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The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is published SAUDI ARAMCO IMPLEMENTS ITS FIRST SCREENED, FRAC
quarterly by the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, Dhahran, Saudi PACK STIMULATION COMPLETIONS IN THE UNCONSOLIDATED
Arabia, to provide the company’s scientific and
‘UNAYZAH RESERVOIR TO ELIMINATE SAND AND ENHANCE
engineering communities a forum for the exchange of ideas
through the presentation of technical information aimed GAS PRODUCTION
at advancing knowledge in the hydrocarbon industry. Zillur Rahim, Mohammed Y. Al-Qahtani,
Complete issues of the Journal in PDF format are available on Adnan A. Al-Kanaan, Kirk M. Bartko, Christian J. Heine
2
the Internet at: http://www.saudiaramco.com
(click on “publications”). SEISMIC SURVEY LISTENS BENEATH THE ARABIAN GULF FOR
SUBSCRIPTIONS OIL AND GAS
Send individual subscription orders, address changes (see page 67) Diane Turnage Burgoyne 15
and related inquiries to:
Saudi Aramco Public Relations Department TECHNIQUE BOON FOR WELDING PIPELINE SECTIONS
JOT Distribution
Box 5000 Ahmed A. “Ted” Omar
18
Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia
Fax: +966/3-873-3336 REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC
Web site: www.saudiaramco.com
PIPE FOR OIL AND GAS
EDITORIAL ADVISORS O. Olabisi, Gasem M. Fallatah, Ahmed O. Somali,
Mahmoud Abdul-Baqi, Vice President, Exploration
Adel A. Badghaish, A. Geoff Gibson
20
Khaled G. Al-Buainain, Vice President, Refining
Mohammed S. Al-Gusaier, Vice President, Distribution
and Terminal Operations ABQAIQ ALARMS QUIETED
Abdulrahman F. Al-Wuhaib, Vice President, Engineering Services Helenka DeLuca
27
Ibrahim Y. Al-Naimi, Manager, Western Region Refining
Saad A. Al-Turaiki, General Manager, Petroleum Engineering
Abdullah M. Al-Ghamdi, Manager, Oil Supply SUCCESSFUL ACID FRACTURING STRATEGY AND
Planning & Scheduling OPTIMIZATION PROCESS IN HIGH-RATE, DEEP GAS WELLS
Jamal K. Al-Dabal, Administrator, Information Technology IN THE KHUFF CARBONATE RESERVOIRS, C&B, OF SAUDI
Planning ARABIA
Khalil A. Al-Shafei, Coordinator, Research and Technical 28
Development, Engineering Services Technology F. A. Al-Ghurairi, J. Ricardo Solares
Abdulmuhsen A. Al-Sunaid, Senior Engineering Consultant,
Environmental Protection SMART CHOICE FOR VALVE TESTS 36
Mustafa A. Jalali, Executive Director, Saudi Aramco Affairs
CONTRIBUTIONS NEW RIGLESS GAS LIFT TECHNOLOGY IN SAUDI ARAMCO
Relevant articles are welcome. Submission guidelines are printed 38
on the last page. Please address all manuscript and editorial
Shahid Hussain, Hussain AbuGrain
correspondence to: 42
INVENTORIED OIL SAVES MILLIONS
EDITOR
Dave Kaiser EVALUATING SOLUTIONS TO BTX DEACTIVATION OF CLAUS
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology
CATALYSTS IN LEAN FEED SRUS
2201-B East Administration Building 43
Dhahran 31311, Saudi Arabia Pierre Crevier, Mohammad N. Al-Haji, Ismail A. Alami
Tel: +966/3-873-5423 Fax: +966/3-873-5132
E-mail: david.kaiser@aramco.com ABQAIQ PLANTS ENGINEERS HARNESS COMPUTERS TO
Unsolicited articles will be returned only when accompanied by a REMOTELY TRACK EVENTS
self-addressed envelope.
Helenka DeLuca
52
Abdallah S. Jum‘ah
President & CEO, Saudi Aramco
MODELING FLUID FLOW THROUGH SINGLE FRACTURES
Mustafa A. Jalali USING EXPERIMENTAL, STOCHASTIC AND SIMULATION
Executive Director, Saudi Aramco Affairs
APPROACHES
Nasser A. Al-Nafisee
Dicman Alfred, Erwin Putra, D.S. Schechter
54
Manager, Public Relations
Production Coordination: Henry Hayes, ASC
VELA TESTS NEW VAPOR RECOVERY SYSTEM 63
Design: Pegasus Design, Inc., Houston, Texas U.S.A.
