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Space
The Earth has a gravitational field that exerts a force on objects both on it and around it

Earth’s Gravitational Field

- Gravity is a force of attraction that exists between any two masses, only becoming
noticeable when the masses involved become very large.
- The force of attraction that exists between our own bodies and the Earth is called
weight; 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
- For a gravitational field, the field vector (that which describes its strength and direction)
𝐹(𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
is defined as 𝑔 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) = (𝑘𝑔)𝑖𝑛
. This is also shown in
𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝐹
Newton’s Second Law; 𝑎 = 𝑚
- The Law of Universal Gravitation says that the magnitude of the force of attraction
between the Earth and an object on the Earth’s surface is given by
𝑀𝐸 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ)∗𝑀𝑜 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 (𝑘𝑔))
𝐹= 𝐺
𝑟𝐸 2 (𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ)

Variations in the value of ‘g’

- Minor variations in the value of g around the Earth’s surface occur because
o Lithosphere shows variations in thickness and structure due to factors such
as tectonic plate boundaries and dense mineral deposits.
o The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but flattened at the poles, meaning g is
greater at the poles since they are closer to the centre of the Earth
o The spin of the Earth creates a centrifuge effect that reduces the value of g.
This is greatest at the Equator.
o Variation in altitude, decreasing with height.
𝑚
o Variation with planetary body; found with 𝑔 = 𝐺 𝑟 2𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡

Weight
- Weight is defined as the force on a mass due to the gravitational field of a large celestial
body
𝑚 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑘𝑔)
- 𝑊(𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑁) = 2
𝑔 (𝑎𝑐𝑐.𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚/𝑠 )

Gravitational Potential Energy

- Gravitational potential energy is the energy of a mass due to its position within a
gravitational field.
- The gravitational potential energy of an object at some point within a gravitational field
is equivalent to the work done in moving the object from an infinite distance to that
point.
𝑚1 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡)∗ 𝑚2 (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡)
- 𝐸𝑝 = −𝐺 𝑟 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑚)

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Many factors have to be taken into account to achieve a successful rocket launch, maintain a
stable orbit and return to Earth

Projectile Motion
- A projectile is any object that is thrown, dropped or otherwise launched into the air,
then left to complete their unpowered flight.
- The projectile is subject to one force – gravity –
and one acceleration – acceleration due to Acceleration equations
gravity
𝛥𝑣 𝑣(𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙) − 𝑢(𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙)
- Galileo first realised all objects are accelerated 𝑎= =
towards the Earth at the same rate. 𝛥𝑡 𝑡 (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑠)
- He postulated that all masses fall at the same
rate 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
- Air resistance prevented most of his
experiments from working accurately 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑟(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)
- Astronauts proved that it worked on the Moon
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as well 𝑟 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
- He overcame this by rolling balls down highly 2
polished inclines, reducing the effective
acceleration and making it easier to measure
- The trajectory of a projectile is the path that it follows during its flight which, without air
resistance, is the shape of a parabola.
- Galileo observed that the motion of a projectile can be regarded as two separate and
independent motions superimposed on each other, a vertical (experiences acceleration
due to gravity) and horizontal motion (experiences no acceleration). Because the two
motions are perpendicular, and therefore independent, they can be analysed separately.

The Vertical and Horizontal Motion

- Vertical motion
o The time taken to fall
from its peak height
to the ground exactly
equals the time taken
to rise to the peak
height. There is no
vertical motion at its peak.
o Equations become; 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡, 𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑢𝑦 2 + 2𝑎𝑦 𝛥𝑦 and
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𝛥𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
- Horizontal motion
o No acceleration is experienced, and the object will travel with a uniform
unchanging velocity.
o Equations become; 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 , 𝑣𝑥 2 = 𝑢𝑥 2 and 𝛥𝑥 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡
o Inevitably any object travelling with a velocity will be stopped and end the
motion. The point at which the object is stopped defines the maximum
horizontal displacement, or, range. The equation for this is 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝛥𝑥 = ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑦 (𝑢𝑥 ) ∗ 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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o If the projectile is sent out at an angle to the

