Radar Remote Sensing PDF

Educational Resources for Radar Remote Sensing
Table of Contents
Introduction Applications
Introductory Comments Land Applications
Technical Notes Agriculture
Forestry
Curriculum Outlines Geology
Course 1 Hydrology
Course 2 Land Use and Land Cover
Mapping
Basic Oceans
Introduction to RADAR Remote Sensing Sea Ice
Notes SAR Interferometry
RADARSAT-1
Notes Bibliography
RADARSAT-2
RADAR Systems
Notes
Glossary
Intermediate
SAR Image Formation Acronyms
SAR Image Characteristics
Data Products Acknowledgements
Image Quality and Calibration
Radiometric Enhancement
Geometric Characteristics
Classification & Information Extraction (Image Exploitation)
Advanced
Radar Systems and Digital Signal Processing
Notes
Polarimetry
Notes
Interferometry
Notes
Introduction Page 1 of 1
Introduction
Welcome to the GlobeSAR-2 Radar Remote Sensing Training package, a comprehensive and unique
set of radar remote sensing training materials. Our goal is to make these materials available for
use by universities and for general educational purposes around the world. To reach a wider
audience, the material has been produced in four languages; English, French, Spanish, and
Portuguese.
This CD-ROM was produced as part of GlobeSAR-2 Program to support the development of radar
training capabilities in universities and agencies in South and Central America. It incorporates
training slides developed by scientists at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing for international
technical co-operation programs, including GlobeSAR and ProRadar. Significant contributions have
also been made by radar specialists from different disciplines and by scientists and user agencies in
many countries, particularly in South and Central America.
The slides have been divided into four main sections: basic, intermediate, advanced, and
applications. Each section includes theory and image examples, with associated explanations.
The intent of this package is to provide a ‘toolkit’ of instructional materials that may be customized
to suit the needs of each instructor and audience. It is expected that users will pick-and-choose
the material most appropriate to the background and technical level of the audience. The material
was developed primarily for audiences interested in the geoscience applications of radar imagery,
but the ‘Advanced Radar Techniques’ section will be of relevance to the engineering and signal
processing disciplines.
Permission for Use
Educators are encouraged to use the material for their own teaching needs, but it must be clearly
indicated that the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing is the originator of this material and
appropriate credit must to given to the authors at all times. These documents may be reproduced
in whole, for training and educational purposes, but not for commercial exploitation. CCRS reserves
the right of distribution of this material. Requests for further copies may be directed to the Canada
Centre for Remote Sensing GlobeSAR Program.
GlobeSAR Program
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing
Natural Resources Canada
588 Booth Street
Ottawa, Ontario
K1A 0Y7
CANADA
E-mail: globesar@ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca
WWW: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/rd/programs/globsar/gsarmain_e.html
Technical Notes Page 1 of 1
Technical Notes
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Curriculum Outlines - Course 1 Page 1 of 3
RADAR Remote Sensing Course Curriculum Outline
The following is meant as an outline for a two-course curriculum aimed at senior undergraduates,
graduate students, and application scientists. It is assumed that the participant has had a
preliminary course on remote sensing, including an introduction to radar, or an equivalent
exposure to basic concepts through work experience. The courses cover the physics, engineering,
and target interaction concepts needed to work with radar data at an advanced level for geoscience
applications. These course outlines can be modified to either expand or contract the material in
order to deliver short courses (i.e. days to weeks in duration) or full length university courses (i.e.
approximately 12 weeks). Much of the material is covered in the GlobeSAR Level 1 and 2
workshops with this outline expanding on some theoretical concepts and adding some material in
order to expand the curriculum for a university level course.
Course 1 - RADAR Physics and Engineering
1.1) Wave Fundamentals
z Phase, Amplitude and Wavelength

{ electric and magnetic fields
{ electromagnetic wave equation
z Polarization and Radar Conventions
z Microwave spectrum and band assignments
z Propagation of EM Radiation
{ in free space
{ in isotropic dielectrics
lossless media
lossy media (skin depth, absorption, & extinction)
{ in anisotropic dielectrics
reciprocal media
optically active media (ionospheric propagation)
superposition theorems and implications
wave interference
z Ensemble Concepts
{ degree of polarization
{ coherence, partial coherence, incoherent radiation
z Antenna Concepts
{ physical principles
{ antenna gain
{ near and far fields
{ antenna efficiency
{ antenna polarization
{ antenna pattern (main lobe, sidelobes, polarization dependence, effects of aperture
weighting, arrays and phase steering)
{ polarization isolation
1.2) Scattering
z Dielectric Constant
{ polarized vs unpolarized materials
{ in the microwave regime (resonances, dielectric constant of water, dielectric constant
of minerals)
{ displacement vector, displacement currents
z Boundary Conditions at a Dielectric Interface
z Reflection,Transmission, Refraction at a Boundary
{ Fresnel reflection coefficients
{ refraction in graded dielectric materials
{ reflections and transmission in layered media
z Wave Interactions with Electrically Small Objects
{ Rayleigh scattering
{ Mie scattering
{ edge diffraction
{ geometric scattering limits
{ Greens function concepts, vector potentials
{ effects of scatterer shape as a function of scale size
{ spatial distribution of scattered radiation
{ forward scattering versus backscattering
z Ensemble Concepts
{ surface scattering
correlation lengths and roughness
the role of surface penetration
multiple reflections
{ volume scattering
scale size distribution effects
multiple scattering
coherent versus incoherent models
z Simple Scattering Models
{ scattering matrix, scattering cross section, penetration depth, extinction coefficient
1.3) Radar Principles and Synthetic Aperture Radar
z The Role of Time

z Pulse Compression
z The Sampling Theorem
z Radar Measurement Coordinates
z Coherence
z The Synthetic Aperture and Phase Histories
z The Frequency Coded Real Aperture
{ Matched Filter Concepts
{ Pulse Compression and Focusing Concepts
{ Impulse Response and Radar Resolution
{ Differences Between Sample Spacing and Resolution
{ The Radar Equation
detailed presentation of components making up the radar equation for monostatic
radars
implications for radar calibration
terrain effects (materials, geometry, terrain relief)
real aperture vs synthetic aperture radar

z SAR Signal-to-Noise Ratio Equation
z Range and Azimuth Ambiguities and their Relationship to the Radar Equation
1.4) Signal, Noise, and Speckle
z Physical Noise Sources

{ types of noise (thermal, quantum, shot and flicker)
{ noise statistics
{ noise equations (brief-provide understanding of noise)
z Misplaced Signals as Noise (scene dependent "noise")
{ sampling noise
{ range and azimuth ambiguities
{ integrated sidelobe ratio
{ peak sidelobe ratio
{ coherent fading of random targets (wave interference phenomena)
z Physics of Speckle (differentiate speckle from noise)
z Information Content of Speckle (tone, speckle, texture)
z Speckle Reduction
1.5) SAR/Signal Processing
z Properties of SAR Phase History

z Range/Azimuth Coordinates vs Sampled Data Coordinates
{ range cell migration and range walk concepts
{ squinted SAR
z I/Q, Phase and Magnitude Representations of Complex Signals
z Measuring, Recording, and Calibrating Phase
{ Brief Overview of Waveform Generation, Frequency Modulation and Pulse Compression
(CHIRP)
z SAR processors
z Radar Equation Inversion for Calibration
{ generalized SAR block diagram
{ SAR system parameters and implications
{ SAR calibration
{ calibration sources (internal, reference targets)
z Slant/Ground Range Conversions with and without DEMs
{ motion effects
{ relief distortions (foreshortening, layover, & shadow)
{ local incident angle effects
{ slant range to ground range projection on smooth surfaces
{ slant range to ground range projection with DEM
z Radar Signal Resampling and Image Degradation
z Registration of Coherent, Time Interleaved Channels
z Coherence Preservation in Processing
1.6) Advanced Topics
z Interferometry
z Polarimetry
z Future SAR's
Course 2 - Target Interaction and Image Processing
2.1) Overview of System and Target Parameters
z System and Target Parameter Descriptions

{ system: frequency, polarization, incident angle, and resolution
{ target: geometrical and dielectrical properties
z Effects of System Parameters on Target Interactions
{ frequency
dielectric constant of water versus frequency
size/shape versus frequency
penetration depth versus frequency
Bragg scale roughness versus frequency
{ polarization
polarized, unpolarized, and depolarized backscatter
effects of target orientation
{ incident angle
target (terrain, open water, sea ice) roughness versus range fall-off
incident angle effects on Bragg scale roughness
incident angle effects on information content
{ resolution
resolution versus swath coverage and number of looks
resolution and effects on information content
2.2) Dielectric Properties
z Real and Imaginary Parts of Complex Dielectric Constant (CDC)

{ effects of oscillating dipole and readmission of EM waves
{ backscattering effects
{ attenuation effects
{ measuring CDC
z Impacts of CDC on SAR Response
{ CDC versus soil moisture
{ CDC versus plant moisture
{ CDC versus rock type
{ CDC versus sea ice type
{ Freeze/Thaw and environmental effects on CDC
2.3) Geometric Properties
z Terrain Effects on Radar Backscatter

{ review of image geometry
{ layover, shadow, foreshortening artifacts
{ local versus nominal incident angle
{ look direction effects
z Surface Roughness
{ specular, slightly rough, and rough scattering patterns
{ description of surface roughness parameters
Standard Deviation of Surface Height
Correlation Length
Periodic Surfaces
{ smooth surface criteria

Rayleigh Criterion
Fraunhofer Criterion
{ look direction effects
z Surface Scattering Models
{ physical optics, small perturbation, and geometric optics models
{ model developments (layered dielectric and volume scattering)
z Target Geometry
{ the nature of volume scattering for land
{ measuring vegetation geometry
{ modelling vegetation components
{ vegetation models
cloud model
layered models
multi-component/multi-constituent models
model developments (vegetation dielectrics and geometry)
{ the nature of volume scattering for sea ice
{ measuring sea ice structure and features
2.4) Radiometric Corrections to SAR Data
z Beta Naught, Gamma Naught, and Sigma Naught Descriptions

z Calibration of SAR Data
{ relative versus absolute calibration
{ antennae pattern determination and correction
{ range dependent gain corrections
{ absolute calibration via point targets
{ Earth terrain model implications
z Radiometric Enhancements
{ speckle reduction
non-adaptive filters description and advantages (FFT filters)
adaptive filters description and advantages (Frost, Lee, MAP Gamma)
{ edge detection
ratio edge detection filter
Touzi filter
{ analysis of image texture
{ visual enhancement
contrast enhancement
linear enhancement
non-linear enhancements
2.5) Geometric Correction and Exploitation of SAR Data
z SAR Platform - Target Geometry

{ image acquistion
{ relief displacement
layover
foreshortening
shadow
{ radiometric distortion
local incident angle effects
effects of geometry on image brightness

z Geometric Correction Methods
{ principle of SAR geocoding
{ slant to ground range conversion
{ image registration polynomial transformations
{ radargrammetric method and advantages
{ planimetric accuracy of an ortho-image
as a function of DEM and incident angles
sources of errors in the ortho-image
{ comparison of methods
z Image Resampling Algorithms
{ bilinear interpolation
{ cubic convolution
{ sinx / x
z Radar Stereoscopy: Approach, Advantages, and Applications
{ radar versus optical stereoscopy
{ compromises between geometry and radiometry and their consequences
{ selection of stereo configurations
radiometric and geometric disparities
parallax - same side versus opposite side viewing
{ guidelines for DEM extraction (same side versus opposite)
z Interferometry
{ satellite interferometry (repeat versus single pass)
{ geometry for repeat pass interferometry
{ InSAR processing
{ terrain height applications
approach and examples
conditions required
accuracy of terrain height measurements
{ velocity applications
approach and examples
conditions required
accuracy of velocity measurements
2.6) Information Extraction from SAR Data
z Overview of General Information Extraction Methods

{ classification techniques
supervised and unsupervised classification
classification algorithms
accuracy assessment
new classification approaches
{ change detection
difference image
ratio image
classification comparison
change vector analyses
{ data presentation and integration
RGB colour space
IHS colour space
Principal Components Analysis
2.7) Environmental Effects on SAR Data
{ rain and dew effects

{ snow and ice effects
{ wind and wave effects
{ change of state
Introduction to
RADAR
Remote Sensing
Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

CanadaCanada
Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada
Canada
Course Outline
• Why use RADAR for Remote Sensing?
• Fundamentals of RADAR
– SAR
– Resolution and incident angle
– Frequency and Polarization
• Image Characteristics
– Topographic Displacement
– Speckle
• Scattering Mechanisms
• Introduction to Sensors
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada
Why Use Radar for Remote Sensing?
• Controllable source of illumination
– sees through cloud and rain, and at night
• Images can be high resolution (3 - 10 m)
• Different features are portrayed or discriminated
compared to visible sensors
• Some surface features can be seen better in
radar images:
– ice, ocean waves
– soil moisture, vegetation mass
– man-made objects, e.g. buildings
– geological structures
RADAR
Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging.

A Radar system has three primary functions:
- It transmits microwave (radio) signals towards a scene
- It receives the portion of the transmitted energy
backscattered from the scene
- It observes the strength (detection) and the time delay
(ranging) of the return signals.
Radar provides its own energy source and, therefore, can

operate both day or night and through cloud cover. This
type of system is known as an active remote sensing
system.

RADAR - Radio Detection And Ranging
Ra
ng
e
Pul
se
Echo

The Electromagnetic Spectrum
All electromagnetic waves propogate at the speed of light.
X-rays, visible light, and radio waves are some examples.
Such waves are described by variations in their electric
and magnetic fields.
Electromagnetic waves are characterized by polarization,

and by frequency or wavelength (inversely proportional to
frequency).
Radar remote sensing uses the microwave portion of the

electromagnetic spectrum, from a frequency of 0.3 GHz to
300 GHz, or in wavelength terms, from 1 m to 1 mm.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

What is Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)?
• A side-looking radar system which makes a high-resolution image of the Earth’s
surface (for remote sensing applications)
• As an imaging side-looking radar moves along its path, it accumulates data. In this
way, continuous strips of the ground surface are “illuminated” parallel and to one
side of the flight direction. From this record of signal data, processing is needed to
produce radar images.
• The across-track dimension is referred to as “range”. Near range edge is closest to

nadir (the points directly below the radar) and far range edge is farthest from the
radar.
• The along-track dimension is referred to as “azimuth”.
• In a radar system, resolution is defined for both the range and azimuth directions.
• Digital signal processing is used to focus the image and obtain a higher resolution
than achieved by conventional radar

Concept of Synthetic Aperture
Synthetic Aperture
Last time SAR
Senses object
Flight
Distance SAR travelled while object
Path
was in view = synthetic aperture
First time SAR

senses object
Ground
Track
Nadir
Swath
Object

Resolution
Since SAR is an active system, the actual sensor resolution has two dimensions:
range resolution and azimuth resolution. Resolution of a SAR sensor should not
be confused with pixel spacing which results from sampling done by the SAR
image processor.
Range
Range resolution of a SAR is determined by built-in radar and processor
constraints which act in the slant range domain. Range resolution is dependent
on the length of the processed pulse; shorter pulses result in “higher” resolution.
Radar data are created in the slant range domain, but usually are projected onto
the ground range plane when processed into an image.
Azimuth
For a real aperture radar, azimuth resolution is determined by the angular beam
width of the terrain strip illuminated by the radar beam. For two objects to be
resolved, they must be separated in the azimuth direction by a distance greater
than the beam width on the ground. SAR gets its name from the azimuth
processing and can achieve an azimuth resolution which may be hundreds of
times smaller than the transmitted antenna beam width.

Azimuth Resolution
A simple (i.e. real-aperture) radar has an azimuth

resolution given by the azimuth beam width
A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) uses signal

processing to refine the azimuth resolution to shorter
than the antenna length
original
azimuth
Processed azimuth beamwidth
resolution

Resolution Cell
Source: Raney, 1998
rR = range resolution rA = azimuth resolution

Incident Angle
Refers to the angle between the radar illumination and the normal to
the ground surface. Depending on the height of the radar above the
Earth’s surface, the incident angle will change from the near range to
the far range which in turn affects the viewing geometry.
Local Incident Angle
The term local incident angle takes into account the local slope of the
terrain at any location within the image.
It is the local incident angle which in part determines the image

brightness or tone for each pixel.

Microwaves
Most remote sensing radars operate at wavelengths between .5 cm to 75 cm. The
microwave frequencies have been arbitrarily assigned to bands identified by letter. The
most popular of these bands for use by imaging radars include:
X-band: from 2.4 to 3.75 cm (12.5 to 8 GHz). Widely used for military reconnaissance
and commercially for terrain surveys. Used on CV-580 SAR (Environment Canada).
C-band: from 3.75 to 7.5 cm (8 to 4 GHz). Used in many spaceborne SARs, such as
ERS-1 and RADARSAT.
S-band: from 7.5 to 15 cm (4 to 2 GHz). Used in Almaz.
L-band: from 15 to 30 cm (2 to 1 GHz). Used on SEASAT and JERS-1.
P-band: from 30 to 100 cm (1 to 0.3 GHz). Used on NASA/JPL AIRSAR.
The capability to penetrate through precipitation or into a surface layer is increased with
longer wavelengths. Radars operating at wavelengths greater than 2 cm are not
significantly affected by cloud cover, however, rain does become a factor at wavelengths
shorter than 4 cm.
Relative Size of Microwave Wavelengths

Choice of Radar Frequency 1
• Application factors:
– Radar wavelength should be matched to the size of the
surface features that we wish to discriminate
– e.g. Ice discrimination, small features, use X-band
– e.g. Geology mapping, large features, use L-band
– e.g. Foliage penetration, better at low frequencies,
use P-band
In general, C-band is a good compromise

Frequency Comparison: C-, L-, and P-Bands
FREQUENCY COMPARISON
Flevoland, Netherlands Agricultural Scene
C-Band
Multipolarization
colour composites
courtesy of JPL
L-Band P-Band

Choice of Radar Frequency 2
• System factors:
– Low frequencies:
More difficult processing
Need larger antennas and feeds
Simpler electronics
– High frequencies:
Need more power
More difficult electronics
Good component availability at X-band
• Note that many research SARs have multiple
frequency bands
– e.g. JPL AIRSAR, SIR-C, Convair-580
Polarization
Polarization refers to the orientation of the electric vector of an electromagnetic
wave.
Radar system antennas can be configured to transmit and receive either

horizontally or vertically polarized electromagnetic radiation.
When polarization of the transmitted and received waves is in the same direction, it
is referred to as like-polarized. HH refers to horizontally transmitted and received
waves; VV refers to vertically transmitted and received waves.
When polarization of the transmitted waves is orthogonal to the polarization of the

received radiation, it is referred to as cross-polarized; e.g. HV refers to horizontal
transmission and vertical reception; VH for vertical transmission and horizontal
reception.
When the radar wave interacts with a surface and is scattered from it, the
polarization can be modified, depending upon the properties of the surface. This
modification affects the way the scene appears in polarimetric radar imagery, and
the type of surface can often be deduced from the image.

EM Wave Polarization
Electrical Field
VERTICAL POLARIZATION
HORIZONTAL POLARIZATION

Choice of Polarization
• Basic or operational SARs usually have only one

polarization for economy, e.g. HH or VV
• Research systems tend to have multiple polarizations,
e.g. all of: HH, HV, VV, VH (quad pol)
• Multiple polarizations help to distinguish the physical
structure of the scattering surfaces:
– the alignment with respect to the radar (HH vs. VV)
– the randomness of scattering (e.g. vegetation - HV)
– the corner structures (e.g. HH VV phase angle)
– Bragg scattering (e.g. oceans - VV)

Weddell Sea Ice, Antarctica
Shuttle SIR-C/X Image
C-band, HH L-band, HV L-band, HH

Victoria & Saanich Peninsula, Canada
Urban
Suburban
Forest
Agriculture /
Clear-cut

Benefits of Polarimetry
• the scattering matrix, Stokes matrix and polarization
signature can be computed for each pixel
– can be a powerful classification tool
– for both visual and machine classification
• the scattering matrix can be used
– to synthesize the return with any transmit/receive

polarizations
– to investigate the scattering properties of different
surfaces
– to optimize polarization for optimum detectability
Benefits of Multipolarimetric Imagery

Relief Displacement
Since imaging radars usually view the scene from an

oblique perspective (i.e. Side-looking), they are
subject to one-dimensional relief displacement
analogous to that inherent in aerial photography.
Tall objects are displaced radially from nadir in air

photos, whereas terrain distortion in radar imagery is
perpendicular to the flight path (or satellite track)
which results in tall objects being displaced toward
the sensor.

Topographic Displacement - Optical Sensor
Optical Sensor
by similar triangles
d=h
D H
h
D= *D
H
θ
d = h tan θ
nadir
reference surface
Topographic displacements Optical Sensor
d = Horizontal displacement of a 100m mountain top

(m)

Topographic Displacement - Radar Sensor
apparent
viewing
θ direction
mountain top
reference surface orthographic

projection of
mountaintop
radar ground range
projection of mountaintop
Horizontal displacement of a 100m mountain top
(m)
airborne
θ
satellite
Source: T. Toutin, 1992, ROS and SEASAT Image Geometric Correction IEEE-IGARS, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 603-609.

Radar Shadow
Radar shadows in imagery indicate those areas on the ground surface
not illuminated by the radar. Since no return signal is received, radar
shadows appear very dark in tone on the imagery.
In imagery, radar shadows occur in the down-range direction behind tall

objects. They are a good indicator of radar illumination direction if
annotation is missing or incomplete.
Since incident angle increases from near to far-range, terrain illumination

becomes more oblique. As a result, shadowing becomes more prominent
toward far-range.
Information about the scene, such as an object’s height, can also be

obtained from radar shadows. Shadowing in radar imagery is an
important key for terrain relief interpretation.

Radar Shadow
illum
inat
ion
t
ron
vef
wa
scene
distorsion shadow
Source: Raney, 1998

Foreshortening
Foreshortening in a radar image is the appearance of compression of those
features in the scene which are tilted toward the radar.
Foreshortening leads to relatively brighter appearance of these slopes, and must

be accounted for by the interpreter.
Foreshortening is at a maximum when a steep slope is orthogonal to the radar

beam. In this case, the local incident angle is zero, and as a result, the base,
slope and top of a hill are imaged simultaneously and, therefore, occupy the
same position in the image.
For a given slope or hillside, foreshortening effects are reduced with increasing
incident angles. At the grazing angle, where incident angles approach 90°,
foreshortening effects are eliminated, but severe shadowing may occur. In
selecting incident angle, there is always a trade-off between the occurrence of
foreshortening and the occurrence of shadowing in the image.

Foreshortening
o nt
r
ill
ef
u
v
m
a
w
in
at
io
n
scene
displacement
foreshortening
Source: Raney, 1998

Layover
Layover occurs when the reflected energy from the upper

portion of a feature is received before the return from the
lower portion of the feature. In this case, the top of the
feature will be displaced, or “laid over” relative to its base
when it is processed into an image.
In general, layover is more prevalent for viewing

geometries with small incident angles, such as from
satellites.

Layover
llum
ina
tion
i
r ont
avef
w
scene
distortion
layover
Source: Raney, 1998

Relief Displacement (Radar Sensor)
The type and degree of relief displacement in the radar image

is a function of the angle at which the radar beam hits the
ground, i.e. it depends upon the local slope of the ground.
Layover Foreshortening Shadow
0° 90º
Local incident angle

Fading and Speckle
Fading and speckle are the inherent “noise-like” processes which degrade image quality
in a coherent imaging system.
Fading is due to variation in the echo phase delay caused by multiple targets in a
resolution cell with range variations differing by less than a wavelength.
Local constructive and destructive interference appears in the image as bright and dark
speckles, respectively.
Using independent data sets to estimate the same ground patch, by average
independent samples, can effectively reduce the effects of fading and speckle. This can
be done by:
• Multiple-look filtering, separates the maximum synthetic aperture into smaller sub-
apertures generating independent looks at target areas based on the angular
position of the targets. Therefore, looks are different Doppler frequency bands.
• Averaging (incoherently) adjacent pixels.
Reducing these effects enhances radiometric resolution at the expense of spatial

resolution.

Speckle
Constructive Interference
Result
Coherent Destructive Interference

radar waves
Result
Example of Homogenous Target
Constructive interference
Varying degrees of interference

(between constructive and destructive )
Destructive interference

Speckle
Corn Field Forest

Spatially Uniform Target Spatially Non-Uniform Target
Fine Texture Coarse Texture
300 m 300 m

Diffuse and Specular Reflectance
Surface roughness influences the reflectivity of microwave

energy and thus the brightness of features on the radar
imagery.
Horizontal smooth surfaces reflect nearly all incident energy

away from the radar and are called specular (from the Latin
word speculum, meaning mirror). Specular surfaces, such as
calm water or paved highways, appear dark on radar imagery.
Microwaves incident upon a rough surface are scattered in

many directions. This is known as diffuse or distributed
reflectance. Vegetation surfaces will cause diffuse reflectance,
and result in a brighter tone on the radar imagery.

Diffuse and Specular Reflectance
Corner Reflector
Diffuse Reflection Specular Reflection

Scatter 1
In general, scenes observed by a SAR consist of two

kinds of reflecting surfaces; distributed scatterers and
discrete scatterers.
Discrete scatterers are characterized by a relatively

simple geometric shape, such as a building. The classic
element used to represent discrete scattering is a corner
reflector, a shape as is formed when all sides intersect at
(nearly) right angles (such as the intersection of a paved
road and tall building).

Scatter 2
Distributed scatterers consist of multiple small areas
or surfaces from which the incident microwaves
scatter in many different directions. Distributed
scattering is produced from a forest canopy or
cultivated fields.
A radar measures that component of the scattered

energy which returns along the same path of the
incident beam.

Surface Roughness
Surface roughness of a scattering surface is
determined relative to radar wavelength and incident
angle.
Generally, a surface is considered smooth if its height
variations are considerably smaller than the radar
wavelength. In terms of a single wavelength, a given
surface appears rougher as incident angle increases.
Rough surfaces will usually appear brighter on radar
imagery than smoother surfaces composed of the same
material. In general a rough surface is defined as
having a height variation of about half the radar
wavelength.
Surface Roughness
Surface Scattering Patterns
Incident Wave Scattering Pattern
Smooth
Incident Wave Incident Wave
Scattering Pattern
Scattering Pattern
Medium Rough Very Rough

Corner Reflectors
Small objects may appear extremely bright on radar imagery. This is
dependent on the geometric configuration of the object.
The side of a building or a bridge, combined with reflection from the ground is
an example of a corner reflector.
When two surfaces are at right angles and open to the radar, a dihedral
corner reflector is formed. The return from a dihedral corner reflector is strong
only when the reflecting surfaces are very nearly perpendicular to the
illumination direction.
Strong reflections are caused by a trihedral corner reflector. These are formed
by the intersection of three mutually perpendicular plane surfaces open to the
radar.
Researchers often place corner reflectors at various ground locations to act

as reference points on the radar imagery.

Corner Reflectors
Dihedral Trihedral
Volume Scattering
Volume scattering is related to multiple scattering
processes within a medium, such as the vegetation
canopy of a corn field or a forest. This type of scattering
can also occur in layers of very dry soil, sand, or ice.
Volume scattering is important as it influences the

backscatter observed by the radar. Radar will receive
backscatter from both the surface and the volume.
The intensity of volume scattering depends on the

physical properties of the volume (variations in dielectric
constant, in particular) and the characteristics of the radar
(wavelength, polarization and incident angle).

Reflections
Canopy
Backscattering Soil - Trunk
Reflection
Soil
Backscattering (Corner Reflector)
Canopy Soil Reflection

Moisture Content
The presence of moisture increases a material’s complex dielectric constant.
The dielectric constant influences the ability of a material to absorb, reflect and
transmit microwave energy.
The moisture content of a material can change its electrical properties. This
affects how a material appears on the radar image. Identical materials can vary
in appearance at different times or different locations according to the amount
of moisture they contain.
The reflectivity, and hence image brightness, of most natural vegetation and
surfaces is increased with increasing moisture content.
Microwaves may penetrate very dry materials, such as desert sand. The
scattering which results, is affected by both surface and subsurface properties.
In general, the longer the radar wavelength, the deeper into the material the
energy will penetrate.

Comparison of Satellite SARs & Aircraft SARs
• Advantages of satellite SARs
2
– More coverage per second (Km /s)
2
– Lower operating costs ($/Km )
– Not constrained by flying conditions or airport proximity
– Wider area views
– Somewhat simpler signal processing (no motion
compensation)
• Disadvantages
– More expensive to design, build and launch
– More difficult to provide multiple polarizations &
frequencies
– Cannot be flown anywhere on demand
– Lower resolution in general

Comparison of Imaging Geometries
SPACEBORNE SAR
AIRBORNE SAR
airborne 10 – 100 km
spaceborne 25 – >500 km
IMAGE SWATH

Choice of Swath Width
• Limited by range ambiguities and data handling
capacity
• A trade-off between azimuth resolution, number of
looks, processing capability
• For satellites: 30 - 150 Km typical
• For aircraft: 10 - 100 Km typical
• RADARSAT gets large swath widths per beam by
reducing the resolution, and using careful antenna
weighting to control range ambiguities
• RADARSAT and the future Envisat use ScanSAR to
get extra wide swaths

RADARSAT-1

RADARSAT-1 SAR Imaging Modes
Extended Low
Satellite
Ground Track
ScanSAR Extended High

Wide
Standard
Fine

Introduction to Radar Remote Sensing Notes Page 1 of 1
Introduction To Radar Remote Sensing
Notes
Slide 35
This slide illustrates that shadow, foreshortening and layover are progressive forms of the same
phenomenon — namely range-direction geometric distortion caused by the radar viewing geometry
and the fact that the radar is basically a distance-measuring device ( a camera is an angle-
measuring device).
You can also think of radar shadow and layover as extreme or terminal cases of foreshortening.
Slide 38
Speckle is the randomness of the observed reflectivity caused by the interference of multiple
scatterers within a resolution cell, when the distance to the scattering centres of the reflectors is
random. In general, only a pixel with a strong corner reflector does not exhibit speckle.
Pure speckle is observed in a radar image when the signal/noise ratio is high, and the true
reflectivity of the ground is uniform.
However, speckle is usually accompanied in the radar image by other sources of noise and
radiometric variation. These include random receiver noise, and true changes in the radar
reflectivity across the scene.
The observed texture of the scene is a combination of the above factors. In general, scenes of
areas with uniform reflectivity will exhibit fine texture, owing to the predominance of speckle.
Scenes with varying reflectivity will exhibit coarser texture, as affected by the spatial distribution of
surface reflectivity.
RADARSAT-1

CanadaCanada
Canada
SAR Imaging Modes of
RADARSAT-1
Extended Low
Satellite
Ground Track
ScanSAR Extended High

Wide
Standard
Fine

RADARSAT-1
SAR Imaging Modes
APPROXIMATE NOMINAL APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF
a
MODE BEAM & INCIDENCE ANGLES GROUND AREA PROCESSED
POSITION (DEGREES) RESOLUTION (M) (KM) LOOKS
Fine F1 near 36.4 - 39.6 8 50 X 50 1X1
(15 positions) F1 36.8 - 39.9 SGF or SGX
see slide 5 F1 far 37.2 - 40.3
F2 near 38.8 - 41.8
F2 near 39.2 - 42.1
F2 far 39.6 - 42.5
F3 near 41.1 - 43.7
F3 41.5 - 44.0
F3 far 41.8 - 44.3
F4 near 43.1 - 45.5
F4 43.5 - 45.8
F4 far 43.8 - 46.1
F5 near 45.0 - 47.2
F5 45.3 - 47.5
F5 far 45.6 - 47.8
Standard S1 20 - 27 25 100 x 100 1x4
(7 beams) S2 24 - 31 SGF or SGX
S3 30 - 37
S4 34 - 40
S5 36 - 42
S6 41 - 46
S7 45 - 49
SGF = SAR Georeferenced Fine Resolution Product = Path Image aGround range resolution
SGX = SAR Georeferenced Extra Fine Resolution Product = Path Image Plus varies across the swath.
RADARSAT-1
SAR Imaging Modes
a
MODE BEAM & INCIDENCE ANGLES GROUND AREA PROCESSED
Wide W1 20 - 31 30 165 x 165 1 x4
(3 positions) W2 31 - 39 150 x 150 SGF or SGX
W3 39 - 45 130 x 130
ScanSAR Narrow SCNA 20 - 40 50 300 x 300 2 x2
see slide 6 SCNB 31 - 46 SCN
ScanSAR Wide SCWA 20 - 49 100 500 x 500 2 x4
see slide 6 SCWB 20 - 46 450 x 450 SCW
Extended High EH1 49 - 52 25 75 x 75 1 x4
(6 beams) EH2 50 - 53 SGF or SGX
EH3 52 - 55
EH4 54 - 57
EH5 56 - 58
EH6 57 - 59
Extended Low EL1 10 - 23 30 170 x 170 1 x4
SGF or SGX
SGF = SAR Georeferenced Fine Resolution Product (Path Image) aGround range resolution
SGX = SAR Georeferenced Extra Fine Resolution Product (Path Image Plus) varies across the swath.
SCN = ScanSAR Narrow Beam Product (Path Image)
SCW = ScanSAR Wide Beam Product (Path Image)

Image Position within a Fine Beam (F4)
Two Way Antenna Elevation Gain [dB]
Range
F4F
F4
F4N

Combinations of Four Beams
to Produce a ScanSAR Image (SCWA)
Range
Azimuth
Standard 7
Wide 2
Wide 3
Wide 1

RADARSAT-1 Image Products
Sizes and Scales
MODE PROCESSING CEOS APPROXIMAGE DIGITAL FILM APPROX.
LEVEL IMAGE DIGITAL FILE SIZE IMAGE SIZE FILM
a
PRODUCT IMAGE SIZE (MB) (CM) SCALE
(PIXELS x LINES)
Fine Path Image Plus SGX 16,000 x 16,000 512 N/A N/A
Path Image SGF 8,000 x 8,000 128 20 x 20 1:250,000
Map Image SSG/SPG 8,000 x 8,000 64 20 x 20 1:312,500
Standard Path Image Plus SGX 12,500 x 12,500 313 N/A N/A
Path Image SGF 8,000 x 8,000 128 20 x 20 1:500,000
Wide Path Image Plus SGX 15,000 x 15,000 450 N/A N/A
b
Path Image SGF 12,000 x 12,000 288 15 x 15 1:250,000
c
b
ScanSAR Narrow Path Image SCN 12,000 x 12,000 144 15 x 15 1:500,000
ScanSAR Wide Path Image SCW 10,000 x 10,000 100 20 x 20 1:625,000
Extended High Path Image Plus SGX 9,375 x 9,375 176 N/A N/A
Path Image SGF 6,000 x 6,000 72
Map Image SSG/SPG 6,000 x 6,000 36
Extended Low Path Image Plus SGX 17,000 x 17,000 578 N/A N/A
Path Image SGF 13,600 x 13,600 370
Map Image SSG/SPG 13,600 x 13,600 185
SPG products (Precision Map Image) have the same sizes and scales as SSG products (Map Image).
a Film size is 24 x 24 cm.
b The digital product is divided into quarters and imaged onto four 24 x 22 cm film transparencies.
c The 8,000 x 8,000 line image is noted to be NORTH UP which requires approximately 40% additional image area.

