Simplified Synchronous Machine Model

E'
'
jIxd'
I jx d
+
Vt δ Vt
E '∠δ
_ Reference
I
E ' → transient internal voltage
δ → machine angle relative to synchronously rotating reference

Stability Criterion

Case A: Machine connected to an infinite bus

jxd' I jxl
E ∠δ '
V∠θ '
Total reactance, X = x d' + x l and
E 'V
Pe = sin θ
X
where θ = δ − θ
'

• •• •• ••
For infinite bus, H = ∞ and θ ' = ωs , θ ' = 0. Then θ = δ .
Assuming D = 0, machine dynamics will be governed by
•• ωs  E 'V 
θ= P
 m − sin θ 
2H  X 
Pe vs θ can be plotted as shown
Pe

A B Pm

θ1 θ2 θ

A and B are equilibrium points. Let us consider slight variations about equilibrium points.
Point A: If θ > θ1 or θ < θ1, machine will slow down or speed up to restore θ. Point A is a stable equilibrium
point.
Point B: If θ > θ2 then Pm > Pe and machine will speed up and
9 Speed will increase dangerously
9 Synchronous operation cannot be maintained
9 Machine loses synchronism or pulls out of step
Point B is an unstable equilibrium point.

1
Case B: Machine connected to another machine

jxd' 1 jxl jxd' 2

E1' ∠δ 1 E2' ∠δ 2
•• •• ••
Define θ = δ 1 − δ 2 then θ = δ 1 − δ 2 . It can be shown
•• ωs
δ1 = [Pm1 − Pe1 ]
2 H1
•• ωs
δ2 = [Pm 2 − Pe 2 ]
2H 2
For a 2 machine system,
Pe1 = -Pe2 = Pe (say)
Pm1 = -Pm2 = Pm (say)
Define δ 12 = δ1 − δ 2 , then
•• ωs
δ12 = [Pm − Pe ]
2 H eq
where
1 1 1
= +
H eq H1 H 2
Here, stability is governed by how one machine pulls apart (δ1- δ2) from the other.

Case C: Multi-machine system

In this case,
2Hi ••
δ i = Pmi − Pei , i = 1,2,..., n
ωs
each δi is measured w.r.t. synchronous reference. To determine stability we need a reference to observe the
pulling apart of the machines. Commonly used references
1. Make the angle of the largest machine in the system the reference angle and plot
(δi- δlargest machine)
2. Define a Center Of Angle (COA)
1
COA = ∑ δ i (t )
number of machines i
and plot δi(t) vs COA for all machines

Power-Angle Equation
For a given network configuration with constant voltage magnitudes of the transient internal voltage of two
machines (or a machine and an infinite bus) E1 and
'
E 2' , and for negligible armature resistance, the power-
angle equation of the network is defined as
Pe = Pmax sin δ
where

2
 E1' E2'
Pmax = = E1' E2' Y12
X 12
and X12 is the transfer reactance between E1' and E2' , Y12 is the transfer admittance. Note that E1' , E2' , Y12,
and X12 are all magnitude values.
It can be observed from the power-angle equation and the power-angle curve that the steady state stability
limit for synchronous machine connected to an infinite bus is when δ ≤ 90˚ or dP/dδ > 0.
The possible swing curves for the stability process are shown below.

Example 1

Consider the one-line diagram and the corresponding reactance diagram of the two-machine system shown
below.

Let X sG = X s M = 0.4 pu, X T1 = X T2 = 0.1 pu, and X l =1.2 pu

a) Analyze whether the system is stable enough in the steady state to deliver 1.2 pu power at the
motor terminals with rated terminal voltage and 1.0 pf
b) Repeat (a) for a second line of the same size in parallel with the original.
c) What is the maximum power that can be delivered in part (b).