horizontal, use trig to determine 𝑢𝑦 and 𝑢𝑥

Escape Velocity
- Escape velocity is the initial velocity required by a projectile to rise vertically and just
escape the gravitational field of a planet. This is calculated with the formula;
2𝐺𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝐸𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = √
𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
- Isaac Newton did a thought experiment & decided that if you shot a gun around the
Earth’s orbit, the bullet would orbit the Earth rather than escape. This led to the
conclusion for any given altitude, there is a specific velocity required for any object to
achieve a stable circular orbit.
- If escape velocity is exceeded slightly, it will go in a circular orbit, but if its extended
further it will follow a parabolic path away from the Earth

Rockets
- Rockets receive a force called thrust from their engine, becoming more conventional
projectiles only after their engines are exhausted.
- Rockets are unique as it carries both a fuel and oxygen supply, as there is no oxygen in
space.
- Rockets usually combust hydrogen in oxygen to produce thrust. These gases are
liquefied for storage to reduce the storage volume.
- In the engine, which is situated at the end of a rocket, the two gases mix and then burn.
The combustion of these gases produces enormous amounts of energy and pushes the
gases at the end of the rocket backwards or downwards with a very high velocity. As
these gases are pushed backwards, the rocket also receives an equal but opposite force,
in accordance with Newton’s third law
- Formulae:
o – 𝛥𝑝(𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚)𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝛥𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
o – 𝛥𝑚𝑣𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝛥𝑚𝑣𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
o – 𝐹𝑡 (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒)𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐹𝑡 (𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒)𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡
o – 𝐹𝑔𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡

Thrust and Acceleration

∑𝐹 (𝑇−𝑚𝑔)
- Calculate acceleration as 𝑎 = 𝑚 = 𝑚
- The rocket is subject to the following forces
o Weight force directed downwards
o Thrust directed upwards
o Reaction force of the ground on the rocket directed upward
o Air resistance directed downward against the motion of the rocket once it
has left the ground. Can mostly be ignored in early lift off but becomes
important once the rocket reaches high speeds.
- Rocket’s acceleration is not constant, but increases gradually, for three reasons

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o As the rocket ascends, fuel is consumed, which results in a decrease in mass

of the rocket. As F = ma, if the mass m decreases, and the thrust F is
unchanged, then a, the acceleration, gradually increases.
o The direction of the velocity changes from being vertical to horizontal as the
rocket goes into orbit—thus its acceleration is no longer reduced by g.
o As the rocket ascends, it moves further and further away from the planet,
resulting in a decrease in the force of gravity.

Multi-stage rockets (variations in acceleration and g forces)

- When the fuel in the first stage of a single-stage rocket is used up, it then becomes a
projectile.
- In a multi-stage rocket, when the fuel in the first stage is used up, this stage is discarded,
and the engine of the second stage is turned on.
- The purpose of the multiple stages is to allow rockets to avoid carrying empty fuel tanks,
which act as unnecessary mass and decrease the efficiency of the launching process.

g Forces
- The term ‘g force’ is used to express a person’s apparent weight as a multiple of his/her
normal true weight.
- A positive g force feels like there is more weight than normal and is directed upwards
whereas a negative g force is experienced as having less weight than normal, directed
downwards.
- In the case of enormous positive g force, blood drains away from the brain, causing
black out.
- In the case of enormous negative g force, blood rushes to the brain, causing ‘red-out’
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- 𝑔 force = 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
- An astronaut’s body exerts a downward weight force on the floor (mg) and the floor
meets with an upwards reaction force (ma)
- Therefore, the astronaut feels
𝑚(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑢𝑡) ∗ 𝑔(𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑚/𝑠2 )+𝑎𝑚 𝑔+𝑎
𝑔 force = 9.8𝑚
= 9.8

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Effect of Earth’s motion on a launch

- The revolution and rotation of the Earth can be used to provide a launched rocket with
an additional boost, allowing it to save fuel in achieving its target velocity. 