RADARSAT-1 Coverage
RADARSAT can provide complete global coverage with the
flexibility to support specific requirements. The satellite's ground
track is repeated every 24 days. RADARSAT can provide daily
coverage of the Arctic, view any part of Canada within three
days, and achieve complete coverage at equatorial latitudes
every six days using a 500 kilometre wide swath.

This is the historical first
image produced by
RADARSAT-1 in November
1995.
After its launch on Nov 5,
1995, it completed its test
and calibration phase on
time, and has been
performing within spec ever
since.
Cape Breton Island, on
Canada’s eastern coastline,
can be seen surrounded by
the Atlantic Ocean.

RADARSAT-1 Fine Mode: Singapore Harbour
Enlargement of central ship

RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Wide: Labrador Coast
\
Pressure 985 millibars
Antarctic Mapping Mission
Mount Erebus, located on Ross Island, is one of the
handful of active volcanoes on the Antarctic Continent.
The volcano crater, which routinely spews steam and
smoke, is clearly visible in this RADARSAT image. Also
visible is the Erebus Ice Tongue, an elongated ribbon of
floating ice extruded from the glaciers covering Ross
Island. The ice tongue is perforated with crevasses and
subsurface ice caverns that can be explored through
small openings on the seaward side.
The Erebus Ice Tongue in the SAR image

above is shown at the bottom of the photo
on the right.
RADARSAT-1 Notes Page 1 of 1
RADARSAT-1
Notes
Slide 12
RADARSAT-1 showed its versatility by imaging the previous unimaged Antarctica continent in
September and October of 1997.
This was achieved by yawing the satellite 180 degrees, so that the SAR antenna looked to the left
rather than the right. With this manoever, the whole Antarctica continent could be imaged, at the
expense of temporarily-reduced coverage of the Canadian Arctic.
Photos courtesy of the Remote Sensing Lab, Byrd Polar Research Center, The Ohio State
University.
RADARSAT - 2

CanadaCanada
Canada
RADARSAT-2
Mission Overview
• Data continuity from RADARSAT-1
– all RADARSAT-1 SAR imaging modes and
beams supported
– plus many additional capabilities
• Launch planned for 2003
• Mission duration: 7 years
• The next step towards full commercialization
of the RADARSAT programme

RADARSAT-2
Mission Overview
• Mission requirements were developed from
market survey
• Features prioritized against revenue
potential
• Emphasis on “information content”
– maximizing the economic value
– expanding the potential for further “Value-Added”
processing

RADARSAT-2
The Future
• Innovations
– higher spatial resolution
– left or right looking direction
– polarimetry
• Plans

RADARSAT-2 Innovations 1
• 3-metre ultra-fine resolution

– highest resolution SAR available commercially
• Routine left- or right-looking direction
– quicker re-visit time
– more responsive to user requests
– Antarctic mapping mission fully integrated
• User-selectable polarization (mode-dependant)
– selectable polarization (HH or VV or HV or VH or (HH and
HV) or (VV and VH))
– quadruple polarization (HH, VV, HV, and VH)
– selectable single polarization (HH, VV, HV, or VH)

RADARSAT-2 Innovations 2
• GPS receivers on-board
– fast delivery position spacecraft location knowledge
is ≤ 20 m (1 sigma).
• ≤ 1 sec delay between imaging in different modes or
beams
• Yaw-steering for zero-Doppler shift at beam centre
– facilitates processing
• Solid-state data memory
• Higher downlink power
– 3-metre minimum size receiving antenna
– lower “cost of entry” for new ground stations

RADARSAT-2 Configuration
Louvers for thermal control
GPS Antenna
Solar arrays
Bus
Star Trackers
PSS
SAR Antenna
∆V Thrusters
CSS -- Sun-seeker Clusters
X-band downlink antenna

RADARSAT-2 System Concepts
Spacecraft Attitude and Position Knowledge
Attitude Control Accuracy: ±0.05º (3s in each axis)
3.9°
Attitude Knowledge Accuracy
Image Absolute
±0.01º (3s in each axis)
Location Accuracy Pole Equator Pole
< 300 m at downlink - 3.9°
Fast Delivery position knowledge ±20m (1s in each axis)
Yew Steering Supported
< 100 m postprocessed
Post Processed Position
Knowledge ±15m (3s in each axis) • makes processing faster and easier
• normalizes doppler bandwidth
Radar Operation
Power ON to full Image Capability 10 minutes
• 2 x 128 GB
Minimum Image Duration: 5 seconds solid-state recorders
Maximum Image Duration / Orbit 28 minutes
• on-board GPS
Gap between imaging in different modes
or beams: 1 sec max.
Gap between imaging in different transmit 1 PRI
polarizations at same PRF
ON Time per orbit 28 minutes
Communications Links
S-Band
Uplink 32 kbps encrypted

Downlink 128 kbps
X-Band Downlink
Link 1 105 Mbps encrypted

Link 2 105 Mbps encrypted
Right- and Left-looking directions are both routine
Spacecraft is able to operate in either direction, nominally 10 minutes are required
for this manoeuvre
The Antenna has 10240 Radiating

Elements fed by 640 T/R Modules.
VP PORT
HP PORT
By correct phasing of signal to and from each Radiation Element pair, polarization
can be controlled to achieve H or V on transmit and receive paths

Left- and Right-Looking Antenna
Right- and Left-looking directions are both routine
Spacecraft is able to operate in either direction; nominally 10 minutes
required for the manoeuvre

SAR Antenna
• Antenna has 10240

radiating elements fed by
640 Transmit/Receive
modules
• By correct timing of
signal to and from each
Radiating Element pair,
polarization can be
controlled to achieve H or
V on transmit and receive
paths

RADARSAT-2 System Concepts
Standard
StandardMode
ModeImage
ImageQuality
QualityParameters
Parameters Sensor
SensorParameters
Parameters
The • •Preserves
PreservesRADARSAT-1
RADARSAT-1modesmodeswith
withselective
selectivepolarization
Thesum
sumof ofthe
theazimuth
azimuthand
and polarization Frequency
Frequency 5.405
5.405GHz
GHz
range • •Adds
Addsnew
newhigh
highresolution
resolutionand
andpolarimetry
rangeambiguity
ambiguityratios
ratios <-16,5dB
<-16,5dB polarimetry Polarization
Polarization H,
H,VV
Global • •Orbit matches RADARSAT-1
GlobalDynamic
DynamicRangeRange >30
>30dB
dB Orbit matches RADARSAT-1 Accessibility
AccessibilitySwath
Swath 500
500kmkmleft
leftand
and500
500kmkmright
right
Relative • •Same
SameRepeat
RepeatCycle
Relativeradiometric
radiometricAccuracy
Accuracywithin
within Cycle Swath
SwathIncidence
IncidenceAngles
Angles 20°
20°àà49
49°°
100 • •Same
SameGround
GroundTrack
100km
kmbyby100
100km kmscene
scene <1
<1dB
dB Track Extended
ExtendedIncidence
IncidenceAngles
Angles 10
10°°àà20
20°,°,50
50°°àà59
59°°
One orbit <1,5 • •Same
SameAscending
AscendingNode
One orbit <1,5dB
dB Node Noise
NoiseEquivalent
EquivalentSigma
SigmaZero
Zero -21
-21dB
dB
Three
Threedays
days <2
<2dB
dB (Standard
(StandardMode)
Mode)
Spacecraft
Spacecraftlifetime
lifetime <3
<3dB
dB
All modes
available as Left- V
looking or Right-
looking Subsatellite Track
Extended
(Low incidence)
Extended
ScanSAR (High incidence)
Fine (50km Swath)
Wide
Standard
Ultra-Fine Wide
Ultra-Fine Narrow
Selective Transmit H or V Receive H or V

Polarization or (H and V)
Polarimetry Transmit H and V Receive H and V

on alternate pulses on every pulse
Selective Single Transmit H or V Receive H or V

Polarization
Multi-polarization
3-metre resolution SAR Image
SAR Image

RADARSAT-2 Polarization Options
Nominal Swath Approximate
Mode Swath coverage to left Resolution:
Width or right of ground range x
ground track azimuth
RADARSAT-1 Modes with Standard 100 km 250 km – 750 km 25 m x 28 m

Selective Polarization Wide 150 km 250 km – 650 km 25 m x 28 m
Transmit H or V Low Incidence 170 km 125 km – 300 km 40 m x 28 m
Receive H or V or (H and V) * High Incidence 70 km 750 km – 1000 km 20 m x 28 m
Fine 50 km 525 km – 750 km 10 m x 9 m
ScanSAR Wide 500 km 250 km – 750 km 100 m x 100 m
ScanSAR Narrow 300 km 300 km – 720 km 50 m x 50 m
Polarimetry Standard 25 km 250 km – 600 km 25 m x 28 m

Transmit H and V on quadruple
alternate pulses polarization
Recieve H and V on Fine, quadruple 25 km 400 km – 600 km 11 m x 9 m
every pulse polarization
Selective Single Polarization Triple Fine 50 km 400 km – 750 km 11 m x 9 m

Transmit H or V Ultra-fine Wide 20 km 400 km – 550 km 3mx 3m
Receive H or V Ultra-fine Narrow 10 km 400 km – 550 km 3mx 3m
* Approximation

High-Resolution Comparison
3-metre resolution 10-metre resolution

Source: Sandia National Laboratories

RADARSAT-2 Orbit
Characteristics
• Same orbit as RADARSAT-1
– 798 km altitude
– sun-synchronous “frozen” orbit
• Same repeat cycle and ground track as

RADARSAT-1
– RADARSAT-1 & 2 scenes precisely aligned

RADARSAT-2 Orbit
Characteristics
• 798 km altitude, sun-synchronous dawn-dusk orbit
• Same repeat cycle and ground track as RADARSAT-1

RADARSAT-2 Re-Visit Times at Equator
Fine Mode
16.0
Days until Target can be Imaged
14.0
RADARSAT-1
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
RADARSAT-2
4.0
2.0
0.0
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
Initial Distance from Ground Track (km)

Multipolarized Imagery

RADARSAT-2 Mission Architecture
SATELLITE CONTROL DATA RECEPTION, ARCHIVING

AND PROCESSING
SATELLITE CONTROL SYSTEM
CALIBRATION CANADIAN RECEPTION EXTERNAL RECEPTION,

N INSTRUMENTS & ARCHIVING SYSTEM ARCHIVING AND
O N
TI O PROCESSING FACILITIES
TA T TO C
S & A T&
C
& T TT SK T
E A L
TT R IM N S A
N S
E BE R R N
I M HU -P IO TE TIO
R O T
P T. C TA EX TA
S S S IMAGE QUALITY
CONTROL SYSTEM
PRINCE GATINEAU
ALBERT
OPERATIONS
MISSION CONTROL FACILITY PLANNING ARCHIVE
SYSTEM FACILITIES
CANADIAN
ARCHIVE
ORDER HANDLING FACILITIES
ORDER HANDLING
SYSTEM
RADARSAT-2 RADARSAT-2
PROCESSOR PROCESSOR
COMMERCIAL CANADIAN SPACE RADARSAT-2
DISTRIBUTOR AGENCY ORDER CATALOGUE
DESK SYSTEM
VALUE ADDED
RESELLERS
COMMERCIAL CANADIAN
GOVERNMENT
USER
USER
LEGEND
CONTROL AND MONITORING
Source: MDA http://radarsat.mda.ca/ SAR DATA

Spacecraft Construction
• Prime contractor: MacDonald Dettwiler &
Associates Ltd., Vancouver
• Bus by Aerospazio, Rome, Italy
– based on PRIMA modular design
• Payload by EMS (formerly SPAR Aerospace),

Montréal
– phased-array antenna
– same stowage & deployment as RADARSAT-1
• Launch by Boeing Delta Launch Services Inc.
– aboard a Boeing Delta-II rocket from Vandenberg
AFB, California
Assembly, Integration, and Testing
RADARSAT-1
Thermal-Vacuum
Test Chamber
Launch Environment
Acoustic Testing
Antenna Testing

RADARSAT-2 Ground Segment

Ground Segment Functions
• Spacecraft Control
• Operations Planning
• Order Handling
• Reception and Archiving
• Processing and Distribution
• Image Quality Control

Command & Data Handling
• Encrypted command & data communications
• S-band TTC up- and down-link
– 32 kbps up-link; 16 or 128 kbps selectable down-link
• X-Band image data down-link
– 2 x 105 Mbps links
• Image data stored in Solid State Recorders
– 2 x 128 GB

Order Handling
• Graphical preparation of data requests
– “Swath Planner” software
• User-selectable
– Mode, beam, polarization and look direction
– Reception facility
– Processing facility
• More responsive to user requests

RADAR Systems

CanadaCanada
Canada
Applications of SAR
• Measuring motion of the Earth's surface, to help us better
understand earthquakes and volcanoes and support emergency
management efforts.
• Studying the movements and changing size of glaciers and ice
floes to help better understand long-term climate variability.
• Developing highly detailed and accurate elevation maps.
• Monitoring floods and where they are likely to occur.
• Assessing terrain for the likelihood of finding oil or other natural
resources.
• Early recognition and monitoring of oil spills.
• Assessing the health of crops and forests.
• Planning urban development and likely effects.
• Studying land cover and land use change.

Geometry of satellite orbit and Earth rotation
Satellite
Satellite orbit
orbit Lat and long lines are 10 deg apart
Lat and long lines are 10 deg apart
(1100
(1100 km atthe
Km at the equator)
equator)
Satellite
Satellite
orbit
orbit
Radar
Radar Beam
beam Equator
Equator
Radar beam
Radar beam
Imaged
swath
Imaged
swath
RADARSAT altitudeisis800
RADARSAT altitude 800 km
Km
Inclination
Inclination is 98 deg, Period isis
is 98 deg, Period 9898 min
min
The satellite’moves’
The satellite ‘ moves26’ deg
26 deg
westwest
every orbit (2830 km at the equator)
every orbit (2830 Km at the equator)

ERS Configuration
Scatterometer
Antennas
Bus Solar Panels
Downlink
SAR Antenna

Previous Satellite SAR Missions
• SEASAT 1978
• SIR-A 1981
• SIR-B 1984
• Magellan 1990
• ERS-1 1991
• J-ERS-1 1992
• SIR-C / X-SAR 1994
• RADARSAT-1 1995
• ERS-2 1995
• Shuttle SRTM 2000

Magellan Mission to Venus 1
Image courtesy of

Magellan Mission to Venus 2
Lava
domes on
surface of
Venus
imaged by
the
Magellan
radar
Image courtesy of

Future Satellite SAR Missions
• ENVISAT 2001
• SAOCOM 2002
• ALOS 2002
• RADARSAT-2 2003
• LightSAR

The NASA/DLR SRTM Mission
Auxiliary radar antennas
Main radar antennas
60-m long boom
The Space Shuttle

The
ENVISAT
Mission 1
Ground Track
AATSR
ASAR
Image mode
ASAR Global
Monitoring Mode MERIS

The
ENVISAT
Mission 2

The ENVISAT Satellite under Construction

The ENVISAT Mission — LEOP Phase
Attitude
acquisition
Solar array
MEGS release
Injection
Launch
L7 stage
Solar array
secondary deployment Separation Solar array
rotation
Kourou
Solar array
primary deployment
Wheel controlled Rate reduction

fine pointing mode mode
ASAR instrument
deployment

Radar Systems Notes Page 1 of 3
Radar Systems
Notes
Slide 2
These applications have been demonstrated using SEASAT, SIR-B/C, ERS and RADARSAT data.
Some applications are still in the research stage, while others, such as ice monitoring, are fully
operational today (1999).
The list here came from the LightSAR web pages. They are a list of applications which are
expected to be used by the future LightSAR system.
Slide 3
We will often be dealing with satellite SAR data, whose geometry is shown in this slide. The main
difference from aircraft SARs is that their coverage pattern is governed by orbit mechanics and by
the Earth’s rotation, as illustrated here.
Slide 4
This slide shows the configuration of the ERS-1 (1991) and the nearly identical ERS-2 (1995)
satellites. Rather than only a SAR system, they also have a scatterometer and a radar altimeter.
The SAR antenna is 10 m long and 1.2 m wide. The satellite attitude is controlled so that long
dimension of the SAR antenna is aligned with the velocity vector of the satellite’s orbit. It can also
be steered with a time-varying skew to compensate for the Earth’s rotation. This is called the yaw-
steering mode, and it makes the radar beam perpendicular to the satellite ground track, effectively
steering the beam to “zero-Doppler”.
The “bus” contains all the electronics and support equipment of the satellite system. This includes
items like:
• control computer
• power supply control system
• attitude control system
• radar transmitters and receivers
• radar data handling system
• satellite/earth communications system
Slide 5
The NASA SEASAT mission was the first civilian SAR satellite, and opened up the SAR sensor to the
remote sensing community. It only lasted 4 months before an electrical failure shut it down, but in
that time an enormous amount of data was collected in North America.
Of particular note to Canada is that a receiving station was built in Newfoundland which operated
well throughout the mission, and that engineers at MacDonald Dettwiler were the first in the world
to produce a digital image from a satellite SAR system.
Slide 6
SAR is useful not only on Earth, but has been used by NASA for some of its planetary missions.
The most dramatic example is the 1990-92 Magellan Mission to Venus.
Because Venus is perpetually cloud covered, conventional optical instruments could not acquire an
image of the surface of Venus.
In the Magellan Mission, an S-band (2 GHz) SAR was used to obtain 100 m resolution images of
almost the entire surface of Venus. Scientists used images to understand the geophysical and
geological processes on Venus, enhancing our understanding of the solar system.
Slide 7
Many new things were learned from the Magellan data, such as the existence of these lava domes
in Alpha Regio region of Venus.
Slide 9
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) was a joint 11-day shuttle mission (STS-99,
Atlantis) of NASA, the U.S. Department of Defense' National Imagery and Mapping Agency (NIMA),
DLR, and ASI, the Italian Space Agency. It flew from February 11 to 22, 2000.. Two independent
SAR systems, one in C-band (NASA JPL instrument) the other in X-band (DLR/ASI), operated with
the main antenna of each instrument located in the open cargo bay of the shuttle, with a second
receive antenna mounted on a deployable outboard mast. SRTM represents the first use of fixed
baseline single-pass spaceborne InSAR technology with wide-swath scanning SAR and dual
frequencies.
The heart of the SRTM is a SAR interferometer using the existing SIR-C/X-SAR hardware in the
shuttle cargo bay augmented by secondary C- and X-band receive antennas mounted at the tip of
a 60 m boom.
The spatial resolution of the images is 30x30 m, with a circular location error of less than 20 m.
The vertical accuracy is < 16 m (90% Linear Error).
Slide 10
Envisat-1 is a multi-sensor satellite mission managed by the European Space Agency. It is

scheduled for launch in January 2002.
Envisat-1 will carry an advanced SAR system, called ASAR. It will have various resolutions and
swath widths, and will have a ScanSAR mode like RADARSAT. It will have both horizontal and
vertical polarization, but not full quad polarization (the HH and VV channels are not mutually
coherent).
In addition to the SAR sensor, it will have an advanced along-track scanning radiometer (AATSR),
and MERIS, a multi-frequency optical imager.
Slide 11
Have you ever wondered how a satellite with big solar panels and a SAR antenna fits into the
launch vehicle ? It’s a tight squeeze !
Envisat-1 will be launched by the French Ariane-5 rocket, which has a cylindrical cargo bay, about
17 m long and 5 m in diameter. Ariane-5 can place two 3000 kg satellites simultaneously or one
satellite with a mass of up to 6800 kg in geostationary transfer orbit, compared with a maximum
Ariane-4 payload of 4400 kg.
After the rocket has reached its operational altitude, the nose cone is eased off, and the satellite let
go in space. A small rocket on the bottom of the satellite pushes the satellite into its final orbit,
usually about 800 Km above the Earth’s surface.
Slide 12
Envisat-1 is now being tested in the Space Laboratory at ESTEC (1999).
ESTEC is the European Space Agency’s main technology centre, and is located in Noordwijk in the
Netherlands.
Slide 13
Did you ever wonder how a satellite gets launched ?
This slide shows how the Envisat-1 satellite will be launched from Kourou, French Guyana in
January of 2002. LEOP stands for the “Launch and Early Orbit Phase”, and is the most critical
period in a satellite’s lifetime.
Note some of the following steps:
• orbit injection (using rockets to get to the final orbit)
• deployment of solar arrays
• locking on to the correct attitude
• deployment of SAR antenna

SAR Image Formation

CanadaCanada
Canada
SAR Image Formation
-Outline-
SAR Principles and Geometry
Radar Equation
Antennas, Polarization, Antenna gain, Radar Equation
SAR Real Aperture
Definition, Concept, Geometry, Point Target Backscatter
SAR Processing
Concepts, Range and Azimuth Compression (concepts and
diagram), Range and Azimuth Processing
SAR Image Geometry (“High Relief Terrain”)
SAR Properties
Signal level uncertainty, Signal phase uncertainty, Multi-
looking
Principle of Synthetic Aperture Radar
Flight direction
target
Source: CCRS

Signal Data
Ground targets in radar remote sensing are

illuminated numerous times by the sensor
Before image formation, the collected data are

referred to as signal data

SAR Flight Geometry
Swath width
Sla
n t r
on an e
cti
g e ng
ire ra
Altitude ar
d
ht Ne
F lig Incident
Angle
g e
ran
r
Ground Range Fa
h
ut
im
Az
Source: Adapted from K. Raney

Antennas
An antenna couples electromagnetic waves (signals) propagating in
free space to and from a transmission line.
frequency dependent
directional
polarization dependent
For SAR applications the axis that defines the wave’s electric field
orientation with respect to the antenna defines the wave polarization.
The general case is elliptical polarized waves.
An antenna focuses the radiated waves into a beam in three dimensions.
for efficiency the radiating aperture > 1 wavelength
large radiating areas (apertures) can make “tight” beams
the gain of an antenna is determined by
- electrical losses
- beam area (solid angle)

EM Wave Polarization
Electrical Field

Antenna Gain Concepts
POINT RADIATOR
SOLID ANGLE ILLUMINATED 4π
GAIN = 1
L2 FINITE APERTURE RADIATOR
SOLID ANGLE ILLUMINATED 2 Φ1 Φ2 / π = ψ

Φ 1
Φ 2
Φ 1 = K 1λ / L1 , Φ 2 =K 2 λ / L2
GAIN = 4 π/ ψ K1, K2 - CONSTANTS
L1
1/2 POWER (-3dB) BOUNDARY
AN ANTENNA GAIN IS AN "ENERGY DISTRIBUTION" GAIN
(THE ANTENNA “FOCUSES” ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION)

Radar Equation
A transmitted signal is focused to a beam (solid angle) by an antenna
The signal propagates to the ground at range R as a wave train with
spherical phase fronts.
The wave electromagnetic fields interact with physical objects in a
ground measurement volume to create a distribution of re-radiated
waves (scattering).
Those secondary waves that propagate towards the receiving antenna
provide the received signal.
The ratio of the returned signal power to the power that would have
been returned from isotropic scatterers is the radar cross section of
the surface.
Far from the surface the returning signal fields add to form waves
with spherical phase fronts.
The fields of the returning waves that couple into the receiving antenna,
and have the correct polarization, define the received signal.
The shape of the antenna beam must be taken into account.

Radar Equation
ILLUMINATION
SCATTERING
RECEPTION

SAR Real Aperture
The Real Aperture of a SAR is the slant range plane interval of
the transmitted pulse for which all signals return to the receiving
antenna at the same instant of time.
All signals at the same range return to the radar at the same
time and are separable only in Doppler shift.
For a transmitted chirp of length τ , the instantaneous radar
return at range R contains surface returns corresponding to
slant range interval c τ /2, each uniquely coded in chirp
frequency.
On a smooth earth, the constant Doppler frequency
contours form a family of hyperbolae and the constant range
contours form a family of circles.
The real aperture determines the range of influence of a
radar saturation event.

The Real Aperture Resolution Cell
Real
Aperture
Cell
Constant
Range Arc
All backscatter from this area returns to the

radar at the same time

Point Target Echo in a Synthetic
Aperture Radar System
SPACECRAFT DATA
DATA RATE = PRF X NUMBER OF RANGE CELLS
MOTION RECORDING
ANTENNA
TRANSMITTED
WAVEFORM
POINT TARGET
PHASE HISTORY
CHIRP
LENGTH
SYNTHETIC
APERTURE
AZIMUTH LENGTH AZIMUTH
RANGE
RANGE POINT TARGET

SAR Processing 1
Once the radar illumination beam has passed over a point on
the ground, all of the information from that point has been
acquired and stored as a two dimensional (range and azimuth)
phase history.
In the absence of radar saturation, all of the phase histories
of all of the points in the image are linearly combined in a
time series to form the SAR “signal” data.
SAR processing decodes the phase signature of each point
in range and azimuth and focuses this information into an
impulse response. The range and azimuth widths of the
impulse response are the range and azimuth resolutions.
Nyquist’s theorem requires that the processed data be
sampled at least twice per impulse response width. These
samples are the radar image “pixels”.

SAR Processing 2
Because the natural coordinates of the range and azimuth data
are not separable, the range and azimuth processing steps are
coupled.
Range walk and range curvature
- resolution vs. beam width
- beam squint
- Earth rotation
Processing is done in the natural coordinate system of the radar,
the slant range plane.
Earth surface presentations of radar images require projection
along constant range arcs to the Earth surface elevation at
each point. RADARSAT data are often projected to an
ellipsoidal Earth model at sea level.

Point Target Compression or Focussing
RANGE
RANGE CURVATURE
COMPRESSION
RANGE RANGE
WALK RESOLUTION
CHIRP
LENGTH
RANGE = CHIRP LENGTH

COMPRESSION RATIO RANGE RESOLUTION
SINGLE LOOK
APERTURE LENGTH
AZIMUTH
RESOLUTION
AZIMUTH
COMPRESSION
LOOK 1 LOOK 2 LOOK 3 LOOK 4
AZIMUTH = SINGLE LOOK APERTURE LENGTH

COMPRESSION RATIO AZIMUTH RESOLUTION

Pulsed Radars
Radar system transmits a pulse with a long

duration
Ground target scatters the transmitted pulse back

to the radar
“Range Processing” gathers the many samples of

the pulses received and combines them
“Azimuth Processing” gathers the many pulses

backscattered by a target and combines them

Range Processing
RANGE - Line of sight between the radar and

the illuminated target
RANGE DIRECTION - Perpendicular to flight direction

(or azimuth) of the sensor
- Also referred to as the cross-track

direction
RANGE RESOLUTION - An image characteristic determined

by the system bandwidth or effective
length of the pulse

Azimuth Processing
AZIMUTH – Commonly used to indicate the linear
distance in the along track direction
AZIMUTH DIRECTION – Direction parallel to the line of flight

also referred to as the along-track
direction
AZIMUTH RESOLUTION – Resolution characteristic of the

azimuth dimension
– Limited by the Doppler bandwidth of
the system
AZIMUTH COMPRESSION – In the SAR signal domain, the raw
data are spread out in the range and
azimuth directions and must be
coherently compressed to realize the
full resolution potential of the
instrument. Azimuth compression
consists of coherently correlating the
received signal with the azimuth
replica function.

