
Test Vehicle Test Vehicle
Direction
Eastbound 2.85 79.5 1.0 1.5

Westbound 3.07 92.2 1.5 0.8

• Average volume in both directions

• Average journey speed for traffic stream for both
direction
 License-plate observations

• Requires observers be positioned at the beginning and

end of the test section.
• Each observer records the license-plate of each car that
passes, together with time at which the car passes.
• The reduction of the data is accomplished in the office by
matching the times of arrival at the beginning and end of
the test section for each license-plate recorded.
• Difference between these times = travelling time of each
vehicle.
• Average of these = the average travelling time on the
test section.
 Time mean speed
• TMS = The average speed of all the vehicles
passing a point on a highway over some
specified time period (≈ point measurement)
• TMS= arithmetic mean of speeds of vehicles
passing a point
• TMS = total speed of all vehs / no of vehs
 Space mean speed
• SMS = The average speed of all the vehicles occupying a
given section of a highway over some specified time period (≈
measure relating to length of highway or lane)
• SMS= harmonic mean of speeds passing a point during a
period of time. It also equals the average speeds over a
length of roadway.
• SMS = total distance / total time of all vehs
 Example
Vehicle Measured Time To travel Measured Speed
1 km (sec) (km/h)
1 55.4 65
2 47.4 76
3 52.9 68

• TMS = (65+76+68 km/h)/3 = 69.7 km/h

• SMS = (1km x 3)/[(55.4+47.4+52.9 sec)/3600]
= 69.4 km/h

TMS always > SMS. Why?

 Exercise
• The speed of 5 vehicles were measured at
the mid-point of 1 km section of roadway.
The speed for vehicles 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
were 51, 43, 62, 54 and 69 km/h
respectively. Assuming all vehicles were
travelling at constant speed over this
roadway section, compute the TMS and
SMS?
 (3) Density (k)

Concentration or density of traffic is the number of

vehicles in a given length of roadway or a lane, i.e.
vehicles/km.

It is also a common parameter used to describe road

performance.

1 km
 Example
4 vehicles over 200 m of roadway

• Over 1 km,

k = (4 veh/200 m)*1000 m
= 20 veh/km
 (4) Headway (h)

It is defined as the time between successive

vehicles past a point. Headway and spacing (which
is the distance between successive vehicles past a
point) are microscopic measures of flow as they
apply to pairs of vehicles in the traffic stream.

Headway if measured in terms of time, or

Spacing if measured in terms of distance

Reference point
(4) Headway (h) (cont’d)

These parameters are important in determining the

number of gaps in a traffic stream for vehicles or
pedestrians to cross and for measuring operations
at junctions.
 To summarise,
Basic Traffic Stream Parameters are:

Typical Typical
Parameter Symbol units Reciprocal Symbol Units

Flow q veh/h Headway h sec/veh

Speed u km/h Travel time T sec/km

Density k veh/km Spacing s m/veh

 Example

1. What is the average headway of vehicles if the traffic

volume in a lane is 1800 veh/h assuming there is no
m/cycle in the system? What is the average inter-vehicle
spacing if the average vehicle’s speed is 60 km/h?
Answer:
h = 1/q = 1 x 3600 sec/1800 = 2 sec.

How to compute Spacing? Headway = 2 sec. u = 60 km/h

u = 60 km/h Spacing = ?? meter

Reference point
 Exercise

While taking measurement by moving-observer method, a

test vehicle covered a 1 km section in 1.5 minutes going
against traffic and 2.5 minutes going with traffic. Given the
traffic flow was 800 vph and that test vehicle passed 10
more vehicles than passed it when going with traffic, find:

• The number of vehicle encountered by the test vehicle

while moving against traffic
• The speed of the traffic being measured

Submit: 19/3/2015 before 3.30 pm at M47-115

 Exercise
At one road section, 35% of vehicles travelling at 60 km/h, 35%
of vehicles travelling at 80 km/h, and the rest travelling at 100
km/h. The observer was travelling with the traffic at 70 km/h at 7
km road section. The test vehicle was overtaken by 20 more
vehicles than he can overtake. When the test vehicle moved
against the traffic, he encountered 292 vehicles in the opposite
direction. Determine:

• the traffic flow

• the average journey speed
• type of speed for the above technique
• the number of vehicles travelling at 100 km/h
Submit: 19/3/2015 before 3.30 pm at M47-115
 TEST 1 : SKAA 3842

DATE: 26 MARCH 2015

TIME: 4.00 – 5.00 PM
VENUE: M47-212-214

CHAPTER 1
 Speed, Flow, Density Relationships
and their interpretations

Flow rate (q) = Speed (u) x Density (k)

q=uxk
• The relationship between the fundamental
variables of traffic flow, namely:
Speed (u) is called:
fundamental
Flow (q)
relations of traffic
flow
Density (k)
 Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow

• road length = v km
• All the vehicles are moving with (speed) = v km/h
• No. of veh. counted by an observer at A for 1 hour = n1.
• By definition, the number of vehicles counted in one hour
is flow(q), veh/h.
• Therefore, n1 = q (veh/h)
 Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow

• By definition, density is the number of vehicles in unit

distance.
• Therefore, no. of vehicles n2 in a road stretch of distance
v will be = density × distance.
• Therefore, n2 = k (veh/km) × v (km/h)
 Illustration of relation between fundamental parameters of traffic flow

• Since all the vehicles have speed v, the number of

vehicles counted in 1 hour and the number of vehicles in
the stretch of distance v will also be same.(ie n1 = n2).
• Therefore,

veh/h q=uxk veh/km

km/h
• FUNDAMENTAL DIAGRAM OF TRAFFIC
FLOW
Speed (u) – density (k)
relationship

Speed (u) – flow (q)

relationship

Flow (q) – density (k)

relationship
 (i)uu-k
– relationship
k relationship

Free-flow speed uF  uF 
u  uF    k
A  kJ 
____
Stable flow
Speed at Capacity uC = uF/2
------- Unstable flow
u (km/h)

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ Jam density

Density at capacity
 u –(i)ku-krelationship
relationship

u 
uF u  uF   F   k
• When u = uf, k = 0  kJ 
A
Corresponding to the zero ____
density, vehicles will be Stable flow
flowing with their desire uC = uF/2 ------- Unstable flow
speed, or free flow speed.
u (km/h)

• When k = kj, u= 0 B

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ
 u–
(ii)q relationship
q-u relationship
 kJ  2
q  u  kJ   u
Free-flow speed uF  uF 
A
u1

theoretical flow
maximum
uC = uF/2
Speed at Capacity
u (km/h)

u2
B

q (vph) q1 qC
Max. flow / Capacity
• q = 0 either because:
u(ii)–q-uq relationship
relationship
• there is no vehicles or
• there are too many k  2
uF q  u  kJ   J u
vehicles so that they  uF 
cannot move. u1
A

theoretical flow
maximum
• At qc (maximum flow), the
speed will be in between 0 uC = uF/2
and uf.
u (km/h)

• When q = qc, u = uc. u2

B
• It is possible to have two
different speeds for a given q1 qC
flow. q (vph)
 q –q-k
(iii) k relationship
relationship
maximum  uF  2
Max. flow / qC theoretical flow q  k  uF    k
Capacity  kJ 

A B
q1
q (vph)

k1 k2

k (veh/km) kC = kJ/2 kJ
Density at capacity Jam density
• When k = 0, q = 0, since there is no q –(iii)k q-krelationship
relationship
vehicles on the road.
• When the number of vehicles gradually maximum
theoretical flow
increases the density as well as flow qC
increases.
• When more and more vehicles are added,
A B
it reaches a situation where vehicles can’t q1
move.This is referred to as the jam
density or the maximum density.

q (vph)
• At k= kj, q = 0, because the vehicles are
not moving. k1 k2
• There will be some density between zero kC = kJ/2
k (veh/km) kJ
density and jam density, when the flow is
maximum.
• The relationship is normally represented  uF  2
by a parabolic curve. q  k  uF    k
 kJ 
• COMBINED DIAGRAM

The diagrams shown in the relationship between speed-flow, speed-density,

and flow-density are called the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
Example:
Traffic volume during a stable free-flowing condition is 600 veh/h with an
average speed of 75 km/h. Estimate the average speed of traffic under
congested situation for the same volume of traffic if speed & density are
linearly related. The maximum free-flow speed for the road section is 90
km/h.
Solution:
First, sketch the parabolic curve for q–u relationship.