- The rocket is launched towards the East at a point close to the Equator (where Earth’s
linear orbital speed is greatest) to gain additional velocity at launch without fuel, making
it practical and economic.

Uniform Circular Motion

- Uniform circular motion is circular motion with a uniform orbital speed where the
magnitude of the force is constant and the direction it is acting is always towards the
centre of the orbit.
- The magnitude of the velocity of an orbiting body is constant, but the direction is
changing.
- Centripetal force, the force required to maintain circular motion, can be determined
𝑚𝑣 2
using the following; 𝐹𝐶 = 𝑟
𝑣2
- Centripetal acceleration can be calculated as 𝑎𝐶 = 𝑟 , and is directed toward the centre
of the circle.
- Satellites orbiting the Earth are in a state of free fall. As a satellite orbits the Earth, it is
pulled downwards by the Earth’s gravitational field, kept from falling by its linear orbital
velocity. The gravitational attraction between the Earth and the spacecraft that acts to
maintain the circular motion that is the orbit.

Kepler’s Third Law

- Orbital velocity is the instantaneous direction and speed of
2𝜋𝑟
an object in circular motion along its path. 𝑣 = 𝑇
𝐺𝑀
- Make 𝐹𝐶 = 𝐹𝐺 and 𝑣 = √ 𝑟
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
- Let T = period of orbit, then 𝑣 = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇
𝑟3 𝐺𝑀
- Substitute 𝑣 = 𝑣 2 , then 𝑇 2 = 4𝜋2𝑟
- This relation can be used to compare any two bodies orbiting
the same object

Low Earth and Geo-Stationary Orbit Satellites

Geostationary Satellites Low Earth Orbit Satellites
Key Differences - Stays in one position above - Moves around anywhere
the Equator above the Earth
- Orbit with the Earth’s rotation - Orbits several times a day,
(same period) smaller period than Earth
- Situated at a high altitude - Lower orbital altitude about
approx. 35900km 250-1000km
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- Only sees 3 of the Earth’s - Views entirety of Earth’s
surface surface over several orbits

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Advantages - Easy to track as it doesn’t - Geographical mappings are

move
- Doesn’t experience orbital
decay
Disadvantages - Delay in information
transmission
- Limited view of Earth, and
therefore cannot give
coverage of entire surface
- High altitude means more fuel
is needed, therefore more
expensive and harder
- Suffers damage from
incoming energetic cosmic
rays due to their high altitude
Main uses - Information relay across globe
- Communication satellites
- Weather monitoring
possible as it scans different
areas of Earth repetitively
- Low altitudes enable a closer
view of the surface
- Low altitudes allow rapid
information transmission with
little delay
- Low altitudes mean launching
is easier and cheaper as less
fuel is needed
- Hard to track due to rapid
movement
- Atmospheric drag is significant
and orbital decay is certain
- Orbital paths must be carefully
controlled to avoid collisions
- Severely affected by
fluctuation in the Earth’s van
Allen radiation belts
- Geotopographic studies
- Remote sensing
- Geo-scanning and geo-
mapping
- Studying weather patterns

Orbital Decay
- A low Earth orbit satellite is usually placed within the upper limits of the Earth’s
atmosphere. Although the density of the atmosphere is extremely low at such altitudes,
friction will still be generated as the LEO’s collide with air particles, acting as a resistive
force on the moving satellite, slowing down the orbital velocity and therefore causing
the satellite to drop to a lower orbit.

Re-Entry
- The ship must enter the atmosphere at the optimum re-entry angle, which lies between
5.2° and 7.2°.
o If this is exceeded the friction between the ship and the atmosphere will be too
large and causing it to decelerate too rapidly, meaning the g force is fatal, and
the ship will likely melt in the extreme heat.
o If it is less than 5.2°, the spacecraft will bounce off the atmosphere, potentially
leaving them without enough fuel reserve.
- Enormous heat is produced due to friction, which is combated by external silicon tiles
for insulation, internal aluminium plates to reflect excessive heat and air-con to regulate
heat.