Solution:

For VM = 1.0∠ 0 pu, I = 1.2∠ 0 D pu

D
a)
E M = VM − jIX sM = 1 − j 0.48 = 1.109∠ − 25.6 D pu
EG = VM + jI ( X T2 + X l + X T1 + X sG ) = 1 + j 2.16 = 2.38∠65.2D pu
δ GM = δ G − δ M = 90.8D
The system is unstable

b) In this case, X l =0.6 pu

EM = 1.109∠ − 25.6D pu
EG = VM + jI ( X T2 + X l + X T1 + X sG ) = 1 + j1.44 = 1.753∠55.2D pu
δ GM = δ G − δ M = 80.8D
The system is stable

3
c) The transfer reactance between EG and EM is
X = X sM + X T2 + X l + X T1 + X sG = 1.6 pu
1.109 × 1.753
Pmax = = 1.215
1 .6

Example 2

In the system shown, the machine is delivering power of 1.0 pu, and both the terminal voltage and the
infinite-bus voltage are 1.0 pu. Assume a three-phase to ground fault at point P. The fault is cleared by
opening the circuit breakers at each end of the faulted line. Determine the power-angle equation for the
following cases:
a) Pre-fault b) During fault c) After fault

Solution:
Choose the infinite bus voltage as the reference.
a) Pre-fault power-angle equation

The transfer reactance between the Vt and the infinite bus is 0.1 + 0.4/2 = 0.3 pu. Assume α is the angle of
Vt. Hence,
VtV∞ 1× 1
Pe = sin α = sin α = 1
X 0 .3
This gives α = sin-1 0.3 = 17.458˚.
Therefore, Vt = 1.0∠17.458D = 0.954 + j 0.300 pu
Vt − V∞ 1.0∠17.458D − 1.0∠0D
I= = = 1.0 + j 0.1535 = 1.012∠8.729D pu
jX j 0.3
E ' = Vt + jIxd' = 1.0∠17.458D + j 0.3 × (1.0 + j 0.1535) = 1.05∠28.44D pu
The total reactance = 0.2 + 0.1 + 0.4/2 = 0.5 pu
Hence,
1.05 × 1
Pe = sin δ = 2.10 sin δ pu
0.5
where δ is the machine rotor angle with respect to the infinite bus.
Note that under steady state condition, the rotor angle δ of the machine is equal to 28.44˚, in which Pe = Pm
= 1.0 pu.

b) During-fault power-angle equation

4
The values shown are admittances in per unit.
The effect of the fault is clearly shown by redrawing the reactance diagram as

Under the assumption of constant flux linkages in the machine, the transient internal voltage of the machine
remains at E = 1.05∠28.44 pu
' D

To find the transfer admittance between E' and the infinite bus voltage, establish the admittance matrix as
− 3.333 0 3.333 
Ybus 
= j 0 − 7.5 2.5 
 3.333 2.5 − 10.833
Since bus 3 has no external source connection, it may be removed by the node elimination method. The
reduced admittance matrix is

Y11 Y12  − 2.308 0.769 

Y Y  = j 
 21 22   0.769 − 6.923

Hence, the desired power-angle equation, is

Pe = E 'V∞Y12 sin δ = 1.05 × 1 × 0.769 sin δ = 0.808 sin δ pu

c) After-fault power-angle equation

The total transfer reactance = 0.7 pu

Hence,
1.05 × 1
Pe = sin δ = 1.5 sin δ pu
0 .7
The power-angle curves of all cases are shown below.

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Comments

1. Pm is constant in all cases

2. Pm intersects the steady state case (a) at 28.44˚, i.e. at this operating point Pa = 0
3. Pa during-fault & after-fault depends upon the rotor angle at that time.
4. It can also be seen from the power-angle curves that Pm = Pe at 151.56˚. However, this operating
point is not acceptable because it has a negative slope (unstable equilibrium point).
5. The swing equations in all cases can be written as follows.
•• ωs
(a) Pre-fault δ= [1.0 − 2.100 sin δ ]
2H
••
ωs
(b) During-fault δ= [1.0 − 0.808 sin δ ]
2H
••
ωs
(c) After-fault δ= [1.0 − 1.500 sin δ ]
2H
Solution of the swing Equation

In steady-state stability studies with small disturbances, the swing equation may be linearized with little loss
of accuracy. The stability can be checked through the characteristic equation of the linearized system.

In transient stability studies, the swing equations are highly nonlinear and can only be solved by
(a) Graphical solution (equal area criterion) for one- or two-machine systems
(b) Numerical integration methods such as Euler’s, trapezoidal, Runge-Kutta, …etc.