(ii) q-u relationship

q1 = 600 veh/h; uf = 90 km/h
uF Point A represent the stable flow
u1
A
region with the corresponding
maximum capacity

speed u1 = 75 km/h.
uC = uF/2
Point B represent congested flow
u (km/h)

u2 for q1 = 600 veh/h.

B
 u2 = 90-75 = 15 km/h
q (vph) q1 qC
Example 1.7
Vehicles in a traffic stream moved at an average headway
of 2.2 sec. The average speed is 80 km/h. Estimate the
flow rate & density of that traffic stream.
Solution:
Using q = uk = 1/h, then
q = 1/h = 1/(2.2/3600) = 1636 veh/h.

Using q = uk, then k = q/u

 density of the flow, k = 1636/80 = 20.45 veh/km
Example 1.8
Free-flow speed of vehicles on a road section is 88 km/h.
Jammed density is 228 veh/km. Estimate the traffic density
on the road if traffic flow is at a maximum level. Estimate also
the possible maximum flow for the road section and the
average speed of vehicles at that maximum traffic volume.

Solution:
Density when traffic flow reaches the maximum volume,
kc = kj/2 = 228/2 = 114 veh/km.

Expected maximum flow, qc = ufkj/4 = (88 x 228)/4

= 2508 veh/h

Average speed at qc, uc = uf/2 = 88/2 = 44 km/h

 Exercise

Data collected on a stretch of highway reveals that the free-flow

speed is 90 km/h, jammed density is 112 veh/km/lane, and the
observed maximum flow is 2000 veh/h/lane.

a) Establish the mathematical relationships between flow &

speed for the given characteristics.
b) Estimate the average speed & density when the flow is at
the maximum theoretical flow.
c) Estimate the maximum theoretical flow & why it is different
from the observed volume?
d) Estimate the average speed of vehicles if traffic flow is 1000
veh/h.
 Exercise

U = 60(1-0.007k)

Determine:
(a) Uf
(b) Kj
(c) u-q relationship
(d) q-k relationship
(e) qc
(f) Headway and spacing at 1350 veh/h
(g) Sketch the q-k relationship and show all the relevent values
 CAPACITY
&
LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)
• Capacity and Level of service are two related terms.
• Capacity analysis :
– tries to give a clear understanding of how much traffic a
given transportation facility can accommodate.
• Level of service :
– tries to answer how good is the present traffic situation on
a given facility.
• Thus LOS gives a qualitative measure of traffic, where as
capacity analysis gives a quantitative measure of a facility.
• Capacity and level of service varies with the type of facility,
prevailing traffic and road conditions etc.
• Type of facility
– Most important classification of transportation facilities
from the engineering perspective is based on the
continuity of flow, that is uninterrupted flow and
interrupted flow.
• Uninterrupted flow - the flow of traffic in which there is no
obstructions to the movement of vehicles along the road
(example freeway).
• Interrupted flow - the condition when the traffic flow on
the road is obstructed due to some reasons (example
signalized intersections, unsignalized intersections,
arterials)
• LOS

• It divides the quality of

traffic into six levels ranging
form level A to level F.
• Level A represents the best
quality of traffic where the
driver has the freedom to
drive with free flow speed
• Level F represents the
worst quality of traffic.
 ASSIGNMENT 1
• Group assignment – 5 students/group
• Assignment 1 – e-learning
• Date of submission: 9 March 2014
• Submit:
– Hardcopy during class
– Softcopy before 9 March in e-learning (Format
PDF, assign 1 group member to upload the
file)