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- Ionisation blackout refers to a loss in radio communication for between 30 seconds to

several minutes caused by the intense heat which produces a plasma layer that prevents
radio waves from being transmitted or received.
- The impact of g force must be considered on the astronauts; such as
o Astronaut should lie down at take-off to prevent blackout
o Sitting ‘eyeballs-in’ opposite to g-force in re-entry
o Supportive suits and fibreglass contoured chairs aid the process.

Richard H. Goddard
- designed and built a liquid - fuelled rocket, including the technical aspects.
- proved that rockets would work in a vacuum
- used a gyroscope for navigation
- was the first to separate the payload from the rocket and then returned it to Earth.

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The Solar System is held together by gravity

Gravitational Fields
- A gravitational field provides a force on objects within it that drags objects to the centre
of the field. The strength of the field is related to the mass of the object that produces it,
with larger masses resulting in stronger fields.
- The force between these masses is inversely proportional

Law of Universal Gravitation

- Isaac Newton had defined quantitatively the size of the gravitational force in his law of
universal gravitation, which states the size of the attraction force between two objects is
proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
𝑚 𝑚
their distance of separation, i.e. 𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑑2 (𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1𝑡ℎ𝑒2 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠)
- In order to launch a satellite, its orbital velocity required must be known. The centripetal
force acting on a body in orbit must be equal to the force that gravity exerts in order to
𝐺𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
keep the body in orbit. Meaning, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑔 , meaning and such, 𝑣 = √ 𝑟
- Since Newton’s Law is necessary to quantify 𝐹𝑔 , it is therefore vital to understanding the
motion of satellites. Further, Kepler’s Law can be derived from it, making it integral.

Factors affecting the value of g

- Lithosphere shows variations in thickness and structure due to factors such as tectonic
plate boundaries and dense mineral deposits.
- The Earth is not a perfect sphere, but flattened at the poles, meaning g is greater at the
poles since they are closer to the centre of the Earth
- The spin of the Earth creates a centrifuge effect that reduces the value of g. This is
greatest at the Equator.
- Variation in altitude, decreasing with height.
𝑚
- Variation with planetary body; found with 𝑔 = 𝐺 𝑟 2𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑡

The Slingshot Effect

- The principle of the slingshot effect is to use

a planet’s gravitational field and orbital
speed to help a space probe gain extra speed
by flying past the planet
- To gain velocity, a spacecraft deliberately
passes close to a large mass, such as a planet,
so that the mass’s gravity pulls the spacecraft
in toward it. This causes the spacecraft to
accelerate, and it heads around the planet
and departs in a different direction using
very little fuel. The maximum speed the probe can gain will be twice the speed of the
planet around the Sun.

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- To change trajectory, the probe must fly away from the

sun. It’s trajectory outwards is gradually curved into an
orbital path by the sun’s gravity, using no fuel.
- Momentum must be conserved throughout this
process the total initial (angular) momentum of the
probe and planet must equal the total final
momentum. The speed lost by the planet will be
insignificant compared to the speed gained by the
probe

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Current and emerging understanding about time and space has been dependent upon earlier
models of the transmission of light
The Aether Model
- Aether was once proposed to be an undetectable (by touch, smell or vision), extremely
thin, elastic material that surrounded all matter and at the same time was permeable to
all matter on Earth, as a response to the lack of knowledge of electromagnetic waves
not needing a medium to propagate.
- The aether was thought to be the medium through which light propagates, based on the
assumption that all types of waves required a medium to propagate.
- The aether was also thought to be the absolute frame of reference to which all motion
was compared, based on the belief that there must be an absolute frame of reference.
- Other properties included;
o Thin and transparent
o Very high elasticity to support and propagate light waves
o Permeated all matter yet was completely permeable
o High density