High Relief Terrain Profile with
Radar Image Features
AIRCRAFT ALTITUDE ABOVE GROUND
FIRST MOUNTAIN RETURN SL

AN
T RA
NADIR NG
LAYOVER E
PL
AN
E
VALLEY BOTTOM RETURN
RA
DA
R
SH
MOUNTAIN PEAK AD
OW
REFERENCE SURFACE
CONSTANT
RANGE ARCS
FOREGROUND
REFERENCE SURFACE
NADIR VALLEY BOTTOM MOUNTAIN TOP VALLEY BOTTOM
MAP PROJECTION

Signal Uncertainty and
Signal to Noise Ratios
6
SIGNAL UNCERTAINTY IN dB
4
3
"NOISE" SPHERE
2
0 6 8 10 20
4 12 14 16 18
"SIGNAL" TO "NOISE" RATIO IN dB
"TARGET" ELECTRIC FIELD VECTOR

Phase Noise vs Signal to Noise Ratio
35
RMS PHASE NOISE IN DEGREES

30
25
20
"NOISE" SPHERE
15
10
5 8 12
4 6 10 14 16 18 20
SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO dB
"TARGET" ELECTRIC FIELD VECTOR

Multi-Looking Concept
LOOK - Each of the sub-images used to

form the output summed image
implemented in the processor.
SPECKLE - Statistical fluctuation or

uncertainty associated with the
brightness of each pixel in a
radar image due to coherent
illumination and processing

Multi-Looking Concept (cont’d)
Single look image uses all signal returns from a
ground target to create a single image
Image will contain speckle but have the highest
achievable resolution
Independent images of the same area can be formed
in the digital processing of SAR data by using sub-
sets of the signal returns
These images are then averaged to create a single
multi-look image
Resulting image has lower resolution but reduced
speckle
SAR Image
Characteristics

CanadaCanada
Canada
SAR Image Characteristics
-Outline-
Elements of interpretation
Tone
Texture
SAR image artifacts
Ambiguities
Scalloping
Automatic Gain Control effects

Image Brightness Variations
and Interpretation
Two major types of brightness variations observable in a
radar image:
variations in tone
variations in texture
Though uncommon, radar artifacts are a potential source of

unwanted brightness variation as well
Computers are used to supplement and/or extend our visual

interpretation of these brightness variations

Elements of Interpretation
Interpretation Example of computer
Element interpretation technique
tone → density slicing

colour → multispectral classification
texture → texture analysis
pattern → spatial transforms / classification
size → size feature classification
shape → syntactic classification
association → contextual classification
Source: Manual of Remote Sensing, 1983

Image Tone
Refers to each distinguishable grey level from black
to white
Proportional to strength of radar backscatter
Relatively smooth targets like calm water appear as
dark tones
Diffuse targets like some vegetation appear as
intermediate tones
Man-made targets (buildings, ships) may produce
bright tones, depending on their shape, orientation
and/or constituent materials

Image Tone (cont’d)
DARK MEDIUM BRIGHT
Source: CCRS
Image Texture
Refers to the pattern of spatial tone variations
Function of spatial uniformity of scene targets
For radar images texture consists of scene texture

multiplied by speckle
Texture may be described as fine, medium, or coarse

Image Texture (cont’d)
Corn Field Forest
300 m 300 m
Source: Ulaby and Dobson, 1989

SAR Image Artifacts
SAR image artifacts can occur due to platform,
sensor, and/or processing problems
Ambiguities
- Azimuth Ambiguity
- Range Ambiguity
- Nadir Ambiguity
Scalloping
Automatic Gain Control effects for RADARSAT-1
Image radiometrics & geometrics can be affected
Sometimes reprocessing can improve
Sometimes incorrigible

Ambiguities
Copy of target appears offset in range and/or in azimuth
(ghosting)
Artifacts visible if background is dark and invariant (e.g.

calm water), difficult to detect over variable background
(e.g. forested land)
Desired signal is contaminated by signal of adjacent

targets

Ambiguities Halifax Harbour,
Nova Scotia
Ghost fleet of ships
seen in RADARSAT
Azimuth Ambiguity S7 image
too slow sampling of returned

signals
Range Ambiguity
simultaneous returns from
desired illuminated region and
of a previously or successively
transmitted pulse
- e.g. Nadir Return
- return from “under the
satellite” accompanies
return from imaged
swath
Source: Werle, 1997

Nadir Ambiguities
These bright linear features
appear at approximately
constant range
Signal returns from nadir are

strong due to near-specular
reflection from targets within a
very narrow slant range
distance→ bright tone
Due to pulse compression,

bright return is restricted to a
small number of range cells
→ sharp, linear shape

Nadir Ambiguities and RADARSAT
Products originally specified as single beam products
were designed to avoid nadir ambiguities where
possible
Possible location of nadir ambiguities in single beam

images:
Near edge of Wide 2 images captured with real-

time downlink
Middle of Wide 3 images
Source: Luscombe, 1997

Nadir Ambiguities and RADARSAT (cont’d)
Possible location of nadir ambiguities in multiple
beam products:
Within beam Wide 3 in ScanSAR Wide A
In overlap between Wide 1 and 2 beams in

ScanSAR Wide A and B, and ScanSAR Narrow A
In overlap between Standard 5 and 6 beams in

ScanSAR Narrow B and ScanSAR Wide B
Source: Luscombe, 1997

Scalloping
Caused by improper
estimation of Doppler
Centroid
Seen as corduroy-like
radiometric banding across
the scene (range direction)
Occasionally visible in
RADARSAT ScanSAR mode
products
Image can be reprocessed

using better Doppler Centroid
estimates
Automatic Gain Control Effects
of RADARSAT-1
Onboard the sensor, a gain is applied to returned signal
data prior to input to the analogue to digital converter
(ADC)
Proper selection of gain improves use of limited
dynamic range in ADC and minimizes saturation and
ADC underflow of signal data
RADARSAT-1 employs an Automatic Gain Control
(AGC) whose value is set based on signals received
from part of the swath in the half closest to the satellite
If scene is bright in near range and dark in the far
range, gain may be too low causing far range targets to
appear darker in the image than they should be
(cont’d)
If scene is dark in near range and bright in the far
range, gain may be too high causing far range targets
to saturate
Saturation often visible as tonal changes appearing in
bands across the image in the range direction
Effects of underflow not as visible in image
Both saturation and underflow affect radiometrics of
image
For qualitative purposes, AGC banding can be
eliminated by ordering image with a constant gain --
saturation and underflow may still occur in image

AGC Effects
RADARSAT-1
Beam Mode S5
Aug. 21, 1996
Malaysia

(cont’d)
For quantitative analysis
Pre-Acquisition
- Choose beam and orbit (i.e. ascending,
descending pass) that places analysis target in
near half of swath
- Banding may still occur in far range
Acquisition
- use an appropriate fixed gain setting
Post-Acquisition
- Perform power loss correction to correct mean
value -- requires reprocessing from signal data

Data Products

CanadaCanada
Canada
Data Products
-Outline-
Radar Product Characteristics
Signal Data, Single Look Complex,
Georeferenced, Geocoded.
Media Choices
CD-ROM, Data Cartridge (8mm), CCT,
Hardcopy.
CEOS Standard File Format
Spaceborne SARs
RADARSAT-1 and -2

Introduction
The purpose of this section is to introduce
and explain generic radar products and their
formats.
For the current radar satellites the generic
radar products are very similar in their
characteristics, but have different names and
acronyms.
The different product names are explained in
this section, but all cited examples are for
RADARSAT-1 products.
Classes of Radar Product
Signal Data
Georeferenced Products
complex, detected, slant

and ground range.
Geocoded Products
detected, ground range.

Signal Data
Raw radar echo data in in-phase and

quadrature (I/Q) format
In slant range
Stripped of telemetry format information

reassembled into contiguous radar range
lines
Not an image, must be processed using a

SAR processor to an image product

Georeferenced vs Geocoded Products
Georeferenced products:
relative geographic location is incorporated in the
image.
not corrected to a map projection and should not be
used for mapping purposes.
Geocoded products:
geometrically corrected to conform to a map
projection.
often use ground control points and DEM to
increase the geocoding accuracy.
geocoded products are usually resampled to a
standard square pixel size.
See Table 3.1 for an overview of RADARSAT products

Table 3.1
RADARSAT Product Characteristics
Product Name RSI Name Format Mode Pixel Spacing # Looks General Characteristics
Approx. (m)
Single Look Single Look Slant Range Standard 11.6 x 5.1 1x1 Each pixel is represented by I and Q
Complex Complex Fine 4.6 x 5.1 1x1 complex data.
(SLC) Wide 11.6 x 5.1 1x1 Must be processed into an image.
Extended High 11.6 x 5.1 1x1 Retains optimum resolution.
Extended Low 8.1 x 5.1 1x1
Georeferenced Path image Ground Standard 12.5 x 12.5 1x4 Oriented in orbit path.
Fine Resolution Range Fine 6.25 x 6.25 1x1 Must be geometrically corrected if
(SGF) Wide 12.5 x 12.5 1x4 required for mapping.
Extended High 12.5 x 12.5 1x4
ScanSAR Narrow 25 x 25 2x2
ScanSAR Wide 50 x 50 2x4
Georeferenced Path Image Ground Standard 8x8 1x4 Lower sample spacing than SGF
Extra-Fine Plus Range Fine 3.125 x 3.125 1x1 Retains full beam resolution.
Resolution Wide 10 x 10 1x4
(SGX) Extended High 8x8 1x4
Extended Low 10 x 10 1x4
Systematically Map Image Ground Standard 12.5 x 12.5 1x4 SGF product is processed to North up
Geocoded Range Fine 6.25 x 6.25 1x1 and corrected to a map projection.
(SSG) Wide 12.5 x 12.5 1x4
Extended High 12.5 x 12.5 1x4
Precision Precision Ground Same as Map Same as Map Same as SGF product is corrected using GCPs
Geocoded Map Range Image Image Map and a DEM.
(SPG) Image Image Best positional product.
Source: RADARSAT International, 1995, RADARSAT Illuminated – Your Guide to Products and Services, RADARSAT
International

Georeferenced Products
Image Products
Lines and pixels oriented to radar system (e.g.
SGF, SGX product for RADARSAT).
- line direction is azimuth direction of radar
- pixel direction is range direction of radar
Geographic location of pixels is approximated
based on locally spherical elliptical Earth at sea
level and typically stored in the product header.
- typically based on orbit models only, no
geocoded control points used.
- referred to as systematic georeferenced.
Can be in slant or ground range geometry at a
variety of pixel spacings.
- variety of terminology used for different satellites
(see Table 3.2)

Table 3.2 - Comparable Products Between
Different Satellites
RAD ARSAT ERS - ERS - SPOT Landsat
Europe North
America
Precison Image Path O riented

Path Image Georeferenced
Georeferenced Systematic O R Precision
(SGF) Fine Resolution 1B
(PRI) Correction
(SG F)
Path Image Plus

N/A N/A N/A N/A
(SGX)
Geocoded Systematically
Map Image Map Oriented Systematic
Image Geocoded 2A
(SSG) Correction
(GEC) (SSG )
Terrain
Precision Map Precision
Geocoded Map Orientated
Image Geocoded 2B
Image Precision Correction
(SPG) (SPG )
(GTC)
Signal Data Raw 1 Raw 1 1A 2 Raw 2
Single Look Single Look

Single Look
Complex Complex N/A N/A
Complex (SLC)
(SLC) (SLC)
1 SAR Signal Data cannot be viewed as an image

2 Optical RAW data (SPOT, Landsat) can be viewed as an image
Source: RADARSAT International, 1995, RADARSAT Illuminated – Your Guide to Products and Services

Geocoded Products
Systematically Geocoded or Map Image
(RADARSAT - SSG)
Product is processed to “North Up” and

corrected to a map projection.
Image may be converted to one of a

large number of map projections.
Sample spacing remains as in original

data.

Geocoded Products
Precision Geocoded or Precision Map Image
(RADARSAT - SPG)
Product is further processed to correct the geographic
positional data based on use of Digital Elevation Terrain
Model and a number of precisely surveyed ground control
points within the imaged area.
Data format and map projections same as for SSG.
Sample spacings remain as in original data.
Variety of terminology used for different satellites (see

Table 3.2)

Media Choices
Radar products are available on a number of media.
Digital (Stored in CEOS format)
- CD-ROM
- Data cartridge (8mm)
- Computer Compatible Tape (CCT) (9 track)
Hardcopy (Available upon request)

- film
- print

Introduction to the CEOS File Format
CEOS, the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites, is an
international organisation concerned with various aspects of Earth
Observation (EO), including data formats.
CEOS has defined an international standard data format that can
accommodate all EO data.
CEOS is a self defining format and thus there are many minor
format variations between CEOS format products.
RADARSAT CEOS example:
Consists of 5 files, only one of which contains image data, the
other 4 contain information on the image data.
Tables 3.3 and 3.4 provide an overview of the structure of the
CEOS file format for RADARSAT data.
Detailed descriptions of each of the 5 files follows the Tables,
using RADARSAT SGX as the example.

Table 3.3
Example CEOS File Format
(SGF, SGX, SLC)
Volume Directory File Volume Descriptor
File Pointer Record
Text Record
SAR Leader File
(see Table 3.4)
Descriptor Record
SAR Data File
Processed Data
SAR Trailer File Descriptor Record
Null Volume Directory File Null Volume Descriptor

Table 3.4
Example CEOS File Format
(SGF, SGX, SLC)
Volume Directory File Descriptor Record
Data Set Summary
Data Quality Summary
SAR Leader File
Signal Data Histogram
Processed Data (16-bit) Histogram
SAR Data File Detailed Processing Parameters
Platform Position Data
SAR Trailer File Attitude Data
Radiometric Data
Radiometric Compensation Data
Null Volume Directory File

Spaceborne SARs
The viewing geometry of a spaceborne SAR, in comparison to an
airborne SAR with a similar swath width, varies only a few degrees
and thus provides a more uniform illumination geometry over the
whole swath.
Depending on the orbital parameters, a spaceborne SAR can collect
data more quickly over larger areas than airborne systems.
Frequency of coverage is set by orbit constraints and imaging modes
of the radar.
Revisit for typical spaceborne SAR is between 3-35 days.
Corrections must be made in processing for the effects of earth
curvature, earth rotation and orbital variations.
The first civilian spaceborne SAR was SEASAT (USA) in 1978,
followed by Almaz (USSR/Russia), ERS-1 (Europe), J-ERS-1
(Japan), ERS-2 (Europe) and RADARSAT-1 (Canada).
Tables 3.5 and 3.6 provide an overview of the characteristics of the
orbital SAR systems.

Table 3.5
Past Orbital SAR Systems
Parameters Seasat SIR-A SIR-B Almaz SIR-C/X SAR ERS-1 JERS-1
Country USA USA USA USSR USA Europe Japan

Nov
Launch Date Jun ‘78 Oct ‘84 Mar ‘91 Apr ‘94 Jul ’91 Feb ‘92
‘81
3 2.5
Lifetime (design) 8 days 2 years each 11 days 3 years 2 years
months days
Band L L L S L, C, X C L
Wavelength (cm) 23.5 23.5 23.5 10 23.9, 5.7, 9.6 5.7 23.5
L and C Quad Pol
Polarization HH HH HH HH VV HH
X (VV)
Nominal Incident
23 50 15 - 64 30 - 60 15 - 50 23 38
Angle (°)
Nominal Ground
25 40 25 15 - 30 10 - 26 26 18
Range Resolution (m)
Nominal Azimuth
25 40 17 – 58 15 30 28 18
Resolution (m)
No. of Looks 4 6 4 >4 4 3 3
Swath Width (km) 100 50 10 - 60 20 - 45 15 – 60 100 75
Repeat Cycle (days) 17, 3 nil nil nil nil 3, 35, 176 44

Table 3.6
Current and Planned Orbital SAR Systems
Envisat 1 ALOS
Parameters ERS-2 RADARSAT 1 SAOCOM RADARSAT 2
ASAR PALSAR
Country Europe Canada Europe Japan Argentina Canada
Launch Date Apr ‘95 Nov. 1995 2001 2002 2003 2003
Lifetime
3 years 5 years 5 years 3-5 years 5 years 5 years
(design)
Band C C C L L C
Wavelength
5.7 5.7 5.6 23.6 23 5.6
(cm)
Polarization VV HH Note 1 Note 2 Note 3 Note 4
Nominal
Incident Angle 23 10 – 59 15 – 45 8-60 15-40 10 – 60
(°)
Nominal
Ground Range 26 10 – 100 30 – 1000 10-100 10-100 3 – 100
Resolution (m)
Nominal
Azimuth 28 9 – 100 30 – 1000 10-100 10-100 3 – 100
Resolution (m)
No. of Looks 3 1–8 8 2-8 2-8 1–8
Swath W idth
100 50 – 500 60 – 405 30-350 35-360 10 – 500
(km)
Repeat Cycle
35 24 35 46 7 24
(days)
1- Envisat polarizations HH or VV or HH+VV or HH+HV or VV+VH

2- ALOS PALSAR polarizations HH or VV or HH+HV or VV+VH or HH+HV+VH+VV
3- SAOCOM polarizations HH or VV or HH+HV or VV+VH or HH+HV+VH+VV
4- RADARSAT-2 polarizations HH or VV or HV or VH or HH+HV or VV+VH or HH+HV+VH+VV
RADARSAT 1
Canada’s first Earth observation satellite, RADARSAT 1, was
launched in November of 1995.
The radar is C-band (5.3 GHz, 5.66 cm wavelength) with HH
polarization.
The system has six imaging modes with a diverse range of
incident angles and swath widths as illustrated in Figure 3.1.
Technical details of the SAR imaging modes are shown in
Table 3.7.
More flexibility in image resolution, incident angles and swath
width are possible with this system compared to other
operational SAR systems
– Nominal ground resolution ranges from 8 - 100 metres
– Incident angles range from 10 – 59 degrees
– Swath width ranges from 50 – 500 km

Figure 3.1
RADARSAT 1 SAR Imaging Modes
Extended
- Low incidence
Satellite ground
track
Extended
ScanSAR
Wide - High incidence
Standard
Fine

Table 3.7
a
MODE BEAM & INCIDENT ANGLES GROUND AREA PROCESSED
Fine F1 near 36.4 - 39.6 8 50 X 50 1X1
(15 positions) F1 36.8 - 39.9 SGF or SGX
F1 far 37.2 - 40.3
F2 near 38.8 - 41.8
F2 near 39.2 - 42.1
F2 far 39.6 - 42.5
F3 near 41.1 - 43.7
F3 41.5 - 44.0
F3 far 41.8 - 44.3
F4 near 43.1 - 45.5
F4 43.5 - 45.8
F4 far 43.8 - 46.1
F5 near 45.0 - 47.2
F5 45.3 - 47.5
F5 far 45.6 - 47.8
Standard Mode S1 20 - 27 25 100 x 100 1x4
(7 beams) S2 24 - 31 SGF or SGX
S3 30 - 37
S4 34 - 40
S5 36 - 42
S6 41 - 46
S7 45 - 49
SGF = SAR Georeferenced Fine Resolution Product = Path Image aGround range resolution
SGX = SAR Georeferenced Extra Fine Resolution Product = Path Image Plus varies across the swath.
Table 3.7 (cont’d)
a
MODE BEAM & INCIDENT ANGLE GROUND AREA PROCESSED
Wide W1 20 - 31 30 165 x 165 1x4
(3 positions) W2 31 - 39 150 x 150 SGF or SGX
W3 39 - 45 130 x 130
ScanSAR Narrow SCNA 20 - 40 50 300 x 300 2x2
SCNB 31 - 46 SCN
ScanSAR Wide SCWA 20 - 49 100 500 x 500 2x4
SCWB 20 - 46 450 x 450 SCW
Extended High EH1 49 - 52 25 75 x 75 1x4
(6 beams) EH2 50 - 53 SGF or SGX
EH3 52 - 55
EH4 54 - 57
EH5 56 - 58
EH6 57 - 59
Extended Low EL1 10 - 23 30 170 x 170 1x4
SGF or SGX
SGF = SAR Georeferenced Fine Resolution Product (Path Image) aGround range resolution
SGX = SAR Georeferenced Extra Fine Resolution Product (Path Image Plus) varies across the swath.
SCN = ScanSAR Narrow Beam Product (Path Image)
SCW = ScanSAR Wide Beam Product (Path Image)

RADARSAT 2
MDA selected to build, own and operate RADARSAT 2.
Launch is scheduled for 2003.

C-band system including beam modes of RADARSAT 1
as outlined in Figure 3.1 with significant extensions.
RADARSAT 2 has several major improvements over
RADARSAT 1:
Polarizations - horizontal (HH), vertical (VV) and cross (HV,
VH) polarizations including polarimetry.
3 metre resolution with new ultra-fine beam mode
Increased revisit using dual-sided (left and right) imaging.

Image Quality
and Calibration

CanadaCanada
Canada
Image Quality and Calibration
-Outline-
β o, γ o, and σ o
How do they differ?
How to get these from DN (Digital Number) on product?
Digital Numbers on the Products and β o

Look Up Tables
- Why?
- Types
RADARSAT Image Calibration

Processor Functionality
- Antenna Pattern Correction
β o, σ o, γ o and RADARSAT Data
Backscatter
β o per unit area in slant range
σ o per unit area in ground range
γ o per unit area of the incident wavefront
(perpendicular to slant range)

β ο, σ ο, γ ο and RADARSAT Data
Source: R.K. Raney, 1998 N.B. Geometry Approximations

β o, σ o , γ ο and RADARSAT Data
σ 0 jk = β 0 jk + 10*log10 ( sin (θ j ) )
and γ 0 jk = β 0 jk + 10*log10 ( tan (θ j ) )
where j = range sample
k = azimuth sample
θj = incident angle
σ ojk = RADAR BACKSCATTER COEFFICIENT ([dB])
β ojk = RADAR BRIGHTNESS ([dB])
Most natural radiometric observable of a RADAR
- “backscatter per unit area in slant range”
Requires no knowledge of local incident angle
γ ο jk = GAMMA ([dB])
β ο, σ ο , γ ο and RADARSAT Data
(Cont’d)
Incident angle (θj )
should be local incident angle
often use model geoid at sea level to define θj
- approximate
- may be significant radiometric approximation
- may lead to significant error in backscatter
coefficient

β ο and RADARSAT Detected Products
(
 DN jk 2 + A3
β 0 jk = 10*log10 
) 
 A2 j 
where:  
DNjk
- Digital Number at range j, azimuth k
A3, A2j
- Constant + Range Dependent LUT
- supplied with CEOS Product (subsampled)
- interpolated between values and
extrapolated at end

β ο and RADARSAT Detected
Products (cont’d)
A3, A2j
Radiometric Data Record:
- lookup_tab, samp_inc, offset
References of product specifications:

RADARSAT International, RADARSAT Data Products
Specificiations RSI-GS-026 Version3/0, May 8, 2000
http://www.rsi.ca/adro/adro/tools/tools/cdpf_specs/d4_3-0.doc
Updated information for Section 5 and Appendix D can be found in:

ALTRIX Systems, "Extraction of Beta-Nought and Sigma-Nought
from RADARSAT CDPF Products," CSA Document AS97-5001,
Rev. 4, April 28, 2000.
http://www.space.gc.ca/csa_sectors/earth_environment/radarsat/
radarsat_info/description/radio_calib.asp
β ο and RADARSAT SLC Products
I jk = DNI jk / A2 j
Q jk = DNQ jk / A2 j
β 0 jk = 10*log10 ( I jk 2 + Q jk 2 )
where:
DNIjk / DNQjk
- Real / Imaginary Part Digital Number at range j,
azimuth k
A2j
- Range Dependent LUT supplied with CEOS
Product and interpolated to each range sample

Look Up Tables (LUTs)
Applied during conversion of calibrated floating
point data at last stage in processing to DN
(in Canadian Data Processing Facility (CDPF))
for storage and transfer (exabyte and CD-ROM)
Included in “the picture” if DN 2 (or DN ) used directly
Reverse to β o for quantitative analysis

LUTs (cont’d)
Aim to create LUTs to ensure best use of 8 or 16 bits
on storage media
Range dependent (because β ο is range dependent)
All values below lower limit β ο (β οl) and above

upper limit β ο (β οu ) will be given limiting values
(β ο l or β οu respectively)
knowledge of these β ο will be lost

LUTs (cont’d)
Defined for specific applications
Sea, Ice, Land, Mixed, Others (Point Target,

Unity)
may show saturation/underflow if different target

in same image
- easily checked by looking at DN
Reference: User Guide at Order Desk

Sample CDPF LUT for 8-bit products
vs. Incident Angle
LUT (dB)
Incident Angle (deg)
Source: Canadian Space Agency

Conversions from DN to β and σ o
Performed by Third-Party Software
Requires approximations
to algorithms in processor
to geometry of imaging
Reference: Shepherd, N., ALTRIX Systems, "Extraction of Beta-Nought and Sigma-Nought from
RADARSAT CDPF Products," CSA Doc ument AS97-5001, Rev. 4, April 28, 2000.
Produced under contract to S. Srivastava, Canadian Space Agency

Image Quality Results
How good is RADARSAT ?
Results Obtained by CSA during the Beam

Qualification Phase (Prior to April 1, 1996)
see next viewgraph

Measured RADARSAT Image Quality
Beam Type F2 S2 S7
Chirp Bandwidth (MHz) 30 17.28 11.58
Acquisitition Date March 5, 1996 March 9, 1996 March 5, 1996
Orbit (Pass Type) 1749 (A) 1799 (D) 1742(D)
Orbit Parameters Used D P D
Incident Angle (deg) 40.35 26.63 47.39
Product Type SGX SGX SGX
Parameter Meas. Specification Meas. Specification Meas. Specification
Range IRW (m) 8.07 9.74 21.13 24.31 19.07 22.06
Azimuth IRW (m) 7.76 9.0 25.65 28.0 24.83 28.0
Range PSLR (dB) -19.23 -18.0 -21.69 -18.0 -22.22 -18.0
Azimuth PSLR (dB) -21.69 -18.0 -21.58 -18.0 -22.49 -18.0
Abs. Location Error (m) 27.7 750 52.9 750 45.3 750
Examples of measured and specified parameters for sample images of the RADARSAT Precision Transponder
sites. Descriptive parameters include Pass Type (A for ascending pass and D for descending pass) and Orbit
Parameters Used (D for definitive orbit data and P for predicted orbit data). The measured image quality
parameters presented include Impulse Response Width (IRW) in Range and Azimuth, Peak Side Lobe Ratio
(PSLR) in Range and Azimuth, and Absolute Location Error (ALE). The measured values are better then the
specifications.
Source: S.K. Srivastava, T.I. Lukowski, R.B. Gray, N.W. Shepherd, B. Banik, R.K Hawkins and C. Cloutier,
“Calibration and Image Quality Performance Results of RADARSAT,” Advances in Space Research, Vol. 19, No. 9,
pp. 1447-1454, 1997.

Geometric Location Accuracy
Based on Processor Accuracy in determination of
geometry of lines at zero-Doppler (output product)
Assumes all targets and imagery at zero height

ASL
will be significantly different in ‘‘real cases’’

Radiometric Calibration
Dependent on imaging system and processor
Account for imaging and processing parameters of

system and microwave propagation
Calculations performed during the processing

Radiometric Calibration (cont’d)
 1  1  1  3
β α  g2 θ  G (R )
0
 PT   ( j )   SYS 
where:
PT transmitter power
g(θj ) one way antenna gain pattern
GSYS system gains
R slant range

RADARSAT Relative Radiometric
Accuracy
Design Goals for Standard Beam Modes
100 km * 100 km scene 1.0 dB
one orbit 1.5 dB
three days 2.0 dB
mission lifetime 3.0 dB

Antenna Pattern

Determination of Antenna Gain Pattern in
Elevation for Standard Beam S1
22
Abs Gain Factor (db)
20
18
16
14
12 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
16
Elevation (deg)
22
Abs Gain Factor (db)
20
18
16
D=-0.3344 +/-0.04864dB
14
12 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
16
Elevation (deg)
Reference:
T. I. Lukowski, R.K. Hawkins, C. Cloutier, J. Wolfe, L.D. Teany, S.K. Srivastava, B. Banik, R. Jha and M.
Adamovic, “RADARSAT Antenna Pattern Determination, ” Proceedings of GER’97, Ottawa, May 27-29, 1997.

Antenna Pattern in Elevation
Cross-track illumination variation
Critical to Radiometric Calibration
correction for gain variation within beam and

between beams
major contributor to radiometric budget
Determine separately, then apply to each image in

the processor
“all done” before user gets the data; nothing for

user to do (for RADARSAT)

Antenna Gain Pattern “Correction”
Application of antenna gain pattern to product to

reverse illumination variation at imaging
Requires accurate knowledge of geometry and

satellite attitude to find angles at each range
in image
assumes that all imaging is for flat terrain at sea
level

Use of Radiometrically
Calibrated Products
Goal of radiometric calibration
to account for all the contributions in the
radiometric values not due to the target
characteristics, so that the backscatter values
of targets can be compared to one another or a
reference
Radar data and calculations are not
“perfect”
uncertainities in the radiometric values may be
increased by further processing by the user
when relating radiometric values to ground
measurements, uncertainties in both must be
considered
Radiometric
Enhancement

CanadaCanada
Canada
Radiometric Enhancement
-Outline-
Filtering
Speckle Reduction
- Definition; Why speckle filtering; What is the ideal
speckle reduction filter
- Non-adaptive filters (FFT filters)
- Adaptive filters (Frost, Lee, MAP Gamma filters)
Edge Detection
- Ratio edge detector filter
- Touzi filter

Radiometric Enhancement (cont’d)
-Outline-
Analysis of Image Texture

Visual Enhancement
Contrast Enhancement
Linear Enhancement
Nonlinear Enhancement
- Histogram, Exponential, Logarithmic,
Power Law Stretch

Introduction
This section reviews the methods of enhancing the
radiometrics of an image using speckle reduction filters,
spatial enhancement filters and visual enhancements.
The understanding of radar “speckle” is key to the
understanding of SAR and SAR radiometric
enhancements.
Often the reduction of speckle is desired to improve
classification and/or for enhancement.
To reduce speckle, adaptive filters (e.g. map gamma
filter), should be used rather than non-adaptive filters (e.g.
FFT filters) on radar imagery.
Adaptive filters take into account the local properties of the
terrain backscatter or the nature of the sensor, whereas
non-adaptive filters do not.

Introduction to Speckle
Image variance or “speckle” is a granular noise that inherently

exists in SAR imagery (Figure 5.1).
Speckle gives a single look image a grainy, salt and pepper
appearance and is the dominating factor in radar imagery.
Speckle noise occupies a wider dynamic range than the scene
content itself.
Images processed with a small number of 'looks' will have
distribution intensities which are quite asymmetric due to
speckle noise.
Creating a symmetrical histogram may not be the optimum
procedure. Instead, pixels are set to the extreme limits of the
data intensity distribution (e.g. DN values of 0 and 255 for 8-bit
data).
For a detailed review of speckle, see Raney (1998).

What is Speckle?
Speckle is coherent interference of waves scattered from terrain

elements observed in each resolution cell.
An incident radar wave interacts with each element of the
surface and surface cover to generate scattered waves
propagating in all directions.
Those scattered waves that reach the receiving antenna are
summed in direction and phase to make the received signal.
The relative phase components contain the differential
propagation paths.
The SAR focusing operation coherently combines the
received signals to form the image.
The scattered wave phase addition results in both
constructive and destructive interference of individual
scattered returns and randomly modulates the strength of
the signal in each resolution cell.

Figure 5.1 - Example of Speckle

What is Speckle? (cont’d)
Addition of backscatter from a collection of scatterers

produces random constructive and destructive
interference, see Figure 5.2.
Constructive interference is an increase from the
mean intensity and produces bright pixels.
Destructive interference is a decrease from the
mean intensity and produces dark pixels.
These random fluctuations give rise to speckle.
Reducing these effects enhances radiometric
resolution at the expense of spatial resolution.

Figure 5.2 - Speckle
Constructive Interference
Result
Coherent Destructive Interference

radar waves
Result
Example of Homogenous Target
Constructive interference
Varying degrees of interference

(between constructive and destructive )
Destructive interference
Speckle Suppression
Speckle results from a coherent (phase included) process.
Speckle can be reduced by incoherent (amplitude or power) processes.
Speckle reduction (or smoothing) necessarily reduces the resolution
(increases the resolution cell size) of single channel SAR data.
Two basic linear processes:
- Multi-look - divides the signal into minimally overlapped frequency
bands, processes each to a reduced resolution image, registers
these, detects and adds the detected images. Examples of multi-
look processing are shown in Figure 5.3.
- Averaging - detects the full resolution image, performs local
averaging and resampling processes to create reduced resolution,
reduced speckle images.
- For distributed targets both processes are equivalent.

Figure 5.3 - Multi-look Processing
Examples of multi-look
processing. Note that
image chips A, B, and
C all have the same
resolution, but that
image chips C and D
have comparable
image quality factors
(data from an X-band
airborne SAR, 1972,
optically processed).
(In Principles &
Applications of
Imaging Radar,
Manual of Remote
Sensing, 1998,
A 6.1 m x 6.1 m B 6.1 m x 6.1 m Chapter 2 - Raney,
N=4
N=1
Courtesy R. QSAR = 0.11 pg. 75)
QSAR = 0.027
Shuchman and
E. Kasischke, D
C 6.1 m x 6.1 m ERIM
1.5 m x 2.13 m
N = 16 N=1
QSAR = 0.43 QSAR = 0.31

Why Speckle Filtering?
The presence of speckle noise must be considered

when selecting analysis methodologies.
Speckle filtering will permit:
better discrimination of scene targets.
easier automatic image segmentation.
the application of the classical enhancement tools

developed for imagery from optical sensors such
as; edge detectors, per-pixel and textural
classifiers.

The Ideal Speckle Reduction Filter
Reduce speckle with minimum loss of information

In homogeneous areas, the filter should preserve:
radiometric information
edges between different areas
In textured areas, the filter should preserve:
radiometric information
spatial signal variability: textural information

Families of Speckle Reduction Filters
Non-adaptive filters
The parameters of the whole image signal are considered.
Do not take into consideration the local properties of the terrain
backscatter or the nature of the sensor.
Not appropriate for filtering of non-stationary scene signal.
Examples are the FFT filters.
Adaptive filters
Accommodate changes in local properties of the terrain
backscatter.
- The speckle noise is modelled as being stationary
- The target signal is not stationary since the mean backscatter
changes with the type of target
Examples are the Frost, Lee, Map Gamma, local mean and local
median filters
Figure 5.4 shows examples of adaptive filters.

Figure 5.4 - Gamma vs. Median Filter
Tapajós, Brazil
May 20, 1996 Beam F2
Median 5x5
Original Image
Map Gamma
5x5

Kernel Size
Examples of Mean, Median and Mode filter kernels

(or windows) are shown in Figure 5.5.
Filters are a sub-array of X by Y pixels that moves
through the image.
All three filters shown in Figure 5.5 are square box
filters, with a kernel size of 3 by 3 pixels
Degree of smoothing is a function of the size of the
kernel.
As filter kernel size increases, smoothing increases.