TECH HIGHLIGHTS
65
ISSN 1319-2388. COPYRIGHT © 2003 ARAMCO SERVICES COMPANY: All articles, including
art and illustrations, in The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology, except those from copyrighted
sources, may be reprinted in technical journals or used in technical presentations without further
permission, provided that The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology is credited.
The Saudi Aramco Journal of Technology gratefully acknowledges the assistance, contribution
and cooperation of numerous operating organizations throughout the company.
REINFORCED THERMOPLASTIC
PIPE FOR OIL AND GAS
university and has published extensively joining an industry-wide consortium on the Implementation
of Reinforced Thermoplastic Pipes in the Oil and Gas
in international journals and conference Industries. The consortium consisted of: BP-Amoco,
proceedings. Advantica, Coflexip Stena Offshore, Gaz de France,
Halliburton Subsea, U.K. Health & Safety Executive (U.K.),
ABSTRACT Petrobras, Pipelife Netherlands, Saudi Aramco and Shell
SIEP.
The year 2002 pipeline replacement program at Southern The goal of the consortium, which was jointly managed
Area Oil Operation (SAOO) consisted of replacing the by the Advanced Research Partnership and the University
following carbon steel pipelines with reinforced of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, is the removal of barriers to the
thermoplastic pipe (RTP): two trunklines, one flowline and use of RTP in three key application areas, (1) onshore
one water-injection lateral. This is primarily because RTP transport of oilfield fluids, (2) onshore transmission of
technology is an engineered solution for the piping systems gaseous fuels, and (3) offshore applications. This was to be
operating in a corrosive oil field, where corrosion inhibition achieved through the development of a documentation
of metallic pipes is unsustainable. As an emerging spoolable framework within which RTP can be specified and
piping technology, RTP combines the high strength of implemented with confidence.
kevlar reinforcing fiber with the outstanding chemical This paper provides a summary of a suite of documents
resistance, ductility and impact resistance of thermoplastics. demonstrating that RTP is an engineered solution for piping
Worldwide experience in the exploration and producing systems operating in a very corrosive oil field, in which the
industry confirms the integrity, durability and cost- corrosion inhibition of metallic pipes is unsustainable. For
effectiveness of RTP. This paper summarizes the work the RTP with PE100, namely, high density polyethylene
carried out by an industry consortium, of which Saudi (HDPE) liners and covers, the recommended practice is:
Aramco is a member, concerned with the development of an • Diameter range: 7.6 cm. to 25.4 cm. (3 in. to 10 in.);
industry-wide standard for the implementation of RTP. • Design temperature services: 150ºF (65ºC);.
• Working pressure range (water service, 20 years): 450 -
INTRODUCTION 1,500 psi;
The first Saudi Aramco experience of using RTP piping • Wellhead shut-in pressure range (water service, 1,000
involved the successful installation of 61 m, 15 cm. (200 ft, hrs): 1,500 - 1,850 psi and
6 in) diameter product from Tubes d’Aquitaine (now part • Pressure de-rating factor for crude oil service: 0.82.
of Wellstream) on September 10, 2000. In 2001, a 67 m Since joining the consortium, additional applications of
(220 ft.) carbon steel section of a trunkline was replaced SOLUFORCE RTP have taken place with significant further
with a UV-resistant, 10 cm. (4 in.) SOLUFORCE RTP from savings. In particular, the 2002 pipeline replacement
Pipelife. This installation is depicted in fig. 1. program at SAOO consisted of replacing three trunklines,
At about the same time in 2001, an Engineering Services two flowlines and one water-injection lateral. One such line
Technology program funded a technology item to facilitate is depicted in fig. 1.
Regression Analyses
S A F E T Y FA C T O R
The principles for the qualification of an RTP pipe body
A statistical analysis is used to determine the
and fitting combination are similar to those for fiberglass
recommended RTP safety factor, S. It is assumed that the
reinforced plastics pipe (FRP). The procedure for
extrapolated long-term pressure resistance is normally
establishing a design basis is shown schematically in fig. 2.
distributed with a mean of LTHP and variance, S. The
This example employs the same statistical procedure
probability of failure at the manufacturer’s nominal
used in many international standards for thermoplastic
pressure rating, PMNPR, is therefore given by the following
pipe, for instance in ISO TR9080. Constant pressure failure
equation:
tests with water, varying in duration up to over 10,000
hours, are used to acquire regression data (with 18 or more
(1)
data points), from which a statistical 97.5 percent lower
Where denotes the standard normal distribution. Re-
limit curve can be calculated and extrapolated to obtain the
arranging this gives
lower confidence limit (LCL) for the design life. A safety
factor is applied, depending on the application, so as to
(2)
obtain the manufacturer’s nominal pressure rating (MNPR).