Michelson-Morley Experiment
- The Michelson Morley experiment
attempted to measure the relative
velocity of the Earth through the
aether.
- Analogy: The MM experiment can be
likened to a stationary raft in a river.
The raft represents the Earth, and
the moving water represents the
“aether wind”. It is intuitively obvious
(and can be shown mathematically)
that a swimmer who swims parallel
to the movement of the river will
take a different amount of time than
one who swims perpendicular to the
flow of water. This analogy is the
essence of the MM experiment.
- A beam of light was split and sent
into two directions at 90 degrees to
each other horizontally by a half-silvered mirror. They were then reflected back and
combined, such that both rays had travelled the same distance.
- The device was floated on liquid mercury, which enabled smooth rotation of the entire
experiment. As the device was rotated, the aether wind was expected to cause the light
to travel at different speeds in each direction, thus causing the interference pattern to
change.
- If the aether wind exists, so that one light ray is indeed faster than the other, then when
the apparatus is rotated, so that the rays are interposed, the interference pattern should
be seen to shift. However, no such shift was observed, and they got a ‘null result’
- They gave three reasons for the null result to conclude that;
o The equipment wasn’t accurate

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o The aether wind travelled relative to (was dragged by) the Earth, meaning there
was no difference
o The equipment needed to rotate 90° clockwise and anti-clockwise (They redid it,
but continued to fail)
- Reasons for their refusal to denounce the aether model was fear of religious
recompense & because they had received a Nobel Prize

Michelson-Morley’s Role in Determining Competing Theories

- In science, theories are constantly tested to endure that their predictions still hold true
and that they are still valid. However, if a theory fails to explain an observation then the
theory has to be altered or removed. The aether theory of light was extremely popular
prior to the Michelson-Morley experiment (and even after it), but the null results of the
MM experiment meant that the theory had to be altered. This did happen on a number
of occasions, each modification to the theory presenting new predictions that could be
tested. However, all these predictions either failed in experiment or could not be
adequately explained. Almost twenty years after the MM experiment, Einstein proposed
his Special Theory of Relativity, which explained the null result of the MM experiment by
suggesting that there was no aether.
- The null results of the MM experiment highlight the issues in science about competing
theories, and scientists must either choose to continue a theory with no experimental
evidence or a new theory which does.

Inertial and Non-Inertial Frames of Reference

- Inertial frames of reference
o either moving at a constant velocity or at rest
o the two are indistinguishable, according to the Law of Mechanics, which states
that within an inertial frame of reference you cannot perform any mechanical
experiment or observation that would reveal to you whether you were moving
with uniform velocity or standing still.
o The laws of motion are always valid
- A non-inertial frame of reference
o A frame of reference which is undergoing acceleration or deceleration
o Laws of motion do not hold, and fictitious forces can be observed

Principle of Relativity
- The principle of relativity started with Galileo, stating that it is impossible to perform an
experiment within an inertial frame of reference that will tell you whether you are
moving with constant velocity or at rest. That is, the laws of physics are the same for all
inertial frames of reference. Frames of reference can only be compared relative to each
other.
- The principle can be summarised in two notions;
1. The velocity of light has a constant value of c, regardless of the relative motion
of the source and observer. Nothing else in the world is constant except c.
2. All inertial frames of reference are equal and no inertial frame of reference is
truer than others.
- This principle only applies to inertial frames of reference

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Einstein’s Thought Experiment (Mirror & Train)

- One of Einstein’s famous thought experiments had an observer sitting inside a train that
was moving at the speed of light relative to the outside. The person holds up a mirror,
and the question is asked: does he see his reflection in the mirror? The classical aether
model predicted that he would not since he was moving at c relative to the aether and
so the light waves would not move relative to him. However, this view violates the
principle of relativity, since the observer could then tell that he was moving- at velocity
c. Thus, it must be assumed that the observer can see his reflection, but this also
presents difficulties, as a stationary observer would view the light waves as moving at
2c, an impossibility. To overcome this paradox, Einstein stated that the speed of light
was a constant and that distance and time become relative- that is, they are viewed
differently for the two observers.
- Einstein had to make use of his thought experiments because technology at the time
was inadequate for testing his hypotheses. Thought experiments are still used in
advanced fields of theoretical physics, and strict objectivity must be followed otherwise
they will be incompatible with reality, making them invalid.