Figure 5.5 - Filtering Kernel
MEAN
5 7 4 5+7+4+9+8+6+5+5+8= 57
9 8 6 57÷ 9 =
MEAN = 6 5x5
7x7
5 5 8 3x3
MEDIAN
5 7 4 4,5,5,5,6,7,8,8,9
9 8 6 MEDIAN = 6
5 5 8
MODE
4
5 7 4 555
6 MODE = 5
9 8 6 7
5 5 8 88
9
Source: CCRS

Mean and Median Filters
Principle
Intensity at each sample interval in the image is
replaced by the mean of pixel values in a moving
window surrounding the sample.
The box or mean filter preserves well the radiometry
but blurs textured areas.
The median filter assigns the window median value to
each sample.
Preserves texture information better
Modifies the radiometric information of

homogeneous areas, and does not preserve point
target signature
Not recommended for radar imagery.
See Figure 5.6 for examples of both filters.
Figure 5.6 - Median and Mean Filters
Tapajós, Brazil
Median 7x7
Original Image
Mean 7x7

Adaptive Filtering
Adaptive filters (e.g. Map Gamma) reduce speckle

while preserving the edges (sharp contrast
variation).
Adaptive filters modify the image based on statistics

extracted from the local environment of each pixel.
Larger kernel size (e.g. 11x11) result in an important

increased smoothing effect on the resulting image
(Figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7 - Gamma Filter
Tapajós, Brazil
Map Gamma
7x7
Original Image
Map Gamma
11x11

Advantages of Adaptive Filters
Most of the well known adaptative filters require the

calculation of the local observed mean and
normalized standard deviation (coefficient of
variation).
The adaptive filter produces an accurate estimate of

the backscattering coefficient inside homogeneous
(stationary) areas while preserving edge and texture
structure in nonstationary scenes.

Most Well-known Filters: The Frost Filter
Principle
The unspeckled pixel value is estimated using a

subwindow of the processing window.
The size of the subwindow varies as a function

of target local heterogeneity measured with
coefficient of variation:
– the larger the coefficient of variation, the

narrower the processing subwindow
The Enhanced Frost Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,

IEEE, 1990) minimizes the loss of radiometric and
textural information (Figure 5.8).
Figure 5.8 - Examples of Filters

Most Well-known Filters : The Lee Filter
Principle
The unspeckled pixel value is a weighted sum of
the observed (central) pixel value and the mean
value.
The weighting coefficient is a function of local
target heterogeneity measured with the coefficient
of variation.
The Enhanced Lee Filter (Lopes, Touzi and Nezri,
IEEE, 1990) minimizes the loss of radiometric and
textural information (Figure 5.8).
The Enhanced Lee and Enhanced Frost Filters
perform similarly.
Most Well-known Filters :
The MAP Gamma Filter
Background
The Frost and Lee filters are based on models

which do not use the statistical properties of the
underlying scene.
In a joint study with CESR (Toulouse, France),

CCRS participated in the development of the
MAP Gamma Filter (Lopes, Touzi, Nezri and
Low, IJRS, 1993).

Most well known Filters :
The MAP Gamma Filter (cont’d)
Principle
The filter is based on the assumption that the
(unspeckled) intensity of the underlying scene is
gamma distributed.
The filter minimizes the loss of texture information better
than the Frost and Lee filters within gamma distributed
scenes.
It is suitable for a wide range of gamma distributed scenes,
such as forested areas, agriculture areas, and oceans.
The filter preserves the observed pixel value for non-
gamma distributed scenes.
See Figure 5.9 for the filter example.
Figure 5.9 - Map Gamma Filter
Tapajós, Brazil
Original Image Map Gamma

11x11

Effects of Filtering
Whereas, adaptive filters (Lee, Frost and Gamma)

preserve the mean value and are therefore
preferable for SAR imagery (Figure 5.10).
Figure 5.11 shows that as the filter kernel size
increases, so does the percent change in standard
deviation.
A quantitative example of these effects on real data
is shown in Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.10 - Effects of Filtering
Filter Size & Type vs % Change in Mean

Percentage Change in Mean
Raw Median 7x7 Lee 7x7 Frost 7x7

Median 3x3 Lee 3x3 Frost 3x3
Frost 5x5
Median 5x5 Lee 5x5
Filter Size & Type

Source: CCRS

Filter Size & Type vs % Change in SD
% Change in Standard Deviation
Raw Median 7x7 Lee 7x7 Frost 7x7

Filter Size & Type

Source: CCRS

Effects of Filtering on Sample Wheat Field Statistics, ERS-1 SAR
Mean Standard % Change % Change

Mean/SD
Deviation in Mean in SD
Raw
Median 3x3
Median 5.5
Median 7x7
Lee 3x3
Lee 5x5
Lee 7x7
Frost 3x3
Frost 5x5
Frost 7x7
Source: CCRS, Brown et al, 1993

Edge Detection in SAR Images
Application : Segmentation of the image into separate
entities, classification
Types of Edge Detection Filters:
Directional, Gradient, Laplacian, Sobel, Prewitt,
Ratio Edge Detector
Warnings
The classical edge detectors (e.g. Gradient, Sobel)
developed for imagery from optical sensors are not
suitable for SAR images.
Because of the multiplicative nature of speckle,
they detect more false edges within brighter areas.
Imagery must first be filtered (Gamma) prior to
using the classical edge detectors.

Edge Detection in SAR Images (cont’d)
Potential alternatives
The ratio edge detector (R. Touzi et al., IEEE

TGRS, 1988) is suitable for SAR images and does
not require pre-filtering.
Performance of the ratio edge detector is better

since information is lost during pre-filtering for the
classical edge detectors.

Ratio Edge Detector Filter
Original SAR image Ratio Edge Detector (5x5)
- For the gradient detector, the probability that a pixel of a homogeneous

area is assigned to edges (Pfa) is dependent on the mean power due to the
multiplicative nature of the noise.
- The operator detects more false edges in brighter areas.
- The ratio edge detector is the ratio of the average of pixel values of two
nonoverlapping neighborhoods on opposite sides of the point.
- The Pfa does not depend on the mean power
- The performance of the ratio edge detector is a function of the size of

Gradient image (5x5) neighborhoods, the number of looks and the ratio of the mean powers.
(Touzi, et. al., 1998)

The Touzi multi-resolution speckle Filter
All the most well known adaptive filters were developed under the
assumption that the signal is stationary within the moving processing
window of a fixed size (i.e. its mean and variance do not vary within the
observation time).
Ð The filters are not effective primarily when applied to fine structures
such as roads and trails which are generally smoothed out by the
filters.
A new multi-resolution filter the Touzi Filter (Figures 5.13 and 5.14)
was developed at CCRS (a part of PCI software 2002 version).
The size and the shape of the filter processing window are adapted
to signal nonstationarity.
The Touzi multi-resolution ratio edge detector is used for better
filtering of contours and edges (Touzi et al., IEEE TGRS 1998)
Ð This permits more efficient speckle reduction and a better
preservation of the scene spatial variations (texture, edges, point
targets).
Source: R. Touzi, CEOS workshop 1999

Figure 5.13 - Touzi Filter
Tapajós, Brazil
Original Image Touzi filter

Figure 5.14 - Touzi Filter
RADARSAT-1 image
Fine Mode
Lee filter
7X7
Touzi filter
Original Image 15X15

Introduction to Texture
Texture is the spatial variation of tones in an image.
Image texture may be qualitatively described as

having properties like fineness, coarseness,
smoothness, granulation, randomness, lineation,
mottled, irregular, hummocky (Figure 5.15).
In a SAR image, texture has two components: (1)

spatial variability in the scattering properties of the
scene and (2) speckle.

Figure 5.15 - Image Texture
Corn Field Forest

300 m 300 m
Source: Ulaby and Dobson, 1989

Texture Analysis
Texture
Textural features contain information about the
spatial distribution of tonal variations.
Methods available:
Co-occurrence matrix (GLCM)
Grey level difference vector (GLDV)
Lacunarity (gap analysis)
Neighbouring grey level dependence matrix
(NGLDM)
Spatial correlation function
Model-based approaches
Texture Analysis (cont’d)
Texture
Textural features statistics can be extracted using a
grey level Co-Occurrence Matrix (GLCM).
User specific neighborhood parameters.
Examples of features from GLCM:
- Homogeneity - Mean
- Contrast - Standard deviation
- Dissimilarity - Entropy
- Angular second moment - Correlation
Speckle suppression techniques may not preserve all

scene texture details.
Contrast Stretch
A contrast stretch enhances visual interpretation

(Figure 5.16).
Matches data’s dynamic range to dynamic range of display.
Involves the construction of a look-up table (LUT).
LUT is a graphical model of the mathematical function
selected.

Figure 5.16 - Contrast Stretch
Rosario, Argentina
Original image Linear Stretch

Linear Stretch
Effective upper and lower cutoff values are
established.
Upper and lower histogram values are set to

maximum & minimum limits respectively.
May use full or piecewise stretch.
Balance of the data are stretched linearly to

fill the expanded display range.
See Figure 5.17.

Figure 5.17 - Linear Stretch

Nonlinear Enhancements
Distort the image radiometry.
Useful only for visual interpretation.
quantitative radiometric information can be lost.
spatial information is preserved.
results may not be replicable from scene to scene.

Histogram Stretch
Input display range may not be fully utilized.

Output display range makes full use of the
dynamic range.
Enhances the contrast where frequency of
occurrence is greatest.
Options include:
- Inverse frequency
- Frequency equalization
- Gaussian normalization
- Histogram matching

Inverse Frequency (or Infrequency)
Produce an image in which the bright pixels

represent those grey levels in the original
image which were infrequent.
LUT is derived from an inverted (upside
down) histogram of the input image data
values.
Useful for highlighting rare or small features
in an image (lineaments or edges).
Figure 5.18 is an example of infrequency
enhancement.

Figure 5.81 - Inverse Frequency Enhancement

Frequency Equalization
Redistribute pixel values so that there are

approximately the same number of pixels for each
data value available.
More for visual display than for image analysis.
Figure 5.19 is an example of Frequency

Equalization.

Figure 5.19 - Frequency Equalization

Exponential Stretch
High-range brightness is enhanced and high

histogram skew can be corrected.
Details in the higher part of the dynamic range

are revealed.
An example of an algorithm for this stretch is ex.

Logarithmic Stretch
Low-range brightness is enhanced and histogram

skew may be corrected.
Skewness is common and may invalidate some image
analysis algorithms which assume a normal data
distribution.
Also known as root Enhancement.
Root ( log N).
Tends to lend an overall brightening to the resultant
image (see figure 5.20).

Figure 5.20 - Logarithmic Stretch

Power Law Stretch
Changes the image brightness, S, as a power law:

Snew = Sn
n > 1 enhances strong returns at the expense of
weak returns.
n < 1 ( n ) enhances weak returns at the expense
of strong returns.
The special case n = 2 converts a magnitude
image to a power image.
Alters the probability distribution (histogram) of the
data and may invalidate processes based on
Gaussian assumptions.

“TYPICAL” SAR IMAGE PROCESSING METHODOLOGY
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE + PHASE
Digital Number Single Look Complex
(DN) (DNI + DNQ)
TEXTURE ANALYSIS CONVERSION FROM DN TO:

FILTER
(input for classification)
(speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
- Non adaptive filters
σ° or β° σ° or β° INTERFEROMETRY
(power) (dB) - DEM generation
AUTOMATED FEATURE ENHANCEMENT - Coherence image
EXTRACTION (for visual interpretation) - Surface change detection
- image thresholding - High pass filters
- edge detection, lineaments - Low pass filters
- directional filters (Sobel, etc.,) - FFT filters FILTER
- Contrast stretch (speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
STEREOSCOPY - Non adaptive filters
- terrain interpretation
OTHER DATA DATA FUSION

STEREOSCOPY
- multitemporal SAR - RGB-IHS Colour Space
- DEM generation
- optical RS - Principal Component
- geophysical Analysis - Planimetric feature
- Thematic polygons - Vector Overlay extraction
or vectors (GIS)
- etc.
CHANGE DETECTION
(e.g. ratio, difference)
GEOMETRIC CORRECTION CALCULATION OF
INFORMATION - Ortho-rectification using DEM TARGET SIGNATURES
EXTRACTION - Slant / ground range conversion
- Valued-added - Polynomial transformation
information map
MODELLING
CONVERT POWER
CLASSIFICATION - Theoretical backscatter
ACCURACY VALUES TO dB
- Supervised - Geophysical parameters
ASSESSMENT e.g. σ° (dB) = 10 log10 ( X )
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing,
- Unsupervised Natural Resources Canada extraction
Geometric
Characteristics

CanadaCanada
Canada
- Outline -
Review of Platform / Target Geometry
Image Acquisition
Relief displacement (foreshortening, layover, shadowing)
Radiometric Distortion (local incident angle, image brightness)
Geometric Correction
Principle of SAR Geocoding
Methods Available (Slant to Ground Range, Polynomial
Method, Radargrammetric Method)
Digital Elevation Model Error Propagation on the Ortho-Image
Error Sources and Propagation
Image Resampling

- Outline -
Radar Stereoscopy
Dichotomy, Consequences, Configurations,

Compromise, Guidelines
Interferometry
Geometry, Critical Issues

Introduction
The intent of this section is to describe the geometric

characteristics of SAR, including viewing geometry, target
interaction, geometric correction, stereoscopy and
interferometry.
Geometric characteristics are very different to optical
remote sensing and are key to understanding radar remote
sensing.
Radar systems are side-looking distance measuring
systems, thus key geometric parameters are the incident
angle, local incident angle and look direction.
The side-looking geometry of radar results in several
geometric distortions, such as slant range scale distortions
and relief distortions.
SAR Geometry
What is it ?
Review of Platform - Target Geometry
Implications of SAR Geometry
- displacement (foreshortening, layover,
shadowing, Earth curvature)
- radiometry
How to correct it ?
Geometric Correction Methods
Image Resampling Algorithms
How to exploit it ?
Stereogrammetry
Interferometry

Geometry of Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR)
Figure 6.1 shows the geometric characteristics of a SAR.
Incident angle (θ°) is the angle between the radar line-of-site and
the local vertical with respect to the geoid.
Incident angle is the most important parameter describing the
relative geometry between the radar and the observed scene.
System altitude alters incident angle and thus viewing geometry.
Azimuth direction is the flight direction, or along-track direction.
Range direction is the across-track direction.
Slant range is the distance measured along a line between the
antenna and the target.
Ground range is the distance from the ground track to an object.
Near range is the part of the radar image closest to the flight path
or nadir, whereas far range is the part of the radar image farthest
from the flight path.

Figure 6.1 Geometry of SAR
n
ctio
e
t dir
gh
Fli Swath width
Sla
n t r
an e
ge ng
ra
Altitude Near
Incident
Angle
e
ng
r ra
Ground Range Fa
h
ut
im
Az

Comparison of Imaging Geometries
System altitude has a large effect on the imaging

geometry of the SAR.
Spaceborne systems operate between 600-800 km,
whereas airborne systems between 3-12 km.
Figure 6.2 shows airborne systems would cover a
larger range of incident angles (15°-60°) than
spaceborne systems (37°-40°).
Higher altitude of spaceborne systems means
incident angles are usually steeper.

Figure 6.2 Comparison of
Imaging Geometries
SPACEBORNE SAR
AIRBORNE SAR
airborne 10 – 100 km
spaceborne 25 – >500 km
IMAGE SWATH

Geometric Distortions
Slant range acquisition

Relief displacement
layover
foreshortening
shadowing
NOTE: All these geometric distortions have

effects on radiometry

Radar Slant Range / Ground Range
Radar can be presented in either slant or ground

range, as shown in Figures 6.3 to 6.5.
Slant range is the natural radar range observation
coordinate, defined as the line-of-sight from the
radar to each reflecting object.
Ground range is slant range projected onto the
geoid of the Earth.
Slant range data can be converted to ground
range by resampling.

Figure 6.3 High Relief Terrain Profile with Radar
Image Features
FIRST MOUNTAIN RETURN SL

AN
T RA
NADIR NG
LAYOVER EP
LA
NE
VALLEY BOTTOM
RA RETURN
DA
R
SH
MOUNTAIN PEAK AD
REFERENCE SURFACE OW
CONSTANT
RANGE ARCS
FOREGROUND
REFERENCE SURFACE
NADIR VALLEY BOTTOM MOUNTAIN TOP VALLEY BOTTOM
GROUND RANGE PLANE

Figure 6.4 Radar Slant Range / Ground Range
Sl
an
tR
an
g e
(r
R )
Ground Range (rGR) rGR

Figure 6.5 Slant Range vs Ground Range
Radar Imagery

Resolution Cell
Resolution is the minimum distance that describes
how well the radar can discriminate closely
spaced reflectors.
Resolution cell is 3-dimensional in the illuminated
space.
The area of the rectangle in Figure 6.6 is called
the resolution cell.
rA is the azimuth resolution and rR is the range
resolution.
Source: Raney, 1998

Figure 6.6 Resolution Cell
Source: Raney, 1998
rR = range resolution rA = azimuth resolution

Look Direction
Look direction is defined as the angle in the horizontal
plane in which the radar antenna is pointing when
transmitting a pulse and receiving the return signal from
the ground or from an object.
Unless perfectly symmetrical or perfectly random, targets
have a preferred orientation.
For example, opposing look directions for agricultural
fields may produce different tones on the image due to
row direction related to planting, tilling, or harvesting.
In areas with high relief, opposing look directions are
often necessary to fill in areas of radar shadow.
On fixed looking systems, such as RADARSAT, two look
directions can be acquired using ascending (east-looking)
and descending (west-looking) passes, see Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.7 Look Direction
Sarawak (Malaysia)

Slant / Ground Range Resolution
Figure 6.8 shows the scale differences in slant range

(rR) and ground range (rGR) images.
Differences between slant and ground range

resolution are highest at small incident angles.
For example, Figure 6.8 shows that rR at 10° is 10 m,

while the rGR at 10° is 29 m. At 70°, rR and rGR
converge.

Figure 6.8 Slant and Ground Range Resolution

Local Incident Angle
Figure 6.9 shows that the local incident angle (θloc)
is defined as the angle between the radar line-of-
sight to the line normal (or orthogonal) to the local
slope.
θi is the flat-earth or ellipsoid incident angle.
Local incident angle can have a large effect on
image brightness per pixel.
Local incident angle is the largest source of error
in radiometric calibration.

Figure 6.9 Local Incident Angle
Source: Raney, 1998

Source: Raney, 1998

Effect of Topography / Local Incident Angle
on Image Brightness
Local topographic slope (Figure 6.10) can have a

significant effect on image brightness.
Local topographic slope causes changes in local
incident angles.
A small local incident angle results in brighter radar
returns.
A larger local incident angle results in darker radar
returns.
Slope-induced radiometric effects are useful for some
applications such as geomorphology and geology.

Figure 6.10 Image Brightness as an Effect
of Topography
θloc
Ra
da
θloc
rS
θloc
ha
Brighter -
do
w
smaller local
Darker - incident angle
larger local Nominal
incident angle Brightness

Incident Angle for Microwave Scattering:
Actual vs Processor
Most satellite processors assume sea-level, ellipsoid

earth models for geometric and radiometric
calculations (see Figure 6.11).
Thus, almost all images over land have inaccuracies

due to terrain effects (see Figures 6.12 and 6.13).

Figure 6.11 Incident Angle for Microwave Scattering:
Actual vs Processor
actual
Actual Terrain
assumed
Model Geoid
at Sea Level

Figure 6.12 Local Incident Angle Effects
LOCAL INCIDENT ANGLE EFFECTS

Topographic Displacement
Due to the different imaging geometries of radar
and optical systems, as seen in Figures 6.13 and
6.14, topographic displacement differs between
the systems.
Horizontal displacement for a radar sensor is
highest near nadir, and decreases with incident
angle (Figure 6.13).
Horizontal displacement can be severe at small
incident angles (see Figure 6.13).
In contrast, topographic displacement for optical
systems (Figure 6.14) increases with incident
angle.
Figure 6.13 Topographic Displacement
- Radar Sensor
apparent
viewing
θ direction
mountain top

projection of
mountain top
radar ground range
projection of
mountain top
Horizontal displacement of a 100m mountain top (m)
airborne
θ
satellite
Source: Toutin, Th. and Y. Carbonneau, 1992, “MOS and SEASAT Image Geometric Correction”, IEEE-TGARS, Vol. 30,
No. 3, pp. 603-609.
Figure 6.14 Topographic Displacement
- Optical Sensor
Optical Sensor
by similar triangles
θ
θ
nadir
reference surface
Optical Sensor

Geometric Distortion - Shadow
Radar shadow indicates areas on the ground not
illuminated by the radar because of viewing
geometry and scene relief (Figure 6.15).
Since no return signal is received, radar shadow

appears very dark in tone in the imagery (Figure
6.16).
Radar shadow is most common in steep terrain

imaged at large incident angles.
The height of an object (building, bridge, etc.) can

be obtained from its radar shadow.

Figure 6.15 Radar Shadow
illum
inati
on
t
ron
vef
wa
scene
distortion shadow
Source: Raney, 1998

Figure 6.16 Radar Shadow in Airborne
SAR Image of Folded Sandstone Beds

Geometric Distortion - Foreshortening
Foreshortening is the appearance of compression in
topographic features in the scene.
The horizontal displacement resulting from the small
incident angles causes foreshortening of the slope
facing the radar.
The features appear to be tilted toward the radar
(Figures 6.17 and 6.18).
Foreshortening is at a maximum when a steep slope
is orthogonal to the radar beam.

Figure 6.17 Foreshortening
nt
rf o
illu
ve
m
wa
in
at
io
n
scene
displacement
foreshortening
Source: Raney, 1998

Figure 6.18 Foreshortening
Source : DeSève, Toutin & Desjardins, IJRS, 17(1):131-142, 1996.

Geometric Distortion - Layover
Layover is an extreme case of foreshortening, and
occurs when the incident angle is smaller than the
local topographic slope (Figure 6.19).
Extreme horizontal displacement causes the top

of the mountain to be mapped “overlaying” the
fore slope (Figure 6.20).
In the layover case there is no radar shadow, but
severe elevation displacement and layover of the
foreslope.
Difficult for interpretation since each pixel may
contain scatter from more than one area.

Figure 6.19 Layover
ilum
ina
tion
θi
r ont
avef
w
scene
distortion
layover
Source: Raney, 1998

Figure 6.20 Layover Effects on SAR Imagery
(Lima, Peru)

Geometric Correction
Geometric correction includes slant to ground range,
registration, and local incident angle corrections (if
topographic information is available).
Allows a correspondence between the position of

points on the final image and their location in a given
cartographic projection.
Consists of introducing spatial shifts on the original

image (Figure 6.21).

Geometric Correction (cont’d)
Algorithms are classified into three methods
Slant to ground method (zero relief)
Polynomial method (best fit approximations)
Radargrammetric method (known sensor geometry)
The last method uses terrain elevation information.
Elevation information (DEM) is required to correct the
distortions caused by topographic displacements.
All methods use a resampling kernel during the
rectification of the images.

Geometric Correction (cont’d)
Radiometric distortions also exist in connection with

terrain relief and cannot be completely corrected.
Resampling of the image can introduce radiometric

errors.
A layover/shadowing mask and a local incident

angles map are both helpful for many applications.
Ground Control Points (GCPs) are used to establish
and/or refine the transformation.

Figure 6.21 Principle of SAR Image Geocoding
Grey value Interpolation (Resampling)
Radar Image
Map to Image
Grey Value Assignment
Transformations
Digital Elevation
Model
Geocoded
Image

Slant / Ground Range Conversion
SAR data are acquired in slant range.
Slant to ground range conversion is used to project

the acquired image to the ground system.
Need to know (or assume) imaging geometry,

platform altitude, range delay and terrain elevation.
Resampling used to give uniform pixel spacing (in

ground range) across the image swath.

Slant / Ground Range Conversion
Slant to ground range conversion can be done during

signal processing or during image processing.
Generally applied after radiometric correction.
Approach and algorithms used are a function of

analysis objectives.
RADARSAT ground range products assume a sea

level ellipsoid earth model with zero relief.

Image Registration Polynomial Transforms
Polynomial transform uses a best-fit.
Figure 6.22 shows how the uncorrected image changes to

fit a map projection using various orders.
Note the 1st order is a shift-rotation of the image, whereas

the 3rd order is a complex warping of the image.
1st order polynomial transforms are adequate for images
which only require a shift-rotation and a change of scale.
2nd order polynomials are used for images requiring non-

linear warping.
3rd and higher order polynomials create a more complex
image transformation.

Figure 6.22 Image Registration Polynomial
Transforms
1st order 2nd order 3rd order
Corrected Image
Uncorrected Image
Source: PCI, Chapter 6, 1997

Order of Polynomial Transformation
Higher order transforms require a greater number of

ground control points (GCPs) in order to produce the
transform model.
High order does not guarantee higher accuracy.
Higher order usually ties the image down at the
GCPs, but can increase errors between the GCPs.

Radargrammetric Method
Analytical formulation of the distortions during
image formation.
relative to the platform (ephemeris and ancillary

data)
relative to the sensor (integration time, pulse

length, depression angle)
relative to the Earth (geoid, relief)
Output is an “Ortho-image” corrected for all

distortions, including relief.

Radargrammetric Method - Advantages
Unified reference: cartographic system.
Image to terrain correction.
Only one resampling for an image (slant range to
map projection directly, no intermediate
conversion to ground required).
Homogeneity in the ortho - image generation.
Use of a DEM or a mean altitude.
Better integration with GIS or digital maps.
Comprehension and control of the full geometric
process and of the resulting errors.
Figure 6.23 is a comparison of two geocoding
techniques.
Figure 6.23 Comparison of Two
Geocoding Methods

Radargrammetric Method
In addition to GCPs, this method requires
platform and sensor information and DEM or
mean elevation data.
Orbit and sensor information is usually available
in radar product headers (e.g. RADARSAT CEOS
Leader File).
The planimetric accuracy of the final ortho-image
is dependent on the accuracy of GCPs and the
DEM.
Figure 6.24 gives the curves representing the
planimetric error of the RADARSAT ortho-image
as a function of viewing angle (incidence) and
DEM accuracy.
Figure 6.24 Planimetric Error of Ortho-images
Planimetric Error (metres)

DEM Accuracy (metres)
Viewing Angle (degrees)

Fine
RADARSAT
Standard
Beam Modes
Wide
Source: Toutin, 1995

Planimetric Error of Ortho-Images
Study Cases
Case #1
Situation
- Desire a 20 metre planimetric accuracy and the user has a
DEM with 10 metre accuracy (elevation)
Potential options for RADARSAT acquisition
- any mode beyond 25°
Case #2
Situation
- The user has a DEM with 40 metre accuracy (elevation) and
has acquired a RADARSAT Fine 3
Predicted best planimetric accuracy
- 35 metres
Source: Toutin and Rivard, Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, 23(1) 63-70, 1997

Figure 6.25 Planimetric Error of Ortho-images
DEM Accuracy (metres)
Planimetric Error (metres)

Case #2
Case #1
Viewing Angle (degrees)

Fine
RADARSAT
Beam Modes Standard
Wide

Sources and Propagation of Errors
Approximations in mathematical
modelling
Position and definition of the GCPs on the

image
Cartographic coordinates of the GCPs

(planimetric and altimetric)
Inaccuracies or errors in the DEM
Resampling kernel

Comparison of the Current Approaches
Polynomial Method Radargrammetric Method
Does not model the viewing Models the viewing geometry
geometry
• Not related to the distortions • Reflects the distortions
• Does not introduce ephemeris • Uses ephemeris data
data
• Does not use DEM • Uses DEM
• Corrects image locally at the • Corrects the image globally
GCPs
• May require many GCPs • Needs few (5-8) GCPs
• Sensitive to GCP distribution • Not sensitive to GCP distribution

Geocoding Summary
Geocoding is the geometric correction of image data
to a map projection.
Traditional method of geocoding is the polynomial

transform. This method does not model the viewing
geometry or use elevation data to correct for
topography.
The most accurate geocoding method is the

radargrammetric method.
The main advantages of the radargrammetric method

are that it models the viewing geometry, uses satellite
ephemeris data and elevation data to correct for
topography.

Pixels in the input image are not in the same
orientation (and sometimes spacing) as the output
image so pixels must be “resampled”.
Resampling involves the extraction and interpolation

of digital numbers (DN) from the uncorrected image
to their calculated location in the corrected image.
Figure 6.26 shows how the cells in the corrected

matrix do not match the corresponding cells of the
uncorrected matrix.

New digital numbers (DNs) must be assigned by an interpolation
of the pixel values surrounding the calculated position.
Filtering should occur during resampling to avoid multiple

resampling of the imagery, which can degrade and reduce
interpretability of the imagery.
Main interpolation algorithms are:

Nearest Neighbour
Bilinear Interpolation
Cubic Convolution
Sinx / x
Nearest neighbour interpolation is not recommended for radar
since it can lead to artifacts and distorted image statistics.

Figure 6.26 Image Resampling
Geometrically
Correct
Matrix
Uncorrected
Matrix

Calculates grey level as a weighted average of

the four nearest pixels in the uncorrected image,
where the closest of the four has the highest
weighting and the farthest having the lowest.
Not optimal for noisy (speckle) radar images.
Can smooth the appearance of output image.
Alters grey values.
Blurs edges in image and decreases resolution.

Cubic Convolution
Uses a weighted average of sixteen surrounding

pixels to approximate the digital value of the
corrected output image.
Good output registration and appearance.

Sinx / x
Uses a weighted sampling in the shape of sinx / x

function to calculate output image.
Typically 18 or 16 pixels wide.
Provides optimal radiometric and geometric

accuracies.
Up to 30 times higher computational requirement

compared to Nearest Neighbour.

Resampling - Summary
Nearest neighbour resampling should not be used

for radar imagery.
Sinx / x or Cubic Convolution is recommended for

radar imagery.
Multi-resampling degrades image radiometry and

reduces interpretability.
Filtering should be performed during the geometric

correction step to avoid multiple resampling.

Radar Stereoscopy
Stereo viewing reproduces the natural process
of stereo vision.
Natural stereo process needs two images

acquired from “slightly” different locations
(different incident angles).
More natural with VIR than SAR images.
Enables extraction of planimetric features in a

cartographic coordinate system without a DEM.

Radar Stereoscopy (cont’d)
To perceive and extract qualitative and/or
quantitative information in the user reference system.
qualitative
- analysis and interpretation
quantitative
- planimetry (road, lake, power line..)
- altimetry (relative or absolute)
Planimetric information accuracy is independent

of altimetric accuracy.

Radar Stereoscopy Consequences
Reported stereo results are variable.
Practical experiments do not clearly support

theoretical expectations, especially in rough
topography.
Theoretical modeling accounts for geometric error

propagation and not radiometric image content.
Radiometric differences between images have more

impact on SAR than on optical imagery.
A compromise has to be reached between the

geometric and radiometric properties of the stereo
pair.

Stereo Configurations
Viewing the same scene from different look directions or
incident angles can cause the images to appear very different.
This can make stereo viewing and point matching more difficult
than with optical imagery.
Radiometric disparities are tonal differences between the

scenes in a stereo pair resulting from differences in viewing
geometry (e.g., shadow, brightness change due to local incident
angle).
Geometric disparities are geometric differences between the

scenes in a stereo pair resulting from differences in viewing
geometry. They are a necessary part of the stereo process
because they introduce image parallax. However, severe
geometric disparities can make features unrecognizable
between scenes.
Stereo Configurations (cont’d)
In SAR images, greater geometric disparities
normally introduce greater radiometric disparities,
and thus make image matching more difficult.
A compromise between the geometric and

radiometric disparities is required for successful
stereo from SAR.
The compromise is very dependent on the

topography relief of the area being viewed.

Stereo Configurations (cont’d)
Figure 6.27 shows radar parallax with opposite- and

same-side SAR configurations.
The radar parallax for the opposite-side example is
large, but the geometric and radiometric disparities
are also large.
The radar parallax for the same-side example is
small, but the geometric and radiometric disparities
are also small.
Thus there are trade-offs between geometric and
radiometric issues (Figure 6.28).

Figure 6.27 Stereo Configurations
Opposite Side Same Side
SOLUTION
Large geometric disparities Small geometric disparities

Large radiometric disparities Small radiometric disparities

Figure 6.28 Radar Stereoscopy Compromise
Point Stereo
Parallax Map
matching Intersection
coordinates
Manual Radiometric Least-square Geometrics

or Errors Adjustments errors
Automated
Radiometric Geometric
Disparities
TERRAIN Disparities
More quantity Less quantity

but but
Poorer quality Better quality
COMPROMISE
COMPROMISE
APPLICATIONS

Radar Stereoscopy
General Guidelines for DEM Extraction
Terrain Flat Rolling Mountainous
Slopes 0°-10° 10°-30° 30°-50°
Radiometric
disparities Small Medium Large
Geometric
disparities Large Medium Small
Opposite sides, Same side, large Same side, small

Compromises small look angles intersection angle intersection angle and
large look angles
S1 asc - S1desc S7 - S1 (asc or desc) S7 - S4 (asc or desc)
Stereo
RADARSAT
F1 asc - F1 desc F5 - F1 (asc or desc) F4 - F1 (asc or desc)
Configurations
Source : Toutin, IEEE-TGARS, 37(5):2227-2238, 1999

Repeat Pass Interferometry
Based on two image acquisitions of the same scene
from slightly displaced orbits of the satellite
Phase information of the two image data files are
then superimposed
The two phase values at each pixel are subtracted,
leading to an interferogram that records only the
differences in phase between the two original images
Phase differences can be related to the altitude
variation at each position in the swath and enable the
production of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

RADARSAT Interferometry Limitations
Critical issues or requirements
must use single beam, SLC products
no change in backscatter, preferably dry, to maintain the
coherence (vegetated sites a problem)
results can be affected by anisotropic propagation of one or
both of the data takes (mainly variation in atmospheric water
vapour content)
for topographic mapping RADARSAT orbits should be
approximately 0.5 - 1.5 km apart
for detection of feature movement orbits should be as close as
possible
ground control points required
knowledge of sensor location critical; orbit selection important

RADARSAT Interferometry Limitations
(cont’d)
With good baseline and coherence, the

technique could be better than stereo
(~ 10 m vertical accuracy)

“TYPICAL” SAR IMAGE PROCESSING METHODOLOGY
QUANTITATIVE
QUALITATIVE AMPLITUDE AMPLITUDE + PHASE
Digital Number Single Look Complex
(DN) (DNI + DNQ)
TEXTURE ANALYSIS CONVERSION FROM DN TO:

FILTER
(input for classification)
(speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
- Non adaptive filters
σ° or β° σ° or β° INTERFEROMETRY
(power) (dB) - DEM generation
AUTOMATED FEATURE ENHANCEMENT - Coherence image
EXTRACTION (for visual interpretation) - Surface change detection
- image thresholding - High pass filters
- edge detection, lineaments - Low pass filters
- directional filters (Sobel, etc.,) - fft filters FILTER
- Contrast stretch (speckle reduction)
- Adaptive filters
STEREOSCOPY - Non adaptive filters
- terrain interpretation
OTHER DATA DATA FUSION

STEREOSCOPY
- multi-temporal SAR - RGB-IHS Colour Space
- DEM generation
- optical RS - Principal Component
- geophysical Analysis - Planimetric feature
- Thematic polygons - Vector Overlay extraction
or vectors (GIS)
- etc.
CHANGE DETECTION
(e.g. ratio, difference)
GEOMETRIC CORRECTION CALCULATION OF
INFORMATION - Ortho-rectification using DEM TARGET SIGNATURES
EXTRACTION - Slant / ground range conversion
- Valued-added - Polynomial transformation
information map
MODELING
CONVERT POWER
CLASSIFICATION - Theoretical backscatter
ACCURACY VALUES TO dB
- Supervised - Geophysical parameters
ASSESSMENT e.g. σ° (dB) = 10 log10 ( X )
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing,
- Unsupervised Natural Resources Canada extraction
Classification
and Information
Extraction

CanadaCanada
Canada
Classification and Information
Extraction (Image Exploitation)
- Outline -
Classification Techniques
Supervised and Unsupervised Classification
Classification Algorithms
Accuracy Assessment
Maximum Likelihood Classification Example
New Classification Approaches
Change Detection
Difference Image
Ratio Image
Classification Comparison
Change Vector Analysis

Classification and Information
Extraction (Image Exploitation)
- Outline -
Data Integration
RGB Colour Space
IHS Colour Space
Principal Component Analysis

Introduction
Currently the majority of operational classification and

information extraction is performed using manual
interpretation approaches.
Manual approaches tend to be very time consuming
and expensive.
Several successful automated approaches are
operational, such as flood mapping.
Emerging techniques will increase the use of
automated approaches in the future.
This section reports on the automated quantitative
approaches using calibrated data.

Introduction - Classification
Image classification categorizes image pixels into
classes producing a thematic representation.
Classification performed on single or multiple image
channels to separate areas according to their different
scattering or spectral characteristics.
Classified data can be used in thematic maps, imported
into a GIS or can be further incorporated into digital
analysis.
Thematic maps provide an interpretable summary of
classes enabling analysts to associate detection
capabilities of SAR imagery with terrain features.
Digital image classification procedures are differentiated
as being either supervised or unsupervised (clustering).

Supervised Classification
Requires image analyst to “train” the computer to

recognize a set of pixels with similar signatures.
Encompasses three components:
- training area selection
- classification
- post-classification analysis and accuracy assessment
Analyst determines the best classification scheme to

meet objectives and applies knowledge of the site
during the training process.
Figure 7.1 illustrates examples of supervised
classification.

Figure 7.1 - Examples of Classifications

Training Area Selection
Training areas are small samples of homogeneous

areas selected by the image analyst prior to
classification.
Appropriate training areas are determined from maps,
ground data, interpreted stereo airphoto or other
information.
Training areas should be:
Free of anomalies
Large enough to provide good statistical class
representation
Sufficient in number to account for small local variations

Training Area Selection
(cont'd)
Training areas should avoid:
Edge pixels containing the combined backscatter of multiple
targets
Inconsistencies within the area such as roadways, powerlines,

intermittent cover, etc.
Once defined, training areas are used to generate

signature statistics for each defined class.
Class signatures include class means and a class

covariance matrix.

Supervised Classification
Figure 7.2 illustrates the problem with supervised

classification using linear boundaries for classes.
The separation of the major classes with a minimum
of error is possible with an n-dimensional decision
boundary.
The graph uses 1 band and 2 classes to illustrate how
the overlapping areas of both class 1 and class 2
distributions have erroneously classified pixels.

Figure 7.2 - Supervised Classification
One dimensional
decision boundary
Number of pixels
Class 1 Class 2
Pixels in class 2 erroneously Pixels in class 1 erroneously

assigned to class 1 Assigned to class 2
Source: Jensen, 1996

Classification Strategies and Algorithms
During classification, each pixel is compared to
each of the class signatures.
Comparison performed by computer using a
predetermined classification algorithm.
Most commonly used classifiers in remote
sensing are:
Minimum Distance (to Means) Classifier
Parallelepiped Classifier
Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC)
Once a pixel has been assigned to a class, it is

given the class value in the corresponding cell
of the "classified" image.

Minimum Distance (to Means) Classifier
Simplest algorithm and thus low computational

time.
Determines each pixel's "distance" from class
means, and assigns them to the closest class, see
Figure 7.3.
If pixel is further than the analyst defined distance
from any category, it remains unclassified or
"unknown”.
Classifier does not evaluate differing degrees of
within class variance, therefore has lower overall
accuracy than MLC.

Figure 7.3 - Classification Algorithms
Channel B
Channel B
Channel A Channel A
Minimum distance Parallelepiped
classifier Classifier
Channel B
Channel A
Maximum Likelihood
Classifier

Used when multi-band imagery is available.
Parallelepiped classifier is more sensitive to within
class variance.
Algorithm considers range of values within each
category of the training set, denoted as minimum and
maximum value for each image band (appears as a
rectangle in Figure 7.3).
Range limits define small decision region with clear
class segmentation compared to minimum distance
classifier.

(cont’d)
Outliers can increase the decision region
inappropriately causing errors of commission.
Problems occur when classes overlap, as in Figure
7.3.
These pixels are labelled as overlap and are caused
from class distributions exhibiting correlations poorly
described by the rectangular decision regions.
Low computational requirement with adequate
classification accuracies.

Maximum Likelihood Classifiers
Assumes that the training statistics for each class

have a normal or "Gaussian" distribution
NOTE: Radar statistics are often non-”Gaussian”
Uses training statistics to compute a probability

value of whether it belongs to a particular land cover
category class
Training statistics with bi- or tri- modal histograms
are not suitable as they indicate non-homogeneity
within classes and are non-”Gaussian”

Maximum Likelihood Classifiers
(cont'd)
Examines the probability function of a pixel for each of

the classes, and assigns the pixel to the class with the
highest probability.
Usually provides the highest classification accuracies.
Larger number of computations required to classify

each pixel, resulting in a high computational
requirement.
Can use a-priori knowledge to weight probability

function.

Unsupervised Classification
(Clustering)
Unsupervised classification does not require training areas
or analyst's knowledge of area
Creates natural groupings present in the image values
Values with similar grey levels are assumed to belong to
the same cover type
Analyst must determine the identity of the computer
derived spectral clusters
Principal clustering algorithms include
K- means clustering
ISODATA clustering
Narendra-Goldberg clustering
See figure 7.1 for an example of unsupervised

classification
Post-Classification Filtering
Resulting classification image map may be difficult to

interpret.
Classified data have a salt-and-pepper appearance
due to inherent variability of the per-pixel classifier.
Post-classification filtering removes pixels and pixel
groups not satisfying a minimum requirement.
Figure 7.4 is an example of a mode post-classification
filter, where the pixel is reassigned to the
surrounding class majority pixels.
Post-classification filtering usually enhances
interpretability and increases classification accuracy.

Figure 7.4
Post-Classification Mode Filtering
Pixel (7,4) Mode

and Filtered
Classified Image 3x3 window Result

Classification Accuracy Assessment
Evaluate accuracy of the classification procedure by checking against
known homogeneous areas.
Overall accuracy vs. accuracy by class.
Results of the accuracy can be displayed in a confusion matrix, such as
Figure 7.5.
Confusion matrix plots known pixels against classified pixels.
Errors of Commission
Pixels incorrectly assigned to a particular class that actually belong in other
classes, see the lower left half of confusion matrix in Figure 7.5.
Errors of Omission
Pixels incorrectly excluded from a particular class, see the upper right half of
confusion matrix in Figure 7.5.

Figure 7.5
Maximum Likelihood Confusion Matrix
Classification of 3 bands: C-HH, C-HV, C-VV
Bare Soy
Grains Corn Water Forest Urban
Soil beans
Grains 60.6 13.0 26.2 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
Corn 1.8 70.7 25.9 0.2 0.0 1.4 0.0
Bare Soil 2.3 17.1 80.1 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.0
Soy beans 0.0 0.0 0.3 96.0 0.0 0.2 3.4
Water 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 98.3 0.0 1.7
Forest 17.8 15.9 14.7 2.6 0.0 47.8 1.2
Urban 0.1 0.0 1.1 5.0 0.0 1.8 91.9
Average Accuracy: 77.92% Kappa Coefficient: 0.61889

Overall Accuracy: 70.09% Standard Deviation: 0.00391

Introduction
Supervised and unsupervised classifications generally

use "per-pixel" approach.
Due to radar speckle, SAR classification is often done

on a per field or polygon basis using either the
thresholding technique or polygon averages.
Newer classification methods associate pixels with

their surrounding neighbours similar to classification
performed by human visual interpretation.

NEURAL NETWORKS
Building block design algorithm imitating a "human"
decision-making process to classification.
Do not make assumptions about the underlying distribution
of the data
Uses both spectral and textural patterns in the classification
process.
Major advantage is that it can identify subtle and non-linear
patterns that traditional classifiers do not detect.
Problem of neural networks is that it can be very difficult to
train.

FUZZY LOGIC
Simulates vagueness or uncertainty encountered in nature
Categorizes data according to non-discrete class structure
CONTEXTUAL CLASSIFIERS
Classification of a pixel is influenced by the class(es)
assigned to its neighbours
Pixel is examined in "context" to surrounding pixels
Numerous other specialized classifiers available.

Change Detection
Change detection methodologies useful for
Urbanization
Agricultural Development
Forest Land Management
Ice Forecasting, etc.
Utilizes two or more scenes covering same geographic

area acquired over a temporal period
Channels of data from one pass or one instrument
Two different passes, same radar, same scene, same mode
Two different passes, different radars, same scene

Change Detection
(cont'd)
Spaceborne SAR is ideal due to high revisit
capability.
Must consider SAR properties:
Imaging geometry
Relief displacement
Image to image registration
Calibration requirements.
Must also consider:

Environmental conditions (precipitation, moisture
conditions of vegetation and soil, snow cover, etc.)
Time of year.

Change Detection
(cont'd)
Change Detection Methodologies:

Difference Image
Ratio Image
Classification Comparison
Figure 7.6 is an example of change detection using

different colors for each radar image

Figure 7.6 - Change Detection

Difference Image
This task should be done in the power domain.
This task should only be carried out on "sets of pixels"
or a "per field basis”.
Difference image is created by subtracting the mean
value of parcels of pixels in two different images of
the same area.
Results in either a positive or negative value where
change has occurred.
Zero values indicate parcels of no change.
Must consider threshold boundaries between change
and no-change.
Must consider calibration issues.

Ratio Image
Ratio image is created by dividing the mean value of parcels of
pixels in two different images of the same area.
For SAR imagery, ratios can only be constructed from multi-look
images and should be in the power domain.
Band ratios deliver the combined information content of two
image bands.
Ratios can help minimize unwanted information and/or noise.
System and processing effects must be considered when
producing ratios.
Ratio images must be scaled to produce an acceptable product
for visual interpretation.
Interpreting ratio images requires a knowledge of target
reflectance illumination and ground conditions.

Classification (Thematic) Comparison
Compare the thematic output from two or more

sources.
Identifies areas of change and the nature of change
(e.g. from agriculture to urban).
Accuracy depends upon initial classification
accuracies of input imagery; any errors are
compounded.

Uses spectral or spatial differences to detect a change

or disturbance.
SAR requires data sets acquired at separate times.
Plotted against each other on a graph, the two spectral
variables will show the magnitude and direction of
change from the 1st to the 2nd date, see “A” in Figure
7.7.
The vector describing direction and magnitude of
change from the 1st to the 2nd date is the spectral
change vector.
Decision that a “change” has occurred is made if a
threshold is exceeded, as in “C” and “D” in Figure 7.7.
Source: Jensen, 1996

Figure 7.7: Change Vector Analysis
A
SPECTRAL CHANGE
VECTOR
SPECTRAL VARIABLE Y
MAGNITUDE
OF CHANGE
ANGLE OF CHANGE
SPECTRAL VARIABLE X
C D
B
LITTLE OR CHANGE CHANGE
NOT CHANGE (e.g. CLEARED FOR (e.g. REGROWTH OF
SUBDIVISION) NATURAL VEGETATION)
YEAR 2
YEAR 2
YEAR 2
YEAR 1 YEAR 1
YEAR 1
THRESHOLD THRESHOLD DECISION

THRESHOLD
Source: Jensen,
Source: 1996 1996
Jensen,

Data Integration
Remotely sensed data can contribute in a variety of

ways to resource management activities involving
multiple data sets.
Multiple data sets provide
Spatial continuity and geometric flexibility
Multi-temporal coverage
Complete coverage regardless of site location and access
Digital data facilitates custom image analysis and output
Synergism between data sets

Data Integration
(cont'd)
Remotely sensed data can contribute in several
forms
Raster image providing continuous detail and an
accurate base
Polygon data extracted by classification or visual

interpretation
Vector data extracted by enhancement or visual

interpretation
Figure 7.8 is an example of multiple data sets

integration.

Figure 7.8 GIS Data Integration

Integrating Remotely Sensed Data
Synergism between remotely sensed data acquired

at different times, wavelength, resolutions, etc. can
increase the useful information content.
Multi-temporal data are often used to take advantage

of seasonal or phenological changes in vegetation
and for change detection.
Multi-sensor data can make use of the different

information as a function of wavelength, resolution
and/or scale.

Integrating Remotely Sensed Data
(cont'd)
Multi-channel data can make use of information within
different regions of the EM spectrum.
Multi-polarization data can make use of different information

in the microwave band related to target interaction with the
radar waves.
Polarimetric SAR data can make use of phase as well as

magnitude.
Multi-feature data can make use of different information

from the same scene, for example, tone and texture.
See Figure 7.9 for an example of SAR and TM integration

Figure 7.9 - Multi-Sensor Combinations

RGB Colour Spaces
Red, green, blue (RGB) colour space is based
upon the additive properties of primary colours.
System is optimised for computer video screens
but not for human vision.
Multi-channel data is displayed using RGB
technique where each channel is assigned a colour
with the intensity related to the magnitude of the
spectral data.
The RGB colour cube is shown in Figure 7.10.
The colour cube shows the interrelationships
between the colours and is defined by the
brightness levels of each of red, green and blue.

Figure 7.10 - RGB Colour Spaces
Blue Cyan
Magenta
White
e
Sc al
y
Gra
Black Green
Yellow
Red
Adapted from: Schowengerdt, 1983 RGB

IHS Colour Space
Intensity-Hue-Saturation (IHS) colour space is an

alternative way to describe colours by their RGB
components, see Figure 7.11.
IHS converts three bands into an alternative colour
space closer to what the human eye perceives them.
IHS is more adapted to human vision than the more
standard RGB colour space.
The 3 bands can be from different sensors, such as
RADARSAT and Landsat TM.

Figure 7.11 - IHS Color Space
HUE
Green Yellow
120º 60º Red
White
Cyan
180º White
Blue Magenta
300º
INTENSITY
INTENSITY
Black
Black
SATURATION
No colour Full colour
IHS
Intensity - Hue - Saturation
Adapted from: Drury, S.A. Image Interpretation in Geology, Second Edition, 1993.
Chapman & Hall, p.135.
IHS Colour Space
(cont’d)
Intensity is the colour brightness, hue is the actual
colour and saturation defines the purity or "greyness"
of the colour.
A common approach is to modulate the intensity
channel using a SAR image, with other data
(geophysics, geochemistry, visible/infra-red image)
modulating hue and a flat image replacing saturation.
IHS can improve image sharpness and edge
extraction.
The IHS image in Figure 7.12 modulates the intensity
and the hue channels using a SAR image and a
DEM.

Figure 7.12 - IHS Transform

Principal Component Analysis
Requires multi-channel data set (e.g. multi-date, multi-
polarization, multi-sensor).
Can be used to identify new axes that maximize variance
in the data set (see Figure 7.13).
Reduces the dimensionality of the multi-channel input to
the dimension of the information content.
Any features or patterns identified on a PCA should be
confirmed through interpretation of supporting image
products and other more conventional data sets.
Eigen Vectors (or principal component channels) usually
do not transfer well between data sets.

Figure 7.13 - Axes Rotation Along the
Principal Component Vectors
SCATTER
PLOT FREQUENCY
B1 VS B2 HISTROGRAMS
Band 1 BAND 1
BAND 2
Band 2
FREQUENCY
Component 1
HISTROGRAMS
IDENTIFY NEW AXES WHICH
MAXIMIZE VARIANCE IN THE
DATA SET. E´´
B1 E´´
Composante 2
E´
B2 E´
Rotation of axes
Source: CCRS

SAR Systems
and
Digital Signal
Processing

CanadaCanada
Canada
What is Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)?
A side-looking radar system which makes a high-
resolution image of the Earth’s surface (for remote
sensing applications)
The basic image is complex-valued and

2-dimensional:
– range = distance from sensor
(perpendicular to flight path)
– azimuth = distance along flight path
Digital signal processing is used to focus the image

and obtain a higher resolution than achieved by
conventional radar systems

Concept of Synthetic Aperture
Synthetic Aperture
Last time SAR

senses object
Distance SAR travelled while object Flight
was in view = synthetic aperture path
First time SAR

senses object Ground
Track
Nadir
Swath
Object

SAR Real Aperture
The Real Aperture of a SAR is the slant range plane interval of
the transmitted pulse for which all signals return to the receiving
antenna at the same instant of time.
– All signals at the same range return to the radar at the same
time and are separable only in Doppler shift.
– For a transmitted chirp of length τ, the instantaneous radar
return at range R contains surface returns corresponding to
slant range interval, c τ /2, each uniquely coded in chirp
frequency.
– On a smooth Earth, the constant Doppler frequency contours
form a family of hyperbolae and the constant range contours
form a family of circles.
– The real aperture determines the range of influence of a
radar saturation event.

Point Target Echo in a Synthetic
Aperture Radar System
SPACECRAFT DATA
DATA RATE = PRF X NUMBER OF RANGE CELLS
MOTION RECORDING
ANTENNA
TRANSMITTED
WAVEFORM
POINT TARGET
PHASE HISTORY
CHIRP
LENGTH
SYNTHETIC
APERTURE
AZIMUTH LENGTH AZIMUTH
RANGE
RANGE POINT TARGET

Airborne SAR Flight Geometry
ht path
Flig
R1 = Minimum slant range
R2 = Maximum slant range
H = 2 - 10 km
R1 R2
Offset = 5 - 100 km Imaged swath width

5 - 30 Km
Range
Azimuth

SAR Squint Angle
SAR
AZIMUTH ANGLE
SQUINT
ANGLE
SQUINT
DIRECTION
ZERO
DOPPLER
RADAR
SWATH

Principles of SAR
Radar coherence Sensor motion equations

SAR System components Azimuth signal analysis
SAR signal generation Doppler frequency
Coherent demodulation Doppler bandwidth
How demodulation creates Azimuth resolution
phase
Synthetic aperture concept
Pulse after range
SAR signal processing
compression
Target in computer memory

Radar Coherence
Consider 2 ways the radar can measure echo time
delay:
– by observing the time delay of the echo magnitude
(e.g. 56 nsec accuracy = 8 m)
– by observing the phase of the echo
(e.g. 6 psec relative accuracy = 1 mm)
A coherent radar has the ability to measure phase,

achieved through precise control over:
– start time and phase angle of the transmitted pulse
– frequency of the coherent oscillator (demodulator)
– platform motion including motion compensation

Components of a SAR System
Coherent Pulse High Power

Oscillator Generator Amplifier
Circulator
A/D Coherent Low Noise

Converter Demodulator Amplifier
Antenna
Tx/Rx
To Signal Processor
The coherent oscillator (coho) is a very stable clock which provides timing for
the signal generation, transmission time, sampling window, demodulation and
A/D converter

Antennas
An antenna couples electromagnetic waves (signals)
propagating in free space to and from a transmission line.
– frequency dependent
– directional
– polarization dependent
For SAR applications the axis that defines the wave’s electric
field orientation with respect to the antenna defines the wave
polarization. The general case is elliptical polarized waves.
An antenna focuses the radiated waves into a beam in three
dimensions.
– for efficiency the radiating aperture > 1 wavelength
– large radiating areas (apertures) can make tight beams
– the gain of an antenna is determined by
• electrical losses
• beam area (solid angle)

SAR Signal Generation
Chirp: Bandwidth = 20 MHz
Transmitted Pulse
To HPA
Modulator X
Tx pulse looks like a sine wave,
but is a chirp with low fractional
bandwidth
Carrier from coho: Freq = 5.3 GHz

Coherent Demodulation
Received Signal
Demodulated Signal
To ADC
Demodulator X
Demodulated signal is just like
the original chirp generated
Carrier from coho: Freq = 5.3 GHz

How Demodulation Turns Time
Delay Into Azimuth Phase
Received Signal
Received Signal
Stored
Stored RxRx Signal
Signal Stored
StoredDemodulated Signal
Demodulated signal
Azimuth Time
<−−−− Azimuth Time
←
30−May−99 12:0
Range Time−−−−>
Range Time → Range Time−−−−>
Range Time →
demod_phase.eps

SAR Processing 1
Once the radar illumination beam has passed over a
point on the ground, all of the information from that
point has been acquired and stored as a two
dimensional (range and azimuth) phase history.
– In the absence of radar saturation, all of the phase histories of
all of the points in the image are linearly combined in a time
series to form the SAR “signal” data.
– SAR processing decodes the phase signature of each point in
range and azimuth and focuses this information into an
impulse response. The range and azimuth widths of the
impulse response are the range and azimuth resolutions.
– Nyquist’s theorem requires that the processed data be
sampled at least twice per impulse response width. These
samples are the radar image “pixels”.

SAR Processing 2
Because the natural coordinates of the range and azimuth data
are not separable, the range and azimuth processing steps are
coupled.
– Range walk and range curvature
• Resolution vs. beam width
• Beam squint (antenna pointing angle βSQ, relative to zero-
Doppler)
• Earth rotation
Processing is done in the natural coordinate system of the
radar, the slant range plane.
– Earth surface presentations of radar images require projection along
constant range arcs to the Earth surface elevation at each point.
RADARSAT data are often projected to an ellipsoid model of sea
level.
Calibration separates the radar and the gross imaging
geometry from the radar data by inverting the radar equation.

Point Target Compression or Focussing
RANGE
RANGE CURVATURE
COMPRESSION
RANGE RANGE
WALK RESOLUTION
CHIRP
LENGTH
RANGE = CHIRP LENGTH

COMPRESSION RATIO RANGE RESOLUTION
SINGLE LOOK
APERTURE LENGTH
AZIMUTH
RESOLUTION
AZIMUTH
COMPRESSION
LOOK 1 LOOK 2 LOOK 3 LOOK 4
AZIMUTH = SINGLE LOOK APERTURE LENGTH

COMPRESSION RATIO AZIMUTH RESOLUTION

Range Compression of Received Signal
Signal before range
Signal before compression
range compression Signal after
Signal afterrange
rangecomp
compression
RangeRange →
timetime −−−−> Range time→
time
Range −−−−>
19−May−99 12:39 comp_pulse.m

Point Target in Computer Memory
Real
Real part
part ofofdemodulated
demodulatedsignal
signal at range
at range R vs azimuth
R vs. azimuth time
time
R
R
Real
Real part
part ofof demodulated
demod. signal vs. signal vs
range time
range time
(azimuth time(azimuth
increases time increases
with each line)
with each line)

Signal Analysis in the Azimuth Direction
→
−−−−> Case ACase
Radar is stationary
A Radar is stationarywith
with respect
respect to to target
target
1
amplitude
0.5
Signalamplitude
0
−0.5
Signal
−1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Case BCase
Target moving
B Target away
moving awayfrom theradar
from the radarat aatconstant
a constant
rate rate
→
1
−−−−>
0.5
amplitude
Signal amplitude
0
−0.5
−1
Signal
−1.5 Overthis
Over this time,
time, hashas
2R 2R by λ by λ
decreased
decreased
−2
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Azimuth sample number −−−−>
Azimuth sample number →
Whenthe
When theazimuth
azimuth signal
signal isisanalyzed,
analyzed,a asine wave
sine is observed
wave in Case
is observed B asBthe
in Case astarget is moving.
the target is
moving. The sine wave frequency = the TARGET
The sine wave frequency = the TARGET DOPPLER FREQUENCYDOPPLER FREQUENCY

Phase Change Induced by Sensor Motion
Platform motion
Radar
R
Vt R0 Target
Zero-Doppler Point Range

R 2 ( t ) = R0 + V 2t 2 m
2
Range vs Azimuth Time:

V2 2
R ( t ) ≅ R0 + t m
2 R0
Phase vs Time:
2R (t ) V2 2
2 R0
φ (t ) = − ≅ − − t cycles
λ λ λ R0
Doppler Frequency from Phase Change
dφ −2V 2
Doppler frequency vs. azimuth time: Fd = = t Hz
dt λR
= K a t Hz
This is a linear FM signal:
Doppler
Doppler Total DopplerTotal
Bandwidth
Doppler Bandwidth
Frequency of target DBW
of target (DBW)
Slope= =Ka Ka
Slope Hz/sHz/s
AzimuthTime
Azimuth Time
Totalexposure
Total exposuretime
timeofoftarget
target

Total Doppler Bandwidth Generated
Satellite Length of beam footprint L
motion = synthetic aperture
Azimuth beamwidth α
Antenna R
length D
Range
λR
Length of beam footprint: L = αR = meters
D
L λR
Exposure Time: Te = = s
V D
2V
Total Doppler Band Width: DBW = K aTe = Hz
- independent of range and wavelength !
D
- the smaller is D, the larger is the DBW !
Azimuth Resolution
2V
Doppler Bandwidth = Hz
D
D
therefore resolution in time = s
2V
and resolution in space units = resolution in time * V
D
= m
2
Thus the SAR has the remarkable property that its
resolution is independent of distance and radar
wavelength !
However, the SNR goes down with increasing range
and increasing frequency, so higher power may be
needed at long ranges.
SAR Signal Processing
Overview of processing algorithms available

Structure of the received SAR signal
The Range/Doppler algorithm
Range pulse compression
Range resolution obtained
Doppler centroid estimation
Range cell migration correction (RCMC)
Azimuth compression
Multi-looking to reduce speckle
The SPECAN algorithm

SAR Processing Algorithms
Range/Doppler
– a widely-used general-purpose algorithm
– good compromise between accuracy and speed
SPECAN
– for quick-look or ScanSAR processing
Chirp Scaling
– for the highest phase accuracy and moderate squint
Wave Equation
– for systems which operate with wide apertures and/or
large squint angles
Polar Format
– for spotlight radar processing
Structure of Transmitted SAR Signal
The transmitted SAR signal is usually a linear FM pulse:
{ }
St (η ,τ ) = P (τ ) cos 2π f 0τ + π K r (τ − τ l / 2 ) , τ = [0,τ l ]
2
(1)
where η = azimuth time s
τ range time s
P(τ) envelope of range pulse (chirp)
f0 radar carrier frequency Hz
Kr range FM rate Hz/s
τl duration of range chirp s
These pulses are repeated at the rate of Fa Hz, which we refer

to as the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF).
Note that τ is continuous time, while η is a discrete time
variable.
Structure of Received SAR Signal
The ideal received signal from a single point target can be

expressed as:
{
Sr (η ,τ ) = P {τ − τ d }cos 2π f 0 (τ − τ d ) + π K r (τ − τ l / 2 − τ d ) ,
2
}
τ = [τ d ,τ l − τ d ] (2)
The ideal received signal is the same signal as was
transmitted, but with a time delay τd proportional to the
range R:
τ d = 2 R (η ) / c ( 3)
where R(η) is the range to the point target for the pulse
transmitted at time η and c is the speed of light.

The Range Equation
The most important geometry relationship is given by the range
equation:
R (η ) = R0 + Vr (η − η0 )
2 2 2 2
which comes from the right-angled triangle with sides R0 and Vr (η - η 0 )

and hypotenuse R(η), where the straight-line platform motion
approximation is made. As Vr (η - η 0 ) << R0 we can use a Taylor series
to approximate R(η) by the parabola:
R (η ) = R0 + Vr (η − η0 ) / ( 2 R0 )
2 2
Platform motion
Radar position
R (η)
Vr (η − η0 )
R0 Target
Zero-Doppler Point Range

Structure of Demodulated SAR Signal
After coherent demodulation, the signal from the point

target can be expressed as:
Sd (η ,τ ) = A (η − ηc ) P (τ − τ d )
{
exp − j 2π f 0τ d + jπ K r (τ − τ l / 2 − τ d ) ,
2
}
τ = [τ d ,τ l + τ d ] (4)
where we have included A, the azimuth beam profile (gain)
which is a function of the time from the beam centre
crossing time ηc.

SAR Data Acquisition
h
muutth
Azziim
R
ann
ggee
SAR Signal
SAR Memory
Signal Memory
h
B t pat
FFlliigh (ηA))
RR(η
A
R (ηBB))
R(η
SAR
r Nad
ir
Nadi
k
n d Trac
Grou
e
rface
ssu
mm a
alloonngg Target
Beaa

Received Data in SAR Signal Memory
45
Locus
Locusofofpoint
point target energyininsignal
target energy signal memory
memory
When the echo from each pulse
is received, it is written into one
line in SAR signal memory (along
end
end
40
constant azimuth time).

35
As the platform (or target)

η
η00
30
moves, the echo from a given
target shifts in range, and is
−−−−>
written into the next range line in

(cells)) →
25
ηηCc
the memory (going up the slide).
(cells
Azimuth
After the beam has finished

20
Azimuth
illuminating the target, the locus

of energy has the shape shown
15
10
in red.
The purpose of SAR signal
5
startofoftarget
start target exposure
exposure
processing is to compress this
energy into a single point.
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Slant
Slant Range
Range →
(cells) −−−−>
(cells)
Simulation Parameters
Size of azimuth array Na 256 complex samples
Size of range array Nr 128 complex samples
No. of samples in chirp 104 complex samples
No. non-zero range lines 239 complex samples
Duration of chirp τl 5.20 µsec
Range FM rate Kr 3.27 MHz / µsec
Range sampling rate Fr 20.0 MHz
Range bandwidth 17.0 MHz
Radar wavelength λ 1.036 cm
Speed of wave prop. c 300.0 Km/msec
Range of target R0 850 Km
PRF Fa 1700 Hz
Total Doppler bandwidth 1410 Hz
Platform Velocity Vr 7050 m/s
Azimuth FM rate Ka -11289 Hz/s
"PRF" duration 150.59 msec
Beam offset ηc -6.34 s
Doppler centroid Fcen 71613 Hz
Doppler centroid 42.125 PRFs
Doppler centroid Ffrac 213 Hz
Antenna length D 10.0 m
Actual RCM 6.92 cells
Energy of Range Signal
Envelope of
Envelope of Received
Received SAR
SARSignal
Signal ηc etac
= -6.34
= s−6.34
RCMs = 6.92
rcmcells
= 6.92 cells
0.8
−−−−>
Magnitude →
0.6
Magnitude
0.4
0.2
0
250
200
150
←

<− A
−−zi
100
−mu
120
Azth
100
50 80
im
60
ut
40
h
0 20
0 −−→
 −−>
RRaannggee geninp2.eps
16−May−99 13:51

The Range/Doppler Algorithm
SAR
Signal
Data Unpack Balance Range
Encoded I&Q Compression
Data Channels
Doppler Range Cell

Azimuth
Centroid Migration
FFT
Estimation Correction
MLD
Matched Look Detection, IMAGE
Filter Extraction, Look Summation
Multiply Azimuth IFFT
SLC Image

Range Processing
Generate range matched filter
– Get replica of ideal range pulse
– Reverse sequence in time
– FFT the sequence with zero padding
– Conjugate the answer
– Apply smoothing window
FFT each range line
Multiply by range matched filter
Inverse FFT
Select good output points

Range Matched Filter
SpectrumSpectrum
of signal in inrange
of signal line
range line 128128 (FFT shifted)
(fftshifted) Spectrum of ofsignal
Spectrum signal inin range
range line 128
line 128
14
0
12
→
−50
−−−−>→
(radians) −−−−>
10
−100
Phase (radians)
Magnitude
8 −150
Magnitude
6 −200
Phase
−250
4
−300
2
−350
0
−60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60
Range
Rangefrequency
frequency (bin(bin no.) →
no.) −−−−> Range frequency
Range frequency (bin
(bin no.) no.) →
−−−−>
Spectrum of range
Spectrum MF,
of range MF, with & without
with & without window window Spectrum ofofmatched
Spectrum matched filterfilter
14
350
12
→
300
(radians) −−−−>
10
→
itude −−−−>
250
Phase(radians)
8
200
Magnitude
6 150
Magn
Phase
4 100
50
2
0
0
−60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60 −60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60
13−May−99 12:42
Range frequency (bin no.) →
Range frequency (bin no.) −−−−>
rangemf1.eps 13−May−99 12:42
Range frequency (bin no.) →
Range frequency (bin no.) −−−−>
rangemf2.eps

Range Pulse Compression
Signal before
Signal beforerange compression
range compression Signal after
Signal afterrange
rangecomp
compression
Range
Range time→
time −−−−> Range time→
time
Range −−−−>
19−May−99 12:39 comp_pulse.m

Range Compression Results 1
RangeRange
compressed signal
compressed signal
250
Signal
Signalafter rangecompression
after range ηc c == -−6.34
compression eta 6.34 ss RCM
RCM= =6.92 cells
6.92 cells
200
80
→
Magnitude −−−−>
60
Magnitude
→
→
40
no.−−−−>
150
20
cell no.
Azimuthcell
0
Azimuth
250
100
←< 200
150
−−
100
A−−z
75
im
Az
50 50 70
uimt u
65
60
hth
0 55
−−→
50
gee 
RRaanng
−−>
19−May−99 13:4 rangcom2.eps
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
19−May−99 13:4 Range cellno.no.
Range cell →
−−−−>
rangcom1.eps

Contour plot
Contour plotofofmagnitude ofrange
magnitude of rangecompressed
compressed signal
signal
250
Range Compression 200
Results 2
→
−−−−>
number
150
number
The data is now range
cell
Azimuth cell
compressed, but a
Azimuth
100
significant range
migration remains.
50
50 55 60 65 70 75
19−May−99 16:18
Range cellnumber
Range cell number →
−−−−>
contour4.eps

Range Resolution
The slant range -3 dB resolution in seconds is equal to:
Q
ρ sr = r s
BWr
where BWr is the bandwidth of the range pulse
A weighting function is used in the matched filter to
control the range sidelobes, and leads to the weighting
factor Qr (typically 1.2)
ρsr is multiplied by half the speed of light to get the slant
range resolution in metres
ρsr is also divided by sin(θ ) to get the ground range
resolution in metres:
Q sin (θ )
ρ gr = r m
( c BWr )

Compressed pulse
Compressed pulseininrange
rangeline
line128128
0
Resolution
Resolution = =1.189
1.189
cellscells Pk
Pkindex == 60.88
index
60.88 samples
samples
−5
Maxlobe = =
Max −18.0 dB
-18.0 dB Pk
Pkvalue
value
== 80 80
units
units
lobe
1-D ISLR = −14.9

1D ISLR = -14.9
dB dB Pk phase= 0.0 deg
Pkphase = 0.0 deg
−10
−−−−>
(dB) →
−15
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude
−20
−25
−30
−35
54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
Time (samples expanded by 16) −−−−−>
15−May−99 12:57
Time (samples expanded by 16) → pulse3.ep

Compressed
Compressedpulse
pulseinin
range
rangeline
line128
128
200
150
→
100
(deg)−−−−>
50
Angle(deg)
0
PhaseAngle
−50
Phase
−100
−150
−200
54 56 58 60 62 64 66 68
Time (samples expanded by 16) −−−−−>
Time (samples expanded by 16) →
15−May−99 12:57 pulse4.eps

Azimuth FFT 1
Signal
Signalmagnitude
magnitudeafter azimuth
after FFT
azimuth FFT
1200
→→
1000
−−−−>
800
Magnitude
Magnitude
600
Magnitude
400
200
0
←
250

<− A
−− zim
− u
200
Az th
im f
150
uthre
frequ
quen
100
en c
75
cyy (
50 70
65
(ccee
60
llslls
55
−→
−>
(cceelllsl)s)
) )
0 50 −−
i t io n
n (
45 eops
ngp o s it io
RanRgae azfreqdm.eps
15−May−99 13:27

Contour plotplot
Contour of signal energy
of signal energyafter
afterthe
theazimuth FFT
azimuth FFT
250
Azimuth FFT 2 200
−−−−>→
The azimuth FFT
(cells)
causes a circular
(cells)
150
frequency
rotation of the data
Azimuth frequency
around the azimuth
Azimuth
axis, because of the
100
conversion from time

to frequency. 50
0
50 55 60 65 70 75
19−May−99 16:18
Range
Range position (cells)
position (cells) →
−−−−>
contour2.eps

Doppler Centroid Estimation
The centre of the azimuth or Doppler energy is a
function of the antenna squint angle and the Earth
rotation and must be estimated now, as it is needed for
RCMC and azimuth compression
There are many ways of estimating the Doppler
Centroid, e.g.:
– Curve-fitting the azimuth magnitude spectrum
– Estimating the average phase increment
– Beating two range looks together
The Doppler centroid is ambiguous, as the energy is
aliased to the interval ( 0 : Fa ). Both the aliased
centroid and the ambiguity number must be estimated.

Aliasing of the Doppler Spectrum
If the Doppler energy could be observed as an analog signal,
the red spectrum would be seen.
But, as the Doppler spectrum is sampled at a rate of Fa Hz,
the spectrum is aliased down to the interval ( 0 : Fa ) as
shown in blue. This blue spectrum is all we can observe
with the sampled data.
M is referred to as the ambiguity number.
We must estimate M as it is needed for range cell migration
correction. F = F + M *F true meas a
>
Measured spectrum
Measured spectrum True spectrum
spectrum
energy
Dopplerr energy
Dopple
>
0
0 Fa
F M
MFFa (M+1) Fa
(M+1) F
a a a
15−May−99 14:59 Azimuth

Azimuth frequency
frequency (Hz) −−−−>
(Hz) → amb_illus.eps

The Doppler Ambiguity Number
In general, the Doppler energy is not between integer Fa
boundaries.
The total or absolute Doppler centroid is Fcen
The observed Doppler centroid is Ffrac
In addition to Ffrac, we need to estimate the Doppler
ambiguity number M, so that we can obtain:
Fcen = F frac + M * Fa
>
Observed
Observedspectrum
spectrum True
Truespectrum
spectrum
energy
r energy
>
>
Doppler
Ffrac F
Fcen
Dopple
Ffrac cen
>
00 Fa
Fa M Fa
M Fa (M+1)FFa
(M+1) a
15−May−99 16:6 Azimuth

Azimuth frequency
frequency (Hz) −−−−>
(Hz) → amb_illus2.eps

Average Phase Method
Estimation of the Doppler Centroid by the average azimuth
phase vectors
Azimuth phase increments method
in DC range frequency cell
1.5
Estimated
EstimatedFF frac
= 211
211HzHz
frac
0.5
part −−−−>
Imag part →
0
Imaginary
−0.5
−1
−1.5
−1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
19−May−99 14:19 Real
Real part
Realpart −−−−>
part → accc.eps

Finding the Doppler Ambiguity
DLR
DLRalgorithm:
algorithm: ACCC
ACCCangle
anglevs.
vs.range
range frequency
frequency (FFT shifted)
(fftshifted)
ηcetac = -6.344
= −6.344 s s
0.95 Squint
squintangle
= −3.0= deg
-3.0 deg
Ffrac = 212 Hz
est
Ffrac = 213 Hz
0.9 true
Ffrac = 213 Hz
(radians)−−−−>
Ffrac = 212 Hz
→
trueest
0.85
angle (radians)
0.8
ACCC angle
0.75
ACCC
Fit Error
Fit Error = =13.71
13.71mrads
mrads
0.7
Cubic Err
Cubic Err = =0.065
0.065mrads
mrads
Slope = 9.192 mrad/MHz
Slope = 9.192 mrad/MHz
0.65 Fcen = 42.13 PRFs
true
Fcen =
F cen true =42.13
42.18 PRFs
PRFs
0.6 Fcenest = 42.18 PRFs
est
−60 −40 −20 0 20 40 60

19−May−99 14:39 Range
Rangefrequency
frequency (bins) −−−−>
(bins) →
dopcen1.eps

Range Cell Migration Correction
The total range migration comes from the range equation. When
expressed in range cells, we can determine when RCM correction is
needed:
2
2 Vr Fr
RCM = ηl ηc range cells
c R0
Total Range Migration
Total Range Migrationvs.
vsBeam
BeamSquint
Squint
12
cells)−−−−>
→
10
Targetexposure
Target exposure= =0.141
0.141s s
(rangecells)
8
RCM (range
6 Simulation value
Simulation value
4
Total RCM
Total
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
19−May−99 14:45
Beam
Beam
Beam centre
centre offset
offset
centre magnitude
offset |ηc|O
magnitude
magnitude |etac| →
(s)c| (s)(s)→
−−−−> RCMtot.eps

RCM Calculation
1. Compute absolute frequency of each frequency sample
2. Compute RCM needed in range cells:
λ 2 R0
R( f ) = 2
f2
8 Vr
Frequency vector
Frequency forfor
vector RCMC calculations
RCMC calculations
(KHz) −−−−>
→
72.4 7
−−−−>
frequency(KHz)
72.2
cells) →
6
72
absolutefrequency
(rangecells)
5
71.8
4
needed (range
71.6 DOPCEN =
DOPCEN = 71.61
71.61 KHz
KHz
orabsolute
M = 42 3
71.4 M = 42
RCM needed
71.2 2
Unaliasedor
71 1
RCM
Unaliased
70.8 0
0 50 100 150 200 250
19−May−99 14:52
Azimuth frequency
Azimuth
Azimuth index
frequency
frequency →
indexindex −−−−> favector.eps

RCMC Interpolator Design 1
To perform RCMC, we need an interpolator.
We design one based on a weighted sinc function.
Coefficients of filter for interpolating 1/16 of a cell
Before weighting
After weighting
Coefficient value →
Shift amount (1/16 cell) →

RCMC Interpolator Design 2
The red curve of the previous slide is sub sampled, with an
1/16 cell shift to get the individual coefficient sets:
1616sets
setsofof8−point
8-point interpolators
interpolators designed
designedwith
withKaiser
Kaiserwindow,
window,β =beta
3 =3
1 Only sets 1:8 are shown

Only sets 1:8 are shown
(sets 9:15 are symmetrical)
0.8 (sets 9:15 are symmetrical)
Coefficient value −−−−>
(set 16 is the no−shift set)

(set 16 is the no-shift set)
Coefficient value →
0.6
0.4
0.2
−0.2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
17−May−99 16:29 Coefficient number
Coefficient fildes2.eps

RCMC Results 1
(a)
(a)Amount
Amountof
ofRCMC
RCMCneeded
needed (c)
(c) Energy of target
Energy of targetafter
afterinteger
integerRCMC
RCMC
Total RCMC
−−−−>→
10 Total RCMC
Range (cells) −−−−>
Integer RCMC
Integer RCMC 6
Magnitude(cells)
8 Fract RCMC
Fract RCMC
Range (cells) →
6 4
Magnitude
4
2
2
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 45 50 55 60 65 70
Azimuth frequency (bin
Azimuth frequency (binno.) →
no.) −−−−> Range (cells)
Range →−−−−>
(cells)
(b)(b)
Energy ofof
Energy target
targetbefore
beforeRCMC
RCMC (d) (d)
Energy of target
Energy after
of target total
after totalRCMC
RCMC
→
→
6 6
−−−−>
−−−−>
Magnitude(cells)
4 (cells)
Magnitude 4
Magnitude
Magnitude
2 2
0 0
55 60 65 70 75 80 45 50 55 60 65 70
17−May−99 17:4 Range
Range(cells) →
(cells) −−−−> Range (cells)
Range →−−−−>
(cells) rcmc1.eps

RCMC Results 2
Signal magnitudeafter
Signal magnitude after RCMC(every
RCMC (every 12th
12th line
line is shown)
is shown)
1200
1000
→
800
600
Magnitude
400
200
0
250
Az
200
Azim
imuth
uth f
150
frreeq
quue
100
ennc
cyy
70
65
((ccee
50 60
55
lllsls
50
))
)
0 45
p o s it i o
o nit(iocnell(csells)
s
RangReange p
17−May−99 16:54 rcmc2.eps

RCMC Results 3
Mean
MeanSquare energyofofRCMCed
Square energy RCMCed signal
signal vs range
vs. range
1000
Energy −−−−>
→
800
MS Energy
600
400
MS
200
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Range
Range cell →
no. −−−−>
cell no.
Blowup of of
Blowup graph
graphabove
above
1000
Energy−−−−>
→
800
600
MS Energy
400
MS
200
0
45 50 55 60 65 70
19−May−99 15:1 Range
Range cell →
no. −−−−>
cell no. rcmc3.eps

Contour plotplot
Contour of of
signal
signal energy after
energy after RCMC
RCMC
250
RCMC Results 4
200
→
The data is now well-
−−−−>
(cells)
aligned in the
(cells)
150
frequency
azimuth direction --
frequency
the data lies mainly in
Azimuth
Azimuth
one range cell.
100
50
0
45 50 55 60 65 70
Rangeposition
Range position (cells)
(cells) →
−−−−>
19−May−99 16:15 contour3.eps

Azimuth Compression
After RCMC, the azimuth energy is aligned vertically
in the computer memory
Azimuth compression consists of:
– generation of matched filter
– look extraction, with weighting
– inverse discrete Fourier transform (DFT)
The azimuth matched filter parameters are computed
from the azimuth FM rate, the exposure time and the
Doppler centroid
The azimuth matched filter is also a linear FM signal,
and is applied with a fast convolution, much like the
range compression operation.
Azimuth Matched Filter
To derive the matched filter:
– generate replica of ideal received signal
– reverse it in time
– zero pad, and take its DFT
To apply the matched filter:

– select portion of azimuth spectrum to utilize
– multiply by window and matched filter
– inverse DFT
– select good output points

Azimuth Signal Properties
Sliceofofsignal
Slice signal data
data down
downrange
rangecell
cell5757(max energy)
(max energy)
14
→
−−−−> 12
10
magnitude
Signalmagnitude
4
Signal
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Azimuth frequency
Azimuth frequency cell →
cell−−−−>
100
−−−−>
(radians)→
50
Angle(radians)
0
Angle
−50
0 50 100 150 200 250

18−May−99 10:34 Azimuth frequency
Azimuth frequency cellcell →
−−−−> azimmf1.eps

Form of the Compressed Pulse
After Azimuth Compression
Compressed
Compresseddata
data after azimuth
after azimuth processing
processing
→
10000
Magnitude
5000
0
50
40
←
<−
−−Az
−
30
70
iAm
65
zuimt
60
hu
55
th
20 50
45 −−>
R anngge −→
e −
R a
18−May−99 11:13 azcomp2.eps

1-D 1−D
integrations over
integrations range
over rangeand
andazimuth
azimuth
250
Azimuth
Compression 200
→
Results 2
no.
−−−−>
no. le
150
th samp
Azimusample
Red curve:-
Azimuth
100
data summed in range
Blue curve:- 50
data summed in azimuth

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Range
Range cell →
no.−−−−>
cell no.
18−May−99 11:13 azcomp1.eps

Azimuth Compression Results 3
2D expansion
2D expansion of
of compressed
compressedpulse
pulse
120
Pk
Peak
mag == 14748
14748
mag
4) −−−−−>
Pk
Pkr-index == 57.25
57.25
→
r−indx
100 Pk
Pka-index == 36.00
a−indx
36.00
Pk
Pkphase == −1.8
-1.8
by4)
phase
expandedby
80
(samples expanded
60
Azimuth (samples
40
Azimuth
20
20 40 60 80 100 120
19−May−99 16:45 Range
Range (samples
(samplesexpanded
expandedby →
by4)4) −−−−−> contour5.eps

AzComp Results -- Azimuth Slice
0
Pk = 36.00 samples
Resolution
Resolution = =1.106
1.106 cells
cells Pkindex
index = 36.00 samples
−5
Max = -18.0
Maxlobe = −18.0
lobe
dB dB Pkvalue == 14748
Pkvalue units
14748 units
1D ISLR = -16.3 dB Pkphase = -1.8 deg

1D ISLR = −16.3 dB Pkphase = −1.8 deg
−10
Magnitude (dB) −−−−>

(dB) →
−15
Magnitude
−20
−25
−30
−35
40 50 60 70 80 90
18−May−99 18:59 Time
Time(samples
(samples expanded
expanded byby
16)16) →
−−−−−> pulse3.eps
200
→
(deg)−−−−>
100
angle(deg)
0
Phase Angle
Phase
−100
−200
18−May−99 18:59
40 50 60 70 80 90
pulse4.eps
Time
Time(samples
(samples expanded
expanded byby
16)16) →
−−−−−>

AzComp Results -- Range Slice
0
Resolution = 1.195 cells Pk = 57.13 samples

Resolution = 1.195 cells Pkindex
index = 57.13 samples
−5
Max
Maxlobe = = -18.1
−18.1 dBdB PkPk
value ==14893
14893 units
units
lobe value
1D ISLR = -15.0 dB Pkphase = -1.8 deg

1D ISLR = −15.0 dB Pkphase = −1.8 deg
−10
−−−−>
(dB) →
−15
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude
−20
−25
−30
−35
40 50 60 70 80 90
18−May−99 18:59
Time
Time(samples expanded
(samples expanded by by
16) 16) →
−−−−−> pulse3.eps
200
angle (deg) →
Phase Angle (deg) −−−−>
100
0
Phase
−100
−200
18−May−99 18:59
40 50 60 70 80 90
pulse4.eps
Time (samples
Time (samples expanded
expanded 16) →
by−−−−−>
by 16)

Multi-Looking Concept
Single look image uses all signal returns from a ground
target to create a single image. The image will contain
speckle but have the highest achievable resolution
Multi looking is used to reduce speckle in the final detected
image, assuming that phase is not needed.
Independent images of the same area can be formed in the
digital processing of SAR data by using sub-sets of the
signal returns. Achieved by compressing subsets of the
azimuth signal energy (spectrum) independently, and
adding their detected images together after registration.
In satellite SARs, 3 or 4 looks are typically taken, with the
azimuth resolution and number of looks selected to make
the azimuth pixel size approximately equal to the ground
range pixel size.
Resulting image has lower resolution but reduced speckle

The SPECAN Algorithm
Optimal for low resolution, multi-look or ScanSAR
processing
Following conventional range compression, azimuth

compression is achieved by a matched filter multiply
followed by an azimuth FFT
There is no azimuth IFFT, so the algorithm is very

efficient
This saving is possible because of the linear FM

structure of the received signal
http://www.ee.ubc.ca/sar/sqlp/sqlp.html

Summary
Illustrated SAR compression with the R/D algorithm
– Obtained well-focussed results
– Carefully-designed matched filters with weighting
– RCMC done correctly
– Doppler parameters estimated accurately
Other algorithms available for specialized purposes
– SPECAN
– Chirp scaling
– Wave Equation
– Polar Format
Advanced Topics Notes - Radarsystems Page 1 of 15
Advanced Topics - SAR Systems and Digital Signal Processing

Notes
Slide 2
A SAR system, as used in remote sensing, has two features which distinguish it from other radar systems:
• It makes a 2-dimensional image by having the radar platform move in a straight line during the data
collection. The second dimension is given by measuring the time delay of the received radar pulse.
• It obtains high resolution in the motion direction by focussing or compressing the Doppler energy arising
from the platform motion.
As the radar is a coherent system (preserving phase), it is convenient to perform the signal processing using complex
numbers. Also, the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is kept low to obtain large swath widths, so complex numbers are
needed to properly sample the received signal.
In the early days of SAR, users were only interested in the magnitude of the processed image, but now they are also very
interested in the phase. So the final processed image is usually stored in the form of complex numbers.
One of the features that distinguishes a modern radar system from its predecessors is digital signal processing (DSP).
With digital processing, focussing can be precise, and image quality maintained at a high level.
Slide 3
What does aperture mean? (Courtesy of the Alaska SAR Facility)
Many people associate the word aperture with photography, where the term represents the diameter of the lens' opening.
The camera's aperture then determines the area through which light is collected. Similarly, a radar antenna's length
partially specifies the area through which it collects radar signals. The antenna's length is therefore also called its
aperture.
Remember, light and radar just represent different wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, so many terms and
equations used in everyday optics also apply in radar theory.
So what does synthetic aperture mean?
In general the larger the antenna, the more unique information you can obtain about a particular viewed object. With
more information, you can create a better image of that object (improved resolution). It's prohibitively expensive to place
very large radar antennas in space, however, so researchers found another way to obtain fine resolution: they use the
spacecraft's motion and advanced signal processing techniques to simulate a larger antenna.
A SAR antenna transmits radar pulses very rapidly. In fact, the SAR is generally able to transmit several hundred pulses
while its parent spacecraft passes over a particular object. Many backscattered radar responses are therefore obtained
for that object. After intensive signal processing, all of those responses can be manipulated such that the resulting image
looks like the data were obtained from a big, stationary antenna. The synthetic aperture in this case, therefore, is the
distance travelled by the spacecraft while the radar antenna collected information about the object.
The ERS-1 satellite's SAR sends out around 1700 pulses a second, collects about a thousand backscattered responses
from a single object while passing overhead, and the resulting processed image has a resolution near 30 meters. The
spacecraft travels around 4 kilometers while an object is "within sight" of the radar, implying that ERS-1's 10 meter x 1
meter radar antenna synthesizes a 4 kilometer-long stationary antenna!
Slide 6
This slide showing a SAR system operated from an aircraft illustrates the 2-dimensional nature of the SAR imaging
mechanism.
One dimension is the aircraft flight direction, which is called azimuth. The other dimension is given by the radar beam,
which is approximately perpendicular to the flight direction. This second dimension is called range, as it is proportional to
the range R from the sensor to the reflectors on the ground.
Slide 8
In this group of slides, we will discuss the technical features of SAR systems which allow them to obtain their high
resolution in azimuth. Key to this is the concept of coherence, and how the radar signals are timed and processed to
maintain and take advantage of the coherence property.
Slide 9
If we can only observe the magnitude of a signal, the best that we can measure is the time of the signal’s reception. The
accuracy of this measurement is given by the inverse of the bandwidth of the received signal, e.g. if the bandwidth is 18
MHz, then the time of arrival of a pulse can be measured to an accuracy of 56 nanoseconds. This corresponds to a
distance of 8 m.
However, if we can observe the phase to an accuracy of 12o, then (at C-band) the time can be measured to an accuracy
of 6 picoseconds, or 1 mm. A coherent radar, with precise control over the frequency of the coherent oscillator, and
precise control over the timing of the transmitted pulses, can achieve this higher accuracy.
In the case of an airborne SAR, the platform may not fly in a straight line, because of atmospheric turbulence. When this
happens, the received signal must be motion compensated so that the phase of the received signal is the same as it
would be if the aircraft did fly in a straight line.
Slide 10
These are the main components of the analogue or radio frequency (RF) parts of a SAR system.
The coherent oscillator generates a very stable frequency, and counters are used to generate the discrete times of pulse
generation and analogue-to-digital (A/D) conversion.
The pulse generator generates a chirp signal at low frequency with the desired bandwidth, say 20 MHz. Then the chirp is
multiplied by the coherent oscillator to raise its centre frequency to the desired radar frequency, e.g. 5.3 GHz.
This weak RF signal is then amplified to a power of several kW, and fed to the antenna via the circulator. The circulator is
a switch which cycles the path to the antenna between the transmit side (Tx) and the receiver side (Rx) of the radar
system.
The transmit cycle lasts approximately 30 µsec, while the receive cycle lasts approximately 600 µsec. The circulator also
plays the important function of protecting the sensitive receiver from the high power of the transmitter.
The antenna receives the weak echo from the Earth’s surface, and the Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) amplifies it by about
120 dB so that the subsequent analogue and digital electronics can deal with it. Because the LNA has to deal with such a
weak received signal, it must have a very low thermal noise figure, to keep the received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at a
reasonable level.
The demodulator down-converts the signal to baseband (or to an intermediate frequency) so that the sampler can operate
at the Nyquist rate for the signal’s bandwidth.
Slide 12
The first step in the SAR signal generation process is to generate a chirp signal with the desired bandwidth, such as 20
MHz. The time of the beginning of the chirp is precisely controlled by a counter running off the coherent oscillator (coho).
The beginning of the pulses are separated by the pulse repetition interval, or 1/PRF. Each pulse has exactly the same
waveform including the same initial phase.
The pulse is then multiplied by the radar carrier frequency so that the resulting signal has the desired centre frequency,
e.g. 5.3 GHz. The carrier is the same as the coho, or is derived from it.
The signal out of the multiplier is filtered so only the signal around the carrier frequency is kept. The signal remaining is
then the pulse which is sent to the high power amplifier and transmitted.
The coho signal is a sine wave, and the transmitted pulse also looks like a sine wave, as its fractional bandwidth is very
small, e.g. 0.3 %.
Slide 13
The coherent demodulator is essentially the reverse of the up-converter in the signal generator. If the received signal is
the same as the transmitted signal (except for a gain change and a time delay), the demodulated signal is the baseband
chirp originally generated.
However, the demodulated signal has two important properties:
• it has a time delay given by the return flight time of the signal, and
• it has a phase change proportional to the time delay.
Slide 14
This slide shows how the demodulation process imparts a phase change on the received pulse, proportional to the time
delay of the pulse.
The received signal is shown along the top of the slide. In this case, we assume that it is the ideal signal from a point
reflector, and the radar and reflector are moving away from each other slowly.
This is more clearly seen by the signals in the lower left panel, where the received signal is chopped up and stored in
memory. The memory is 2-dimensional, with each new row of memory beginning at a precise time after the initiation of
each transmitted pulse (referred to as range time). The time delay can be seen with respect to the vertical dashed line,
which represents a fixed range time. Note that except for the time delay, the received signal has exactly the same shape
(phase) in each row. The vertical dimension represents azimuth in this 2-D memory.
However, when the signal is demodulated, the phase of the pulse is changed by the time delay, because the phase of the
demodulated signal equals the phase of the received signal minus the phase of the coho. But as the received signal is
delayed with respect to the coho, a phase change proportional to delay is imparted on the signal.
The phase change can be observed in the lower right panel, where the circles represent samples taken at a common
range time.
Slide 18
After demodulation, the signal is sampled and compressed in the range direction.
The compression is achieved by a matched filter, which is the complex conjugate of the ideal received signal. Weighting
is used to control the sidelobes of the compressed pulse.
The -3 dB width of the compressed pulse (in time units) is approximately equal to the inverse of the bandwidth of the
pulse.
The phase of the compressed pulse is equal to the phase of the demodulated signal (at a certain reference point from its
beginning).
Slide 19
This slide shows how a range-compressed target appears in signal memory (left panel), where 25 range lines are shown.
In the memory, range runs horizontally, while azimuth runs vertically.
The range of the point target is increasing linearly with each pulse (with each range line), but each succeeding time delay
increment is so small that the time delay is not obvious in the figure (the total time delay over the 25 pulses is only 93
nsec, representing a λ/2 change in range, or only 0.0019 of a sample).
If we then examine the stored signal at a fixed range R (at the peak of the compressed point target), and draw these 25
samples vs. azimuth time, we observe the sine wave shown in the right panel. This signal is the azimuth signal of the
SAR system.
Slide 20
Let us observe the azimuth signal for two cases.
In case A, the target is stationary with respect to the radar. Then there is no differential time delay between the pulses,
and the phase of each succeeding pulse is constant. In other words, the azimuth signal shown in the top panel has zero
frequency.
Then consider case B, where the target is moving away from the radar at a constant rate, as in the previous slide. Every
time the range to the target increases by λ/2 (the transmit plus receive range increases by λ), the azimuth phase changes
by 360o, as seen in the lower panel.
The azimuth signal in case B is a sine wave. The frequency of this sine wave is
and is referred to as the Doppler frequency of the target.
Slide 21
This slide shows how the range to a target changes with time as the radar passes by, and the form of the resulting phase
change.
Assuming constant-speed, straight-line motion, the zero-Doppler position of the radar, the current position of the radar
and the target form a right-angled triangle. The zero-Doppler position is the point where the radar is closest to the
target, a distance Ro away.
Then the range R varies with time as a hyperbola, but the hyperbola can be well approximated by a parabola, as the
radar beamwidth is relatively narrow.
The change in range induces a phase change, discussed on the previous slide, which also has a parabolic form with
time. Note that a signal with a parabolic phase or a linear frequency is a chirp. The form is much like the range chirp, but
at a quite different time scale (the azimuth bandwidth is only a few hundred to a thousand Hz).
Note that we have used the units of cycles for phase, so when we differentiate phase relative to time on the next slide, we
will get frequency in Hz.
Slide 22
The Doppler frequency is the rate of change of phase, which makes it a linear function of time for the rectilinear SAR
motion shown in the previous slide.
The graph shows a typical plot of Doppler frequency vs. time in the linear FM SAR signal of a point target.
The most interesting property of this frequency is the slope of the graph, or the frequency modulation or FM rate, Ka.
From the range equation developed on the last slide, we see that the azimuth FM rate is
Other interesting parameters of the signal are its bandwidth, centre frequency and duration or exposure time.
Slide 23
This slide shows the total Doppler bandwidth generated by the SAR system.
The SAR system design gives the fixed SAR parameters of antenna length D, radar wavelength λ and sensor velocity
V. The length of the beam footprint and the associated azimuth exposure time are proportional to the range R.
The azimuth FM rate Ka is inversely proportional to range, with the interesting result that the total azimuth bandwidth
generated 2V/D is independent of range and wavelength.
In order to make the bandwidth larger (and the resolution finer), the antenna length must be made shorter !
Slide 24
As in other instruments, the resolution, when expressed in time units, is approximately equal to the inverse of the
bandwidth, or D/(2V) seconds in this case.
Then to get the resolution in space units, we multiply by the (azimuth) velocity of the sensor, or V. Thus the azimuth
resolution is D/2 m.
Slide 25
Digital signal processing of received SAR data is the key to the higher performance of modern radar systems. Originally,
SAR processing was performed with coherent laser optics, but in the 1980s, digital processing took over. Digital
processing offered the advantage of higher dynamic range, better noise control and more precise focussing. Digital SAR
processors were relatively slow at first, but now they can be built to operate in real time.
In this set of slides, we will review the mainstream algorithms in use today, and go through the steps of the most common
algorithm, the Range/Doppler algorithm.
Slide 26
These are the main SAR processing algorithms in use for satellite SAR processing today. The Range/Doppler algorithm
was developed in 1978, is the most general one, and is the one most widely used. It will handle most SAR cases
efficiently, except those with very wide apertures, high squint and ScanSAR.
SPECAN is an algorithm developed in 1979 to use the minimum memory and computing operations for spaceborne use.
It turns out to be very efficient for low resolution, multi-look processing, as well as ScanSAR processing. It is particularly
efficient for ScanSAR because the time-frequency structure of the SAR processing algorithm can be exactly matched to
the time-frequency structure of the ScanSAR data collection. It does not handle range cell migration correction (RCMC)
easily.
The chirp scaling algorithm was developed in 1992. Its main advantage is that it obtains higher phase accuracy because
it dispenses with the RCMC interpolator. Instead, it performs RCMC by scaling (expanding and shifting in range) the chirp
in the range-time, azimuth-frequency domain.
The wave equation algorithm was originally developed for seismic processing, and was adapted to SAR processing in
1986. It is also called the Range Migration Algorithm (RMA), or the Wave Number algorithm. It operates in the 2-
dimensional frequency (wave number) domain, and handles wide-aperture and high-squint SAR data accurately, as long
as the radar velocity does not vary with range too much. It does not need an explicit Secondary Range Compression
term, as this SRC term is implicit in the formulation, but it cannot adjust the SRC term with range.
The polar format algorithm was developed for squinted and spotlight aircraft SARs, and has limited use for satellite
SARs. It can focus accurately at any squint angle, but has a limited depth of focus.
Slide 27
The signal is a linear FM pulse imposed upon a carrier frequency of f0 Hz. For ERS, Envisat and RADARSAT, the carrier
frequency is C-band at 5.3 GHz.
The linear FM pulse or chirp has the properties of:
• duration τl usually 30 - 40 µs
• centre frequency, usually zero so that f0 is the centre frequency
• bandwidth BW, usually 10 - 30 MHz
• FM rate = BW / τl, often about 0.5 MHz/µs
The pulse is selected to be linear FM so that all frequencies within the selected bandwidth are used equally, a criteria for
good pulse compression.
Slide 28
Here we assume that the ground is completely non-reflective except for a single, ideal point target or reflector. This is the
easiest way to see how a SAR system works, and to derive the required signal processing operations to focus the image.
In this way, we can observe the impulse response of the SAR, as the whole system is a linear system.
Slide 29
The range equation expressed the range from the antenna phase centre to the target scattering centre, as a function of
pulse number or azimuth time. It is one of the most important equations in the SAR system, because the azimuth phase
encoding, and the subsequent azimuth signal processing depend upon this change in range. It is the change in range
which makes a SAR work, in the sense that it allows us to process the received data to get fine resolution in azimuth.
In both satellite and airborne SAR, it is common to use the straight line motion assumption illustrated in the sketch. The
assumption is very accurate for airborne SARs; for satellite SARs it is also a good assumption with the proviso that Vr is
allowed to change with range.
Slide 30
The received signal is demodulated because, in subsequent signal processing operations, we want to deal only with the
information part of the signal, not the carrier.
However, the effect of the carrier frequency is very important, as the phase change 2πf0τd is a direct function of the radar
carrier frequency or wavelength, λ = c / f0.
The demodulator multiplies the received signal by a coherent local oscillator. When the received signal is delayed, the
phase of the local oscillator advances. In this way, the demodulation process changes the time delay τdinto the azimuth
phase 2πf0τd .
Slide 31
This slides illustrates the flight geometry of a typical airborne SAR. The radar beam (not explicitly shown), begins
illuminating the target while at point A, and finishes the illumination at point B.
During this interval, energy is received from the target. This energy is demodulated, sampled, and stored in SAR signal
memory inside the signal processor. It could also be stored on tape or downlinked directly to the ground.
For each transmitted pulse, one line is stored in signal memory. As the range to the target R(η) changes, the energy
shifts in signal memory, as illustrated on the next slide.
Slide 32
There are two significant azimuth times associated with this target, in addition to the exposure start and stop times. The
first is the time when the centre of the beam crosses the target, and is denoted by ηc.
The second is the time that the target is closest to the radar, and is denoted by ηo. The latter time may not appear in the
figure, if the beam squint is large enough that the target is not illuminated when it is closest to the radar system.
Slide 33
In order to illustrate the operation of the Range/Doppler algorithm, we have done a complete simulation using a single
received point target.
We used parameters from the ERS satellite SAR, with the exception that we have shortened the range chirp length and
the azimuth exposure time in order to fit the simulation into a 128 x 256 point array.
To achieve this shortening, we have increased the range and azimuth FM rates, to keep the bandwidths the same.
Reducing the radar wavelength was one parameter changed to achieve this.
The simulation is still accurate, because the time-bandwidth products (TBP) are still over 100, a requirement for
representative results.
Slide 34
This diagram shows the locus of energy in signal memory that would be received from a single point target on the ground.
This signal is important as it is used to define the SAR processing algorithms (the matched filters) and to define the
impulse response of the end-to-end system, including the signal processor.
Note that the range migration is clearly seen. It appears step-like in this portrayal, because we have only plotted every
4th range cell (to keep the file size down).
Slide 35
Typical steps in the commonly-used Range/Doppler algorithm include:
• Unpack data from downlink format into complex (I,Q) words
• Balance the I & Q channels for gain and phase
• Range compression (fast convolution with weighting)
• Azimuth FFT (fast Fourier transform)
• Doppler centroid estimation
• Range cell migration correction (interpolation in range direction)
• Azimuth matched filter multiply (with weighting)
• Look extraction (select desired portion of Doppler spectrum)
• Azimuth IFFT (inverse fast Fourier transform)
• Detection*
• Look summation*
* these operations are not done when complex images are desired
We will review the most important of these steps in the next group of slides. Note that Doppler Centroid Estimation is
sometimes done before the azimuth FFT, depending upon the algorithm used.
Slide 36
In the next group of slides, we outline the main operations in range processing or compression.
Because the phase structure of the range signal is not significantly affected by range migration, range compression can
be achieved by a 1-dimensional matched filtering operation along the range direction. If necessary, a secondary range
compression can also be applied to improve range focussing.
The range compression operation is a conventional matched filtering operation, where the compression filter is applied in
the frequency domain using FFTs. After the inverse FFT, only a portion of the output points is valid, because of the
circular wraparound of the FFTs.
It is also useful to think of the matched filtering as a correlation between the received signal and a replica of the ideal
received signal (with the latter conjugated, because the signals are complex). The matched filter will produce a strong,
sharp output only when the phase structure of the received signal is well matched with the replica.
Slide 37
The first step is to find a replica of the transmitted range chirp. In some systems such as RADARSAT, a replica is
embedded in the data stream of the received range lines. If not, the replica is generated knowing the duration, centre
frequency and FM rate of the chirp.
To verify the correct matched filter, it is useful to look at the magnitude and phase spectrum of the replica and the
matched filter.
In the left-hand plots, the magnitude spectrum is shown. In the top panel, the magnitude spectrum of the received data
is shown. As this data contains only one point target with no noise, it can be used as the chirp replica. In the bottom
panel, we show the magnitude of the spectrum of the matched filter, before weighting (in red) and after weighting (in
green). Note that the shape of the spectrum of the matched filter before weighting is the same as the replica, and
weighting tapers the matched filter energy at the edges of the spectrum.
The right-hand plots show the phase of the spectrum of the replica (top) and of the matched filter (bottom). They are
designed to be equal and opposite to each other, as the main purpose of the matched filter is to match the phase of the
signal.
Slide 38
This slide shows the result of compressing one range line containing a single point target. Before compression, the real
part of the signal is shown, and after compression, the absolute value is shown.
The signal is a linear FM chirp centred at zero frequency after complex demodulation.
After compression, the width of the main lobe at the -3 dB level is shorter than the length of the uncompressed pulse by
the ratio of the time-bandwidth product (TBP).
After compression, the point target looks like a sinc function. Compared to the usual sinc function, this pulse has a slightly
wider main lobe, and lower side lobes, because of the smoothing action of the window.
Slide 39
A waterfall plot of the range compressed signal of a point target is shown in the left side of this slide (the absolute value of
the complex number is shown). This time the whole azimuth exposure is shown, but for clarity, only every 15th line is
shown.
The peaks have a wobbly appearance, as they are migrating through range cells, and no interpolator is used in this plot.
However, an interpolator would show that the peaks are smooth.
On the right side, we show a mesh plot of the same data, but this time every 8th range line is shown. This subsampling in
azimuth gives the peaks a rather spiky appearance, and the migration through range cells gives the side lobes a wavy
appearance. However, the result is correct.
Slide 40
Finally we show a contour plot of range compressed energy. In this plot, the range migration is clearly seen, which will be
corrected in a subsequent operation.
This time, every range line is contoured, but the migration through range cells still gives a wavy appearance to the plot.
Slide 41
The range resolution is a direct function of the processed range bandwidth, which is lowered a little by the weighting
function.
The resolution can be expressed in a number of different units. The generic expression is given in seconds (or range
cells), but it is also useful to express it in metres. This is done by multiplying by the effective propagation speed, which is
one half the speed of light, or 150 m/µsec.
This gives the resolution in metres along the beam direction, referred to as the slant range resolution ρsr
To get the range resolution measured along the ground ρgr, the slant range resolution must be divided by the sine of the
radar incident angle.
For ERS, ρsr= 9 m and ρgr= 23 to 30 m, depending upon the incident angle.
For RADARSAT, ρgr= 10 to 65 m, as it has a wide choice of range bandwidths and incident angles.
Slide 42
To examine the results in more detail, we use an interpolator to expand the sampling frequency in the range direction.
Taking one range line, expanding by a factor of 16, and plotting the pulse magnitude on a dB scale, this plot is obtained.
Now we can measure detailed parameters of the compressed pulse, such as:
• -3 dB resolution
• the height of the maximum side lobe (MAXlobe)
• the 1-D integrated side lobe ratio (1-D ISLR)
• the phase at the peak of the pulse (Pkindex)
• the amplitude at the peak (Pkvalue) and
• the phase at the peak (Pkphase)
All parameters here have their ideal values in this example.
Slide 43
Next we plot the phase of the expanded pulse. Here we see that the phase is essentially zero everywhere. When the
pulse amplitude is positive, as it is within the main lobe, the phase is almost exactly zero. When the amplitude changes
sign, as it does for every second side lobe, the phase goes to either +180ο or - 180ο.
This excellent phase accuracy is due to the fact that the phase of the matched filter was carefully matched to the phase of
the signal.
Slide 44
A required step before Range Cell Migration Correction (RCMC) is to get the data into the azimuth frequency domain, by
taking an azimuth FFT.
This figure and the next one show the locus of target energy in the range-time, azimuth-frequency domain.
Because of the linearity of the frequency-time relationship of linear FM signals, the shape of the locus of target energy is
the same as in the azimuth time domain, with the exception that the azimuth frequency axis is rotated with respect to the
azimuth time axis to an arbitrary non-zero center frequency.
This centre frequency is directly proportional to the beam offset ηc and the azimuth FM rate Ka, and is given by:
Slide 45
This contour plot of azimuth frequency-domain energy illustrates the disjoint nature of the energy in the frequency domain,
when compared with the azimuth time domain in slide 40.
However, it is not really disjoint --- the energy is simply circularly-rotated around the azimuth frequency axis. The rotation
occurs because the actual azimuth frequency is many tens of KHz, but is aliased into the interval [ 0 : Fa ], where Fa is
the azimuth sampling rate or PRF (pulse rate frequency).
Slide 47
In this slide, the Doppler energy is originally between M Fa and (M+1) Fa, where M is an integer. In this case, the
complete Doppler centroid is at (M+1/2) Fa, and the observed Doppler centroid is at frequency Fa/2.
However, in general, the Doppler spectrum is not symmetrically placed between two integer multiples of Fa.
Slide 48
In this slide, the spectrum is not between integer Fa boundaries, but can lie anywhere along the azimuth frequency axis.
We want to estimate the complete, unaliased Doppler centroid, shown as Fcen.
From the observed spectrum, we can estimate Ffrac in a number of ways, which are relatively straightforward and reliable.
But estimating the Doppler ambiguity number M is more difficult.
The earliest method of estimating Ffrac was to use a curve-fitting procedure on the blue curve. The earliest method of
estimating M was to estimate the range shift in a multilook environment.
Recently, Doppler estimation methods based on signal phase were developed. One of these is illustrated on the next 2
slides.
Slide 49
In a method developed by Richard Bamler and Hartmut Runge of DLR (Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Luft) in 1991, use
is made of the fact that the Doppler centroid is directly proportional to the radar frequency (i.e. inversely proportional to the
radar wavelength) to obtain both the fractional part of the Doppler centroid and the Doppler ambiguity.
As the radar pulse sweeps through its bandwidth (e.g. 17 MHz), the radar frequency changes by a small fraction (0.32 %
in the ERS case). If we estimate the slope of Ffrac vs. range frequency, then the absolute Doppler centroid can be
obtained. To do this, we perform the following steps on the range-compressed data in the range-time, azimuth-time
domain:
• transform to the range frequency domain
• for each sample S(i) and the one following in the azimuth direction, compute conj(S(i)) * S(i+1)
• sum these terms over azimuth to obtain the average cross-correlation coefficient (ACCC)
• extract the phase angle of the sum (which is proportional of Ffrac)

• plot phase angle in radians vs. range frequency in Hz
• estimate the average value G1 and the slope G2 of this plot
• find the centroid by projecting the slope to the radar frequency
Steps 2 and 3 are illustrated in this slide. Each of the shorter lines radiating out from the centre represents the value of
conj(S(i)) * S(i+1) at one azimuth time, all taken at the same range frequency. These complex vectors are then summed
to obtain the longer vector with the circle on the end (shown scaled). The angle of this long vector is the ACCC angle at
this range frequency.
Slide 50
These ACCC angles are then found for each range frequency, and are plotted in this slide. A straight line is then fitted to
the central 75% of the range spectrum, and the average value G1 and the slope G2 is found.
We then compute the estimates of the fractional part, the ambiguity number and the absolute Doppler centroid using the
formulae below. First, the fractional part is estimated by:
Then we project the slope G2 to the radar frequency to obtain the Doppler ambiguity number, M:
where Fintercept is the frequency where the plotted line intercepts the radar centre frequency. The projection of the slope is
not very accurate, but M is obtained correctly if Fintercept is accurate to within +/- Fa / 2.
The estimated total Doppler centroid is then:
Slide 51
The total range cell migration depends mainly upon the synthetic aperture length, the range resolution, and upon the
squint of the beam forward or aft of the zero Doppler. The synthetic aperture length and range resolution are fixed for a
given radar system configuration (except for the linear increase of aperture with slant range), while the squint of the beam
can vary with each data take.
The formula in the slide gives the range migration in range cells for the case where the squint angle is large enough that
the zero Doppler point is not illuminated by the beam (if it is illuminated, the range migration is generally very small).
Vr = effective radar velocity (m/s)
Fr = range sampling rate (Hz)
c = speed of light (m/s)
R0= slant range (m)

If the RCM is greater than one range cell, then RCM correction (RCMC) should be performed.
In the graph, we draw the total RCM for our simulation parameters. These parameters use an exposure time somewhat
less than the ERS satellite. In this case, ηc of 6.3 s corresponds to a squint angle of 3o. If ERS had the same squint
angle, the RCM would be 34 range cells.
Slide 52
There are two steps in computing the required amount of RCMC for each azimuth frequency cell.
First, we must compute the absolute or unaliased frequency corresponding to each azimuth frequency cell. This is a
linear relationship with a discontinuity of Fa. The discontinuity occurs at the azimuth frequency cell corresponding to
frequency Ffrac + Fa / 2. The absolute frequency is then found by adding (M-1) Fa, M Fa or (M+1) Fa to the frequency of
each cell, depending upon whether the DOPCEN is left or right of the discontinuity point.
Having obtained these frequencies, the range equation must be expressed as a function of azimuth frequency instead of
azimuth time. This is done using the linear relationship
Then we obtain the RCM in cells vs. azimuth frequency. Strictly speaking, the RCM needed is a quadratic function of
azimuth frequency. However, in C-band satellite SARs, the quadratic component is very small, so that the curve of RCM
vs. frequency is almost linear. For this reason, we can annotate the right-hand axis in the figure with RCM, which closely
portrays the correct RCM needed.
Slide 53
As the RCMC needed is usually some fraction of a range cell, we need an interpolator to move the data an arbitrary
fraction of a cell.
Usually this fraction is quantized to 1/16 of a cell, so 15 different interpolators are needed to move the data by i /16 of a
cell, where i = 1 : 15.
A simple interpolator is obtained from a truncated sinc function, as shown in blue. To avoid excessive frequency
leakage in the interpolator, the coefficients are weighted by a Kaiser window with β = 3. After multiplying the coefficients
by the window, the coefficients shown in red are obtained.
Slide 54
To get the 15 sets of coefficients, the red curve must be subsampled by 16, with the appropriate shift.
This slide shows 8 of the coefficient sets. Set 1 shifts by 1/16 of a cell, and set 8 shifts by 1/2 of a cell. Sets 9 to 15 are
the mirror image of sets 7 to 1, while set 16 is the ``no-shift'' set
= [ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0].
Slide 55
The RCMC operation is illustrated in this slide.
The amount of shift needed can be separated into an integer and a fractional number of range cells, as shown in panel
(a). The integer cell shifts are performed simply by a shift of samples, while the fractional sample shift is performed by the
interpolator.
Panel (b) shows the distribution of energy in every 16th range line prior to RCMC.
Panel (c) shows the distribution of energy after the integer shifts are performed. This shift corrects most of the RCM, but a
significant amount of energy jitter remains.
Panel (d) shows the distribution of energy after the fractional shifts are performed with the interpolator.
We see that the energy is now well-aligned in azimuth, which is illustrated further in the next 3 slides.
Slide 56
This slide shows a mesh plot of signal energy, where every 12th line is shown.
Slide 57
To be sure that the energy does not appear elsewhere in the array, this slide gives the energy summed in the azimuth
direction, including the energy from every range line.
Slide 58
This figure shows a contour plot of energy after RCMC.
Compare this plot with slide 44, which shows the contour plot of signal energy before RCMC. The alignment of energy
along the azimuth direction is now complete, ready for azimuth compression.
Slide 60
The azimuth matched filter is generated and applied much the same as the range matched filter.
If multi-looking is done, only a fraction of the azimuth frequency data is used for each application of the matched filter.
Slide 61
To check the correct generation of the azimuth matched filter, the properties of the received data should be examined.
In this slide, we look at the magnitude (top) and phase (bottom) spectrum of the data in one range cell. As we have only a
single point target in this simulation, we examine the range cell containing the majority of the target energy.
In the top plot, we note that the data has an appropriate oversampling ratio, i.e. the signal bandwidth is about 85% of the
sampling frequency. We also note that the magnitude spectrum has a peak at about azimuth frequency cell number 33,
which agrees with the DOPCEN frequency found by the estimators:
Note that in real data, the magnitude spectrum will be a noisy version of the top plot, but the phase spectrum will be
random.
Slide 62
In this slide, we take a 30 x 30 point array centred on the largest value, and plot its magnitude with a mesh plot.
This gives an overview of the peak and its surrounding side lobes.
Slide 65
We see that the azimuth resolution is about 1.1 cells, a direct function of the weighting function and the oversampling ratio
used. It is also due to the accurate definition of the azimuth matched filter, for if the azimuth FM rate were wrong, a
coarser resolution would be obtained.
The first side lobe is down 18 dB, again a direct consequence of the weighting function used. The 1-dimensional
integrated side lobe ratio (ISLR) is -16 dB, which is normal for the weighting function used.
The phase function is not quite perfect, with the answer being about 2 degrees off. This small error is a consequence of
range migration, and the imperfect operation of the interpolator.
Note that the phase function has a distinct slope, because the Doppler centre frequency is not zero.
Radar Polarimetry

CanadaCanada
Canada
Radar Polarimetry
Polarimetry is the science of using measurements of the

full polarization scattering matrix to infer physical
properties of the Earth’s surface
The scattering matrix is measured by a SAR system by
transmitting with two orthogonal polarizations
On transmission, the two orthogonal polarizations are
alternated on successive pulses
On reception, the 2 polarizations are received
simultaneously, leading to four channels of received data
e.g. on odd pulses, HH and HV are measured, and on
even pulses, VV and VH are measured.

Types of Linear Polarization

Choice of Polarization
Basic or operational SARs usually have only one
polarization for economy, e.g. HH or VV
Research systems tend to have multiple polarizations,
e.g. HH, HV, VV, VH (quad pol)
Multiple polarizations help to distinguish the physical
structure of the scattering surfaces:
– The alignment with respect to the radar (HH vs. VV)
– The randomness of scattering (e.g. vegetation -
HV)
– The corner structures (e.g. HH VV phase angle)
– Bragg scattering (e.g. oceans - VV)

Benefits of Quadruple Polarization
The scattering matrix, Stokes matrix and polarization
signature can be computed for each pixel
– can be a powerful classification tool
– for both visual and machine classification
The scattering matrix can be used to synthesize the

return with any polarization
– to investigate the scattering properties of different
surfaces
– to optimize polarization for optimum detectability

Current Polarimetric Radar Systems
Airborne radars
– JPL AIRSAR P, L, C-bands
– Canadian Convair-580 C, X-bands
– Danish EMISAR L, C-bands
Spaceborne radars
– NASA/DLR SIR-C/X-SAR

Future Polarimetric Radar Systems
RADARSAT-2
– A fully polarimetric C-band satellite (2003)
ENVISAT
– A C-band satellite with alternating polarization (2001)
SIVAM
– An airborne SAR with full polarization at L-band
– For Amazon River surveillance (2000)

Example of Multi-Polarization Imagery

Target Identification using Polarimetry
L-Band HH SAR Image
Half Moon Bay, California
July 1994
Corner
Reflector Cessna
Beechcraft
Range
Cessna Polarization Signature

Flight Path P-Band
300 deg. east of TN
Trihedral
natural world
Cylinder
return weak in one direction
Beechcraft
P-Band
Dipole
no return in one direction
Beechcraft 1/4 wave

L-Band second direction delayed
Dihedral
Narrow Diplane
dihedral with one direction attenuated
http://poes2.gsfc.nasa.gov/sar/becnless.htm http://www.radarresources.com/cj_spie97.pdf

HH VV Image Can Detect Aircraft in Foliage

Detection of Aircraft for Search and Rescue
~ Studies Using C-Band Polarimetric Data ~
Parking
Lot Fuel Tank
Trees
Buildings
Fence
Plane Parking
Area
Unpaved
Road
Freight Containers
Detection of parked aircraft at Carp Airport, March 18, 1999.
Detected and classified airplanes

Storage box
Buildings
Studies conducted at CCRS using data acquired

by the C-SAR on the Environment Canada CV-580,
processed and calibrated at CCRS.
Source: T. I. Lukowski (2001) in CCRS Demo Products for RADARSAT-2 Applications
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/radarsat/r2demo/demo6/oviewe.html
Processing of Polarimetric Data
Each polarization channel must be received and
processed separately
The gain and relative phase of each channel must be
carefully controlled and measured
The processing must be phase coherent
Data from each channel must be closely co-registered
Final 4-channel data is converted to Stokes matrix
format and compressed

Polarization Requirements
The polarimetric radar data must be calibrated for:
– gain of each channel (channel imbalance)
– phase of each channel (HH vs. VV phase)
– cross-talk (e.g. H leaking into V channel)
– noise correction
– absolute radiometry
The calibration can be performed through a combination of:

– internal electronics
– measurements from corner reflectors
– measurements of uniform clutter

Convair-580 SAR
Oxford County, Ontario
C A: Corn stubble
B: Pasture
B D C: Stubble/tillage
D: Tillage field

Image Classification
Image classification is done from a set of parameters

measured from radar images
For each frequency, 9 independent parameters are
measured, as represented in the Stokes matrix
Pixels of the Stokes matrix can be averaged to reduce
noise and improve classification accuracy, at the
expense of spatial resolution
In addition to the ampliture of each channel (or
amplitude ratios), the co-polar phase difference (angle
of HH VV*) is a powerful feature discriminator

Victoria & Saanich Peninsula SIR-C
Urban
Suburban
Forest
Agriculture /
Clear-cut

Advanced Topics Notes - Polarimetry Page 1 of 2
Advanced Topics - Polarimetry

Notes
Slide 7
This image shows a colour composite, along with the 3 polarimetric components used to make the colour image.
Counter-clockwise from the top left corner:
Colour composite
HH red
VV green
HV blue
Slide 8
A polarization signature shows the magnitude and properties of the energy scattered from an object when illuminated by
energy of a certain polarization. The illumination wave could be linear horizontal polarization, for example, but the
scattered wave could have any orientation and ellipticity. The graph in the upper right panel shows the strength of the
scattered energy as a function of orientation and ellipticity. This graph can be created from data received by a
polarimetric radar.
Each scattering object has a unique polarization signature, which varies as a function of radar look angle and incident
angle, as well as the radar’s frequency and polarization. Despite the complexity of the many parameters involved, the
measured polarization signature can sometimes be used to identify specific objects at certain locations in the image.
Examples of reflectors which have unique scattering properties are given in the lower right panel. In the lower left panel,
each group of pixels is marked with a symbol indicating the dominant scattering mechanism identified by the polarimetric
radar. Note how the signatures of the Beechcraft aircraft differ between P-band and L-band.
Slide 9
The radar backscatter from an aircraft is dominated by double-bounce scattering, while foliage is dominated by what is
referred to as “diffuse scattering”.
These types of backscatter are easily distinguished by a polarimetric radar, so if you have a radar which can penetrate the
foliage (such as a P-band radar), you have a good chance of locating the crashed aircraft.
Slide 13
This is one of the earliest polarimetric radar images produced by the Canadian Convair-580 system. This C-band SAR
composite image was created from HH and HV data, collected October 18, 1991.
(A) indicates a field of corn stubble in which no-tillage cultivation has been implemented.
Field (B) is a permanent pasture, considered a good conservation practice.
The corn stubble field (C) is a reduced tillage field.
Field (D) is a conventional tillage field and has a higher radar backscatter due to the surface roughness of the field.
Advanced Topics Notes - Polarimetry Page 2 of 2
Slide 15
Here is an example of how multiple polarizations and frequencies can be combined to provide useful terrain classification.
Radar
Interferometry

CanadaCanada
Canada
Radar Interferometry
Overview of interferometry
Satellite Interferometry
Satellite InSAR geometry
InSAR processing
– measuring motion on the Earth’s surface
– measuring topography
SAR examples

Radar Interferometry from Space
Two satellites image the
Earth’s surface
Or one satellite takes
two images a few days
apart
Data are processed into
complex SAR images
The phase difference of
the two images is
processed to obtain
height and/or motion
information of the
Earth’s surface
Drawing courtesy of Prof. Howard Zebker, Stanford University

Radargrammetry
An alternative to interferometry for estimating

terrain height
Terrain elevation derived from the stereo
portrayal of SAR amplitude images
Generally less sensitive than interferometry
Better than interferometry when:
– topography is steep
– coherence is low

Satellite Interferometry
For satellite interferometry of the repeat-pass type, one
image is taken one day, and a second image is taken of the
same scene one or more days later.
– More images can be taken at later intervals and used in the
processing, as long as the scene retains reasonable coherence
over the longer time interval
– Because there is always a time delay, and usually parallax as
well, assumptions must be made or processing must be done to
remove the unwanted component of motion or topography
In Feb. 2000, the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission
obtained topographic (elevation) data of much of the Earth’s
surface using single-pass interferometry, i.e., image pairs
were acquired at the same time using two radar antennas
separated physically to create a 60-m fixed baseline.

Satellite Repeat-pass InSAR Geometry
S2
B
S1 S satellite positions
B⊥
R range to point P
R2 B baseline between satellites
A satellite altitude
R1 h height of point P
Earth's surface h

How a SAR Measures Distance
A radar is essentially a distance or range-
measuring sensor
It can measure range in 2 ways:
1. Time delay
• resolution = c / (2 BW ) = 8 m
2. Phase:
• resolution = λ / 100 = 1 mm
Phase is much more accurate
– but is a relative measurement only

How a SAR Measures Phase
Satellite
Satellite
O
Transmitted Phase
Radarbeam
Radar beam
2R
Phase =
λ
Surface
Surface

Phase after Scattering from
a Random Surface
Satellite
Satellite
O
Radarbeam
Radar beam
Surface
Surface

Interferometer Phase
S
S11 dφ 4π B ⊥
O Satellites
Satellites =
S
S22 O
dϕ λ
0.5 λ
Radar beam
Radar beam
dϕ = radians/fringe
ϕϕ B⊥
0.5 λ R
Fringe separation = m
B⊥
AA
Phaseφ φ
Phase
Surface
Surface

How Differential Phase Measures
Topography
SS11
Satellites dφ 4π B⊥
SS22 O
O Satellites
= rad/m
dh λ R sin ϕ
ϕϕ 0.5λ R sin ϕ
dh = m/fringe
B⊥
Radarbeam
Radar beam
AA
Phase φ
Phase φ
Mountain
Mountain
Surface
Surface

InSAR Processing
Process data to SLC images
Register the two images to 1/10 pixel
Over-sample by a factor of 2 in both dimensions
Filter common bands in spectrum
Conjugate multiply to form interferogram
Smooth the interferogram
Measure coherence
Unwrap phase
Estimate geometry parameters (especially baseline)
Remove flat-earth fringes
Convert unwrapped phase to height and/or motion

Measuring Coherence
Coherence must always be measured to assess
the suitability of the data set for InSAR processing
Coherence magnitude is closely related to the local
standard deviation of differential phase
High coherence magnitude tells us:
– images have good SNR
– phase centres of scatterers are stable
– any motion is spatially “organized”
Coherence formula:
∑ k 1,k 2,k
I I *
( ∑ k )( ∑ k 2,k )
I 2
1, k I 2

Use of Coherence
Coherence is mainly used as an interferometric
quality check
Coherence magnitude:
– 0.3 - 0.5 is useable, but noisy
– 0.5 - 0.7 is good
– 0.7 - 1.0 is excellent
Coherence has also been successfully used as a
terrain classification parameter:
– very low coherence → usually water
– moderate coherence → often growing or moving
vegetation
– high coherence → desert, city, or other stable
features
Satellite InSAR
- Measuring Topography 1
To measure topography, the following conditions must
exist:
– the baseline must lie within acceptable limits
– motion in the scene must be negligible
– coherence must be high enough (e.g. | γ | > 0.4)
If the baseline is too small, the sensitivity to topography
will be low, and phase noise may dominate
– need B⊥ > 50 m for ERS
If the baseline is too large, phase aliasing may occur
and the coherence will drop
– need B⊥ < 300 m for ERS

Satellite InSAR
- Measuring Topography 2
Limitations (aircraft SARs)
– calibration of attitude
– calibration of phase centres
Limitations (repeat-pass satellite SARs)

– temporal decorrelation
– low SNR
Accuracy
– 1 – 3 m for aircraft
– 5 – 20 m for repeat-pass satellites
– depends upon coherence and topography

Removal of Flat-Earth Fringes
Interferograms for flat terrain and a Gaussian-shaped hill
After removal of the flat-earth fringes, the residual fringes form
a “contour map” with:
0.5λ R sin ϕ
dh = m/fringe
B⊥
Flat
FlatEarth
Earth Gaussian
Gaussian Hill
Hill Gaussian
GaussianHill
Hill
Raw
Raw Interferogram
Interferogram Raw
RawInterferogram
Interferogram F.E.
F.E.Corrected
CorrectedInterferogram
Interferogram

Topography from Interferogram
Chitina River Valley, S.E. Alaska
200
• B⊥ = 40 m
• Flat-earth fringes
were removed.
• Phase is still
wrapped.
• Each revolution of
Relative height (m)

the colour wheel
represents an
increase of 200 m
100
in altitude.
ERS images acquired Feb. 1994

Courtesy of Dennis Fatland,
Alaska SAR Facility

0
Topography Contours from Interferogram
Franklin Bluffs and Sagavanirktok River on the North Slope of Alaska
Perspective view generated from an interferometrically derived

DEM. The two ERS-1 images were acquired in September 1991.
Image shown courtesy of Rob Fatland, Alaska SAR Facility.
Vesuvius, the Volcano
SAR Image
Interferogram
Source:
Ferretti,A.,
C. Prati,
F. Rocca and A.
Monti Guarnieri,
POLIMI, 1997
DEM
Perspective View from
Height Measurements
Once terrain height is obtained, dramatic perspective views can be

generated from the SAR data
Intensity = radar brightness, blue is “sky”
Image courtesy of Prof. Howard Zebker, Stanford Univ.
Satellite InSAR - Measuring Motion 1
To measure motion, the following must apply:
The time delay must be appropriate to the scale of motion
to be measured (i.e. the motion must obey the Nyquist
sampling theorem),
The motion must have enough spatial cohesiveness that
the coherence is high enough,
Plus one of the 3 following conditions needed to remove
the topographic component of phase:
– the baseline must be small enough that the
topography component can be neglected,
– an accurate DEM must be used to remove the
topography component, or
– three passes must be used to remove the topography
component

Motion has been successfully measured of:

– glaciers (temperate and Arctic)
– ice streams (Antarctica)
– ice sheets (Greenland)
– earthquakes
– landslides
– volcanoes
Accuracy
– 2 cm/observation for C-band repeat-pass SARs

While individual pixel motions may not be that

accurate, satellite InSAR has the advantage over in-
situ measurements by taking a large number of
measurements over a wide area
In this way, a velocity field can be constructed, and
matched to a geophysical model of the motion (e.g.
glaciers and post-seismic deformation)
Examples on the following slides

Measuring Earthquake Motion
Scientists at JPL and CNES were
the first to demonstrate that
accurate motions on the Earth’s
surface can be measured by
satellite interferometry
Landers is a desert area in
California, so coherence is
possible over a long time span
The sensor is ERS-1, with a time
lapse of 3 months
Deformation lines (as shown) can
be inferred by geophysicists using
theoretical models
RADAR IMAGE OF THE
1992 LANDERS, CA EARTHQUAKE
(EACH BAND REPRESENTS 2.8 CM
OF GROUND DEFORMATION) This image courtesy of Prof. Howard Zebker,
Stanford University

Measuring Volcano Deformation
Motion interferogram of
Fernandina Island,
Galapagos
Fringes show
intrusion of magma in
a crack in the
underlying rock
May be useful in
predictive studies of
activity
Image courtesy of Prof. Howard

Zebker, Stanford University

Measuring Glacier Motion
Saskatchewan Glacier, Canada
Perspective view of airborne SAR image based on DEM
Coherence map (not shown)
DEM produced from Convair-580 cross-track interferometric data
Raw interferogram of glacier from ERS images of Nov. 2 & 3,
1996
– Interferogram intensity
– Interferogram phase
Interferogram of glacier - pre- and post-correction for topography
Height profile along glacier centreline
Plot of glacier flow velocities
Petermann Glacier, Greenland
Image showing velocity measurements of glacier and ice stream

Perspective View & DEM of Saskatchewan Glacier
References: Cumming, I., J.-L. Valero, P. Vachon, K. Mattar, D. Geudtner and L. Gray, 1996
Mattar, K.E., P.W. Vachon, D. Geudtner, A.L. Gray, I.G. Cumming andt M. Brugman, 1998
Interferogram Intensity and Phase
Reference: Cumming, I., J.-L. Valero, P. Vachon, K. Mattar, D. Geudtner and L. Gray, 1996
Interferogram Corrected for Topography
Before correction After correction
Reference: Cumming, I., J.-L. Valero, P. Vachon, K. Mattar, D. Geudtner and L. Gray, 1996
Height of Glacier Surface
from Convair-580 interferometer data
Height (m) →
Centreline distance (m) →
The glacier’s flow direction can be inferred from parameters

extracted from the DEM, i.e., surface height, surface slope, and
slope direction along its centreline.
Glacier Motion Measurements
Saskatchewan Glacier Flow Rate
InSAR (Nov 2/3)

InSAR (Nov 21/22)
InSAR (Mar 5/6)
Surface displacement (cm/day) →

InSAR (Mar 21/22)
InSAR (Apr 25/26)
NHRI (Aug-Sep 1995)
NHRI (Sep-Dec 1995)
NHRI (Dec-Feb 1995/6)
Meier (1952-1954)
Glacier Centreline (m) →
Phase due to topography is subtracted from the phase due to motion in the interferogram. The resulting
motion fringes are processed to obtain line-of-sight glacier flow. The LOS displacements are projected to
the glacier’s flow direction (inferred from the DEM) to obtain measurements of displacement of the glacier
surface in the period between the ERS image acquisitions (Nov. 2 and Nov. 3, 1995)
Mattar, K.E., P.W. Vachon, D. Geudtner, A.L. Gray, I.G. Cumming and M. Brugman, 1998
Glacier / Ice Stream Velocity Measurement
An outlet glacier in
North-Eastern
Greenland.
Only the moving

parts of the scene
have been coloured.
The black areas are
areas where the
coherence was too
low to process.
Image courtesy of
Prof. Howard Zebker,
Stanford University

The Convair-580 InSAR System
Convair 580
RF Equipment SAR Control Digital

Racks Station Recording
InSAR Main Antenna Real-time

Antenna Radome Radome Display Station

DEM of Kananaskis from the Convair-580 SAR
Source: Laurence Gray and Karim Mattar, CCRS

Conclusions
We see that aircraft and satellite SAR can make
accurate interferometric images under the right
conditions
The main limitation is scene coherence
– SRTM solved this limitation for topography
Topographic accuracies can be:
– 5 - 20 m for repeat-pass satellites
– 16 m expected for SRTM
– 1 - 3 m for aircraft
Velocity accuracies can be:
– 2 cm/s for repeat-pass C-band satellites

Advanced Topics Notes - Interferometry Page 1 of 7
Advanced Topics - Interferometry

Notes
Slide 1
In this group of slides, we will discuss how radar can be used to measure motion or elevations on the Earth’s surface
using the technique of interferometry.
To measure motion or to measure topography, different system configurations and different signal processing algorithms
are needed.
Radar interferometry can be operated on aircraft, space shuttles or satellites. We will give examples of each type of
system, and mention their main distinctive points.
Slide 3
Radargrammetry was introduced by Franz Leberl and his group in Graz, Austria in the 1980s. It uses two SAR amplitude
images taken with a cross-track parallax (a much larger parallax than used in interferometry). It is analogous to stereo
photogrammetry popular in mapmaking today.
Radargrammetry depends upon identifying how much a feature has been displaced in one image compared to the second
image. Its main limitation comes from the speckle in SAR images. When two images are taken with a parallax of more
than a small fraction of a degree, the speckle pattern completely changes. This hides much of the fine detail of the image,
to the extent that it becomes difficult to correlate features between one image and the other.
Radargrammetry uses correlation estimates to measure the displacement of the second image to an accuracy of about
0.5 pixel. The low sensitivity of radargrammetry comes from the fact that it takes a relatively large change in topography
to move a feature by one pixel, while the same change in topography will cause many radians of phase change in an
interferogram.
Interferometry has difficulties when the coherence is poor. This means that the phase of the interferogram becomes
random and useless, but under the same circumstances, the amplitude of the two images may still be well correlated,
allowing radargrammetry to obtain a parallax estimate.
When the topography is steep, phase aliasing may occur in the interferogram, making the fringes difficult to unwrap and
interpret. Under the same conditions, the radargrammetry processor may still be able to correlate the terrain features.
Severe layover and radar shadow will adversely affect both radargrammetry and interferometry.
Slide 5
When operated from free-flying satellites, two passes are used to obtain the two images. In this figure, the satellites are
flying into the plane of the slide, with S1 representing the position of the first satellite pass and S2 representing the second
satellite pass. The locations of the two passes are separated by the baseline B, which has a length (typically 100 m) and
an orientation with respect to the horizontal.
Consider imaging the point P on a hill top having a height h above the Earth’s surface (the surface is represented by a
geoid or nominal sea level). The range from the antenna of satellite passes 1 and 2 to point P is denoted by R1 and R2
respectively.
By measuring R2 – R1 and B very accurately (to 1 mm) using the phase differences of the two SAR images, and
knowing R and A (to a few metres), the height h can be estimated to an accuracy of about 5 - 15 m.
Slide 6
The traditional way of measuring range with a radar system is to note the time of arrival of the received signal with
respect to the time that the pulse was transmitted. The accuracy with which time delay can be measured is equal to the
inverse of the bandwidth of the system. When converted to range units, this accuracy is equivalent to c / (2 BW), where
c is the speed of light.
The factor of 2 comes in because the radar signal has to travel a distance of twice the range to the target (i.e. it has to
travel to the target and back again to the antenna). If the bandwidth is 20 MHz, then the range measurement is accurate
to about 8 m.
If, however, the radar system is coherent and can measure the phase of the received signal relative to the phase of the
transmitted pulse, a much more accurate distance measurement can be made. Usually phase can be measured to about
10o , so that the range can be measured to an accuracy of three hundredths of a wavelength.
This is in the order of a millimeter for C-band SAR systems, or 10,000 times more accurate than the “time of arrival”
measurement.
However, there are millions of wavelengths between the radar system and the reflector, and we cannot count the total
number, nor tell the phase fringes apart. Thus the phase measurement is only a relative measurement, and can be used
only to tell the change in range from one measurement to the next.
Slide 7
The most important parameter that a SAR measures is phase, which equals twice the range R to the scattering centre of
each pixel, divided by the radar wavelength λ.
In this slide, the phase of the transmitted radar signal is shown by the black and white fringes. You can see how the
phase is proportional to range
.
At some range, the beam hits a scatterer, is reflected back to the SAR antenna and is processed to a pixel in the SAR
image. It is this range to the reflection point that governs the phase of the target at that pixel.
Note that as the signal is being transmitted, the phase is actually φ = R / λ. But by the time it has arrived at the receiver,
the signal has traveled a distance 2R, so we always refer to the phase relation as
In this sketch, the distance between the fringes is greatly exaggerated, as the distance between the fringes is λ/2 and the
real radar wavelength is only a few cm.
However, with a single SAR system, that phase is essentially random, because the range to the pixel’s scattering centre is
random at the scale of the radar wavelength.
Slide 8
This slide shows the signal phase after it has been reflected by a rough surface.
However, the height of the surface is random on the scale of the radar wavelength, as the pixel size (e.g. 10 m) is
hundreds of times larger than the radar wavelength.
Therefore the reflected or received phase is completely random, so that no useful information is in the received phase of a
single radar system.
However, when two measurements are made, the differential phase is not random, assuming that the rough surface
scatters the same in both cases.
Slide 9
Now consider a second SAR, operating within about 100 m from the first SAR. With an aircraft SAR, the separation is
typically 1 – 2 m. With repeat-pass C-band satellite SARs, the separation is in the range of 50 – 300 m. The satellite
velocity vector is coming out of the slide.
If we make single-look complex (SLC) images from each SAR, and carefully register them, it is interesting to examine the
difference in the phase of each pixel.
Because the scattering centres of a given pixel are almost the same for each satellite pass, the phase difference is no
longer random, but is a precise measure of the difference in ranges of the two satellites to the scattering centre of each
pixel.
If the two satellites have a component of displacement perpendicular to the radar beam (referred to as the perpendicular
baseline B⊥), the differential phase is a direct function of the beam nadir angle. The interferometric phase change with
respect to the beam nadir angle is:
and as B⊥is a slowly-varying function of ϕ, φ is almost a linear function of ϕ.
This property of the differential phase is illustrated in this slide. Because the fringes are a direct function of beam nadir
angle, it is also useful to think of the change of nadir angle per fringe as
or that the fringe separation measured along a constant slant range arc as
Slide 10
What the interferogram portrays is the phase difference of each pixel at the range where the beam intersects the Earth’s
surface.
When the Earth’s surface is flat, as in the previous slide, the fringes are almost evenly-spaced, with a gradual increase in
spacing as the range increases. These are called the “flat-earth” fringes, and are well known as long as A and R are
known to a few metres, and B to a few millimetres. These flat-earth fringes can then be removed from the interferogram.
Now consider the case shown in this slide where some topography is present in the scene. Here we show a hypothetical
mountain, with equal slopes on the near and far sides. We see that on the side of the mountain nearest the radar, the
fringes are compressed compared to the flat-earth fringes. The fringes are compressed the most when the slope of the
mountain is perpendicular to the radar beam, but this is not a good imaging geometry, as then the range resolution goes
to infinity (at the onset of layover).
On the side of the mountain furthest from the radar, the fringes are wider apart. Here the fringe sensitivity goes down, but
the radar resolution gets finer. When the slope is parallel to the radar beam, the fringe sensitivity goes to zero, which is
also not a good imaging geometry (at the onset of radar shadow).
Running along the arc of a constant range line, the fringe and height sensitivity are given by the two equations in the
slide.
So if the fringes are clear, and are sampled fast enough (at the Nyquist rate), the terrain height can be obtained from the
calibrated interferogram.
Slide 11
One reference containing more detail on these steps is: http://www-ee.stanford.edu/~zebker
Slide 12
In the coherence formula, the sum is taken over a suitable region in the SAR image, where k is the pixel number.
If the area is made too small, the coherence estimates are too noisy. If the area is made too large, the coherence will be
biased low because of true changes in differential phase. In ERS data, the area covered by the sum is often 2 range cells
by 10 azimuth cells.
Ii,kis the complex amplitude of the kth pixel in image i, i = 1, 2.
Coherence is a complex number. The angle of the coherence value is the maximum likelihood estimate of interferometric
phase, averaged over the area covered by the sum.
The magnitude of the coherence is a measure of the standard deviation of the interferometric phase estimate. Coherence
magnitude = 1 means perfect phase estimates, mag = 0 means the phase estimates are pure noise. In practice, any
value below 0.3 means that the phase estimates are too noisy to use.
Slide 16
This slide illustrates part of the processing done to extract topographic height from a pair of registered SLC images.
The left panel shows the interferogram phase assuming:
• the Earth's surface is flat
• there is no motion of the surface
• there is no noise or other decorrelating influences in the scene
Under these circumstances, the phase fringes are constant in azimuth (vertical direction in the plot) and have a linear
trend in the range direction (horizontal). These are the familiar flat-earth fringes present in all raw interferograms.
Then if a Gaussian-shaped hill is present in the centre of the scene, the raw interferogram takes on the distorted
appearance shown in the middle panel. This does not make much sense, but once the flat-earth fringes are subtracted
from the phase, the scene topography is clearly seen, much like a contour map (see right panel in the slide).
Slide 17
Interferogram of the Chitina River Valley just north of the Bagley Ice Field in South-east Alaska. Here the colors represent
topographic contours.
The perpendicular baseline separating the two satellites is 40 m, and the “flat-earth” fringes have been removed.
The phase has not been unwrapped , but the repeating colour wheel effectively portrays topographic contours. Each
revolution of the colour wheel represents a 200 m increase in terrain altitude.
The radar data was acquired from the ERS satellite at the Alaska SAR Facility in February of 1994. The image is shown
courtesy of Dennis Fatland of the Alaska SAR Facility.
Slide 18
Digital Elevation Models (DEM) can be generated only after calibration procedures that involve precise estimation of the
baseline and least-squares fitting to ground control points. Even with this procedure, there can remain areas within the
coverage of an image which have unknown height, as a result of terrain distortion effects produced by steep slopes (in
mountainous areas).
A topographic perspective of the Franklin Bluffs and Sagavanirktok River on the North Slope of Alaska is shown on this
slide. This perspective was generated from an interferometrically derived DEM which in turn was produced from two
images of the area acquired by ERS-1 in September of 1991. Image shown courtesy of Rob Fatland, Alaska SAR
Facility.
Slide 19
Claudio Prati and Fabio Rocca and their group at POLIMI have been some of the most innovative researchers in SAR
interferometry from the beginning. Since every Italian’s favourite mountain is Vesuvius, it was natural that they applied
their skills to making a DEM from ERS data.
In addition to these images, the paper cited below shows how they used multiple ERS images (with different baselines) to
improve the accuracy of the DEM and to observe the atmospheric artifacts that sometimes plague satellite SAR
interferometry.
The data is from 7 ERS Tandem Mission sets, from July 7, 1995 to April 13, 1996.
These images were copied with permission from:

Multi-baseline SAR Interferometry for Automatic DEM Reconstruction
A. Ferretti, C. Prati, F. Rocca and A. Monti Guarnieri
Dipartimento di Elettronica e Informazione, Politecnico di Milano (POLIMI)
Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy.
3rd ERS SYMPOSIUM, Florence, 17 - 21 March 1997

http://earthnet.esrin.esa.it/pub/florence/papers/participants/program-details/participants/data/ferretti/index.html
Also see (for the interferogram):

An Overview of SAR Interferometry
Rocca F., Prati C., Ferretti A.
http://earth1.esrin.esa.it/florence/program-details/speeches/rocca-et-al
Slide 21
Up to now, we have assumed that there is no motion in the scene, and we have been interested in measuring surface
topography. Any motion of the surface between the data takes will upset the topography measurements.
On the other hand, the SARs high sensitivity to motion can be turned to our advantage. As long as the effect of
topography can be removed, the SAR interferometer can be a sensitive instrument for measuring “organized” motion on
the Earth’s surface.
Motion speed considerations:
• features which move very slowly such as glaciers or land subsidence need a time lapse of several days to
get sensible readings
• only repeat-pass data collections appropriate
• features which are relatively fast moving, such as ocean currents require a sensor with a very short time
lapse (e.g. 10 ms)
• only aircraft SARs appropriate
• ocean surface decorrelates after 50 - 100 ms
Slide 24
The Landers earthquake occurred on June 28, 1992.
The ERS-1 data were taken on April 24, July 3 and August 7, 1992, while the satellite was in a 35-day repeat orbit.
The pixel spacing is 30 m and the image size is 90 x 113 Km.
This data has been processed extensively by Dr. Didier Massonnet and his group at CNES in France, and by Howard
Zebker, Paul Rosen, Richard Goldstein, Andrew Gabriel and Charles Werner of the Jet Propulsion Lab in California.
Slide 25
Deformation of volcano on Fernandina Island, Galapagos, due to intrusion of magma in a sill crack in the underlying rock.
The deformation signature is the finely spaced pattern of color fringes in the southwest corner of the island.
Measurement of the spatial distribution of the deformation gives constraints on magma motions at depth, and may be
useful in predictive studies of activity.
Slide 32
This is an outlet glacier in North-Eastern Greenland.
Only the moving parts of the scene have been coloured. The black areas are areas where the coherence was too low to
process.
Slide 33
This photo and drawing show the components of the Canadian Convair-580 airborne InSAR system. Note particularly the
InSAR antenna mounted 2.4 m above the main antenna (in the upper photo, this second antenna is partially hidden
behind the wing). This second antenna provides simultaneous reception with the main antenna, so cross-track
interferometric data can be collected without any temporal decorrelation.
The upper photo was taken from the CCRS web page:
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/satsens/sarbro/sbc580e.html
The lower drawing was taken from the CCRS web page: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/satsens/sarbro/planea.gif
Land
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Land Applications
Outline
• Advantages of SAR for land applications
• Parameters which influence radar backscatter
• Sensor Parameters
• Target Parameters
• Other Site Factors
• Land use and land cover applications
• Primary level mapping
• Updating land cover maps
• Monitoring of land cover and land use
• Recommended radar configurations

Land Applications of SAR
Introduction
This first unit in the applications section presents:

• Background information for land applications of SAR
• General concepts for scattering mechanisms, sensor
and target parameters, and their influences on SAR
backscatter from land targets; factors specific to
applications in forestry, agriculture, hydrology,
geology, mapping can be found in these units
• Examples of land cover and land use applications

Advantages of SAR for Land Applications
• Sensitivity of SAR to target geometry

• important for vegetation mapping
• roughness characteristics can be important in distinguishing

targets
• corner reflector effects can help in identifying target (i.e.,
mangroves, wetlands)
• Sensitivity of SAR to dielectric constant (water content)
• Capability of viewing under conditions that preclude observation

by aircraft and optical satellites is important for many monitoring
applications

Land Applications
Parameters which influence radar backscatter
• Sensor Parameters
• frequency
• polarization
• incident angle
• Target Parameters
• surface roughness
• soil characteristics
• vegetation characteristics
• Other Site Factors
• orientation effects
• terrain relief
• environmental effects

Sensor Parameters
Frequency
• determines penetration depth into soil or vegetation
• determines sensitivity of SAR to surface roughness
• determines canopy components contributing to total backscatter
Polarization
• vertically polarized waves interact with vertically structured vegetation
• horizontally polarized waves have greater penetration to underlying soil
• cross-polarizations are sensitive to the target volume and may be less
sensitive to row effects
Incident Angle
• backscatter decreases as a function of incident angle
• determines contribution of soil and canopy to total backscatter (larger
angles interact more with canopy; smaller angles have more soil interaction)
• surfaces appear “rougher” at larger angles
• largest incident angle effects are observed on smoother surfaces

Frequency Comparison: C-, L-, and P-Bands
Flevoland, Netherlands Agricultural Scene
C-Band
Multipolarization
colour composites
courtesy of JPL
L-Band P-Band

Radar Backscatter as a Function
of Polarization
Backscattering Coefficient σ° (dB)
Incident Angle (degrees)
Bare Soil Surface

Source: Oh, Yisok, K. Sarabandi, and F.T. Ulaby, IEEE, 1992

Melfort, Saskatchewan
Agricultural Scene (July)
A
B
C - VV
Polarization A
Comparison B
C - HH
A
B
C - HV

INCIDENT ANGLE COMPARISON
RADARSAT - 1
Standard Beam 1 (θ = 20° - 27°) Whitecourt, Alberta 96-Feb-12
Standard Beam 7 (θ = 45° - 49°) Whitecourt, Alberta 96-Jan-25
© 1996 Canadian Space Agency

Imagery Courtesy RSI
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/radarsat/images/alb/ralb01e.html
Target Parameters
• Surface Roughness Parameters
• target scattering (scattering regimes,corner reflectors)
• surface height profile and autocorrelation function
• surface roughness criteria
• Soil Characteristics
• surface roughness
• water content
• penetration depth
• surface macro-structure
• Vegetation Characteristics
• water content
• vegetation structure and geometry

Target Scattering
DARK MEDIUM BRIGHT

Scattering Regimes
Specular
Scattering
Diffuse
Scattering
σ0
Shadowing
dB Rough Surface
Smooth Surface
150 300 550 800

Surface roughness is measured by the standard deviation of the surface height variation
(or rms height) in wavelengths divided by horizontal correlation length in wavelengths.
Volume scattering results in a reduced (or missing) specular regime and a diffuse scattering
regime that varies slowly with incident angle.

Corner Reflectors
Dihedral Trihedral
Target Parameters
~ Surface Roughness Parameters ~
Surface Profile
The standard deviation of surface
height (σ) and the surface
correlation length ( l ) are vertical
Hieght z (cm)
and horizontal measures of

Height (cm)
surface roughness.
1
 1  N 2 
2
∑ i ( ) ( )
2
σ = z − N z 
 N − 1  i =1 
1 N
where z = ∑ zi
Distance x (cm) N i =1
Corresponding Autocorrelation Function The correlation length is

calculated from the autocorrelation
function:
ρ(x′)
for x ' = ( j − 1)∆ x,

where j is an integer ≥ 1
N +1− j
Displacement x ' (cm) ∑ zi z j +i −1 ρ ( l ) = 1

e
ρ ( x ') = i =1
N e is the natural
∑ zi
Source: Ulaby, F.T., R.K. Moore, and A.K. Fung 1986, 2
logarithm
“Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive”, Vol. II, p. 824 i =1

Target Parameters
~ Surface Roughness Criteria ~
A surface may be considered to be
electromagnetically “smooth” when
Rayleigh Criterion:
σ < λ / 8 cos θ
Fraunhofer Criterion:
σ < λ / 32 cos θ
(for targets where λ ∼ σ)
σ = rms height θ = incident angle λ = wavelength

Target Parameters
~ Soil Characteristics ~
• Surface roughness (usually tillage related and

measured using rms surface height and correlation
length parameters)
• Water content of surface layer (soil moisture and
complex dielectric constant)
• Penetration depth depends on soil moisture content of
soils, radar frequency and incident angle
• Surface macro-structure (i.e. tillage row characteristics,
tillage direction and seed bed structures)

Relationship Between Dielectric Constant
Field 2 - Loam
and Soil Moisture
30.6% - Sand
55.9% - Silt
13.5% - Clay
T = 23ºC Dielectric constant

also depends on:
• frequency
εsoil
• soil texture
• soil temperature
Dielectric Constant
Source: Ulaby, F.T., Moore,R.K., and Fung, A.K.

1986, “Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and
Passive”, Vol. III, p. 2096
Volumetric Moisture mv
Radar Sensitivity to Soil Moisture
as a Function of Incident Angle and Frequency
Sensitivity (dB / 0.01 g/cm3)
Source: Ulaby, F.T., R.K. Moore, and

A.K. Fung, 1986, “Microwave Remote
Sensing: Active and Passive”, Vol. III,
p. 1872
Frequency (GHz)
Irrigation / Soil Moisture Influences
Outlook, Saskatchewan C-VV
Source:
Pultz T. J. ,
R. Leconte,
R. J. Brown,
B. Brisco,
T. I. Lukowski,
Irrigated Non-Irrigated 1989
Potato Fields at Pre-Emergence Growth Stage

Soil Penetration Depth
as a Function of Surface Soil Moisture Content
Soil Type: Loam

Penetration depth (m)
Source: Ulaby, F.T., Moore, R.K., and

Fung, A.K. 1986, “Microwave Remote
Sensing: Active and Passive”, Vol. II,
p. 852
Volumetric moisture content mv (g cm -3)

Effect of Soil Macrostructure
on Radar Backscatter
Random Surface
Component
Periodic (Reference) Surface
(a) Random height variations superimposed on a periodic surface, e.g. row-tilled surfaces
Random Surface Component
Mean (Reference) Surface
(b) Random height variations superimposed on a flat surface, e.g., mean surface
Source: Manual
Source: Ulaby,of Remote
F.T., Sensing,
R.K. Moore, Third
and A.K. Edition,
Fung 1998
1986, “Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive”, Vol. II, p. 822

Target Parameters
~ Vegetation Characteristics ~
Characteristics which govern backscatter from vegetation:
• Plant characteristics
• plant structure and geometry (shape, size, and orientation of
leaves, stems, branches,…)
• water content in the plant (complex dielectric constant)
• Characteristics of the vegetation canopy
• vertical and horizontal geometry (single or multi-layer, spacing
between plants, row orientation)
• vegetation distribution and density (crown closure, proportion
of ground cover) vis-à-vis influences from underlying ground
surface (moisture, topography, soil)
• composition (mix of species)

Target Parameters
~ Vegetation Characteristics ~
The backscatter from vegetation is used, with

ancillary data, to infer information about
• vegetation type
• growth stage
• vegetation condition or health
• vegetation vigour or crop yield
• planting, cultivation and harvesting practices
• soil management practices
• disturbances (e.g., fire, insects)
• underlying soil characteristics and climatic
conditions
• monitoring of compliance to laws and treaties
Scattering from Agricultural Targets
3
2
1 Direct Canopy (including multiple scattering)

2 Soil / Canopy Interaction
3 Direct Soil (including multiple scattering)
Source: Brisco, B. and R.J. Brown, 1998, “Agricultural Applications with

Radar”, Chapter 7, Manual of Remote Sensing, 3rd edition, Vol. 2.

Differences in Backscatter due to
Characteristics of the Plants
Melfort, Saskatchewan Airborne C-VV
Fallow
Wheat
Canola
July 1989 Resolution: 1.4 m (Rg) x 1.4 m (Az)

Seasonal Differences in Backscatter
for Separation of Crop Types
Clinton, Ontario
Sensors like RADARSAT-1
(C-HH) and ERS-2 (C-VV)
provide one-dimensional data
sets. Thus only broad crop
classes (small grains versus
broadleaf crops) can be
detected with a single-date
acquisition. However, once
images from multiple dates
are combined, most crop Composite RADARSAT-1 Image RADARSAT-1 Image
classes can be R:July 03 G: July 27 B: June 02 June 02, 1999
separated.
In the multi-temporal
composite presented here,
the following crop types are
detected:
green beans
red wheat
magenta/pink barley
orange corn RADARSAT-1 Image RADARSAT-1 Image
purple alfalfa July 03, 1999 July 27, 1999
 1999 Canadian Space Agency

Scattering from Forest Targets
~ Types of interaction ~
Canopy Backscattering Soil - Trunk

Reflection
(Corner Reflector)
Soil
Backscattering
Canopy - Soil Reflection

Effects on Forest Backscatter due to
Changes in Water Levels
Lago Grande,
Para State (Brazil)
Multi-temporal
RADARSAT-1
S5D (Nov 28, 1996)

S6D (Aug 7, 1996)
S6D (May 27, 1996)
Source: Costa, M.P.F., E.M.M. Nova, F. Mitsuo,

J.E. Matovani, R.V.Ballester, F. Ahern 1998

Seasonal (Precipitation) Effects on
Backscatter
Tropical Humid Forest
Wet vs Dry conditions
(Ivory Coast)
© 1998, Canadian Space Agency

Wet Season
Acquired on:
December 10, 1997
Dry Season
Acquired on:
February 20, 1998

Other Site Factors
• orientation and row effects

• In urban areas, brighter echoes are returned where the
house walls (corner reflectors) are parallel to the flight
line.
• HH and VV backscatter, particularly at small incident
angles, is significantly increased when the radar looks
perpendicular to the direction of crop planting,
harvesting and tillage rows.
• terrain relief
• local incident angle effects
• environmental effects
• rain, dew, wind, frozen soil

CARDINAL POINT EFFECT
Sun City
Courtesy of US Strategic Air Command
Vienna, Austria
RADARSAT-1 Jan - 25 - 1996
Beam F1 Sub-image θ:37°-40° C-HH Resolution: 6.0 m (Rg) x 8.9 m (Az)
Corner
Reflector
Effects
Geological Applications Laboratory

Other Site Factors
~ Row Direction Effects ~
B
Around-the-field
A A cultivation pattern
B
B
A - Row direction B - Row direction
is parallel is perpendicular
A to look direction
- less backscatter
to look direction
- more backscatter
Look
Direction
Source: Hutton C. A., R.J. Brown, 1989
Row Direction Effects
Sumaré, São Paulo State, Brazil
RADARSAT C-HH F5F January 05, 1998
θ: 41 ° - 44° Resolution: 8.4m (Rg) x 8.4m (Az)
Fields planted with Look
Orbit
early tomatoes
have large furrows
(E) are very bright
in this image.
The topography
The tillage direction
and row direction
and the slope were
of these cotton
Descending pass →

perpendicular to the
fields (F)
RADARSAT beam.
produced high
backscattering.
A = corn
B = sugarcane
C = fallowland
D = pastureland
E = early tomatoes
with large furrows
Display pixel spacing: 15.6 m
F = cotton fields
Source: Epiphanio, J.C.N., M.S. Simões, A.R. Formaggio, C.C. Freitas, 1999
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/internat/glbsar2/imagery/bra/bra_22e.html
Other Site Factors
~ Terrain Relief ~
Local incident angle effects
• Effect on backscatter mechanisms
• The topography modulates the backscatter response
• Backscatter is enhanced when local incident angle gets
closer to 0 degrees
• Other side effects (layover, shadow, foreshortening)
• Effects on image interpretability
• LIA reduces discrimination between natural features
• The brightness of the target is a function of the local incident
angle; the interdependent effects make interpretation difficult
• Solutions
• Avoid acquisitions at small incident angles if possible

Other Site Factors
~ Environmental Effects ~
• Rain or dew on a target changes its backscatter

characteristics and may reduce classification
accuracies
• Wind may influence surface roughness, especially for
water surfaces where the wave action increases the
backscatter
• Frozen soils, regardless of moisture content, have a
dielectric constant similar to dry soil

Agricultural Colonization in Brazil
Multi-date Images and
Environmental Effects
• April 23, 1996 - afternoon pass
S7 Asc 96/04/23 S7 Desc 96/05/15 S7 Asc 96/10/18 S7 Desc 96/10/30 TM 543 96/06/14
during wet season

• May 15, 1996 - morning pass
during wet season; rain S7 Asc 96/04/23 S7 Asc 96/04/23
occurred during previous 24

hours
• Oct. 18, 1996 - afternoon pass S7 Desc 96/05/15 S7 Desc 96/05/15
on dry day at end of dry season

(HIGHEST contrast)
• Oct. 23, 1996 - morning pass
during dry season; rain
S7 Asc 96/10/18 S7 Asc 96/10/18
occurred during previous 24

hours
• Oct. 30, 1996 - morning pass S7 Desc 96/10/30 S7 Desc 96/10/30
during dry season

Moisture reduces contrast between
clearings and surrounding forest in TM 543 96/06/14
 1996 Canadian
Space Agency TM 543 96/06/14
C-band images Kilometres

Multidate RADARSAT - State of Acre, Brazil
Source: Kux H.J.H. , J. R. dos Santos, F. Ahern, S3 Desc. 96-10-23
R. W. Pietsch, M. S. Lacruz, 1998 Fazenda = Farm Rio = River —— road
Agriculture
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Agricultural Applications
• Scattering from agricultural targets

• Agricultural applications
• Crop information (type, condition, damage)
• Mapping soil management practices
• Important considerations during image acquisition

• Incident angle
• Timing of image acquisition
• Environmental effects
• Look direction and row direction
• Recommendations by sub-application

Scattering from Agricultural Targets
3
2
1 Direct Canopy (including multiple scattering)

2 Soil / Canopy Interaction