Where is the inverse standard normal distribution.
Also, a design service factor relating to fluid type, cyclic
The LCL pressure, being the 97.5% statistical lower
operation, etc. is applied to obtain the maximum service
limit, is 1.96s lower than the PLTHP, so
pressure (MSP).
The qualification test temperature is the maximum design
(3)
temperature, which is 65ºC (150°F) for RTP with PE100
The coefficient of variation (COV), N , is related to the
liners and covers. The regression procedure requires that only
variance by:
one failure mode should be observed, namely, reinforcement
failure in the pipe wall, which must initiate at a point outside
(4)
the fitting. In addition to regression tests, it is necessary to
After some manipulation of equations (1)-(4), PMNPR/PMNPR
ensure that no other failure mode can occur between the end
is found to be:
of the qualification test period and the end of the design life,
as explained in the next section. An undesirable mode could
(5)
probably result from the time-dependent properties of the
Recently, it has been recommended that statistically
polymeric components of the RTP.
based safety factors for pipe systems should be augmented
by a further factor of 1.1, known as the ‘System Factor’.
E L E VAT E D T E M P E R AT U R E T E S T
This is to allow for the serial manner in which the stressed
An elevated temperature survival procedure is elements of a pipe are arranged. A simplified explanation
recommended, which relies on time-temperature for this is that while qualification tests are carried out on a
equivalence to shift the time scale of possible unwanted relatively short length of pipe, the ‘system’ comprises many
failure modes into a time domain where they would be such lengths in a series and failure in any length would
observed. One such undesirable process might arise from constitute failure of the system. The longer length of pipe
stress relaxation, resulting in loss of grip force on the would be statistically more likely to contain a significant
reinforcement within the fitting. Another might be liner flaw. Adding this factor, the overall safety factor for
strain rupture. The procedure involves subjecting spool calculating then becomes:
pieces with fittings to a constant pressure survival test, at a
Fig. 3. Damage tolerance of RTP: Plot of normalized burst pressure vs. Fig. 4. Damage tolerance of RTP at 20°C (68°F): Plot of burst pressure vs. time, as
dimensionless defect length a function of dimensionless defect length
is useful in determining what action to take in the event of • Composite laminates: Composite laminate wrapped
damage to an RTP. The ‘stress rupture’ results in fig. 4 were around pipe and cured in place (using resin infusion,
obtained using the procedure in which the pipe is subjected laminating, UV cure or water-cured urethane,
to a slowly increasing pressure up to burst. Miner’s Law is depending on system).
used to determine the parameters of the stress rupture law.
At least two sets of measurements at different rates of E X P E R I M E N TA L P R O G R A M
pressure increase were required for each damage level, the
A program of experimental work was conducted to
longest tests giving failure times of the order of 300 hours.
investigate aspects of the behavior of RTP components
relevant to the qualification issues. Part of the study
A P P L I C A B L E R E PA I R O P T I O N S
involved stress relaxation of the liner material at a range of
The issue of reparability was considered and there appear strains up to 14 percent. In the majority of situations, the
to be a number of viable methods of repairing damage of proportion of the pressure load carried by the liner is small,
the level corresponding to figs. 3 and 4. Effective techniques but not negligible, compared to that borne by the
all involve the placement of a metallic or composite sleeve reinforcement. The results indicate that, despite continuing
around the pipe, overlapping the damaged area, to support stress relaxation, the liner can carry a significant pressure
the pipe wall. Saudi Aramco Engineering Report (SAER) load, even at quite long times. PE100 bears significantly
5850, Design Guidelines for Composite Repair, contains greater load under stress relaxation conditions than PE80.
extensive information on composite repair methodologies The situation changes when the liner undergoes oil
(Olabisi, O., SAER 5850). absorption. The effects of synthetic (simulated) crude are
The applicable repair options are: two-fold. First, there is a significant volumetric swelling,
• Clock spring: Preformed spiral of unidirectional which increases rapidly with increasing temperatures. The
composite wrapped around pipe and bonded in place. volume changes in PE100 and PE80 at 40°C (104°F) are 11
• Epoxy shell: Half-shells are welded around pipe, and percent and 14 percent, respectively. Swelling tends to
the annulus is then filled with epoxy grout. There is a counteract the expansion strain when the RTP is under
non-welded version. pressure. Second, there is a considerable change in
• Clamp: Bolted mechanical clamp. relaxation. At the maximum strain levels normally
CONCLUSIONS
N O M E N C L AT U R E
REFERENCES