Constancy of the Speed of Light & Impact on Space/Time Relativity

- Einstein proposed that the speed of light is a constant, independent of the speed or
source of the observer. Anyone measuring the speed of light will always measure it to be
c. If this is true, then observers in different inertial frames will perceive time and space
differently, since they all see light moving at velocity c. This then leads to the effects of
time dilation, length contraction and mass dilation. Therefore, the speed of light can
never be exceeded, and this is extremely significant to predicting how objects behave at
relativistic velocities.
- Since speed, length and time is given by the equation:
𝑙
𝑠=
𝑡
- If c is given to be constant, then the equation relates time in terms of length (and vice-
versa). Length and time become relative values if the speed of light is taken to be
constant.

Definition of a Metre
- Originally, the metre was defined as one-millionth the distance between the equator
and the North Pole passing through Paris (which was actually measured incorrectly). The
distance was marked on a platinum-iridium bar, and copies were sent across the world.
1
- The modern definition for a metre is the distance that light travels in 299 792 458 of a
second. This measurement makes use of the constancy of c as well as the fact that it is
easy (relatively) to reproduce. Another advantage is that the platinum-iridium bar
suffers from heat expansion and thus is not constant.

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Consequences of Special Relativity: the relativity of simultaneity

- Two events that are simultaneous to one observer may
not necessarily appear simultaneous to another
observer who is in a frame that is moving at a
relativistic speed. This is known as relative
simultaneity.
- This concept of ‘relative simultaneity’ demonstrates
that even absolutes are now relative and there is no
‘better’ inertial frame of reference in Einstein’s world
of special relativity.
- (Thought Experiment) The doors at either end of the
carriage are light-operated. At an instant in time when
the operator happens to be alongside an observer on
the embankment (outside the moving train), the operator switches on the lamp which,
in turn, opens the doors. The operator will see both lights turn on simultaneously, but a
stationary observer will see the back door open before the first.

Consequences of Special Relativity: the equivalence between mass and energy

- If you speed up an object, it becomes heavier. The extra mass comes from the energy
needed to speed up the ball.
- When an object is slowed down, the mass becomes energy.
𝐸 (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) = 𝑚𝑐 2
- This result means that mass dilation is a result of the energy put into the system to make
it faster, it does not just happen as a result of speed.

Consequences of Special Relativity: Time Dilation

- As an object approaches the speed of light, its time will slow down relative to the time
of a stationary observer. Mathematically:

𝑡𝑜
𝑡𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

Consequences of Special Relativity: Length Contraction

- As an object approaches the speed of light, its length contracts relative to a stationary
observer. The contraction only happens parallel to the direction of motion (e.g. a
moving train would only have its length contracted- the height would stay the same).
Mathematically:

𝑣2
𝑙𝑣 = 𝑙𝑜 √1 −
𝑐2

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Consequences of Special Relativity: Mass Dilation

- As an object approaches the speed of light, more of the added energy becomes
converted to mass. Mathematically:

𝑚𝑜
𝑚𝑣 =
2
√1 − 𝑣2
𝑐

Implications of mass increase, time dilation and length contraction for Space Travel
- Space travel at our current level of technology is impossible because of various reasons,
including the vast distances involved and the limit of velocities to less than c. However,
assuming relativistic speeds could be achieved, time dilation and length contraction
have important consequences.
- As the spacecraft travels towards the distant star at a velocity near c, the length of travel
would appear to contract, so they would reach their destination quicker (perhaps in
seven years rather than eight). However, from the perspective of people on Earth, the
spacecraft’s time is dilated, meaning that the “normal” time of eight years passes on
Earth when the crew reach their destination.
- Overall, more time has passed for the people on Earth than the crew of the spacecraft,
but this is accounted for because the crew view space as being contracted, making their
travel distance shorter.
- Example: Muons
o Muons exist on Earth’s surface is because their time is dilated relative to
observers on Earth, so their lives appear longer.
o In the perspective of the muon, the atmosphere of Earth is significantly
contracted, meaning there is less of it to move through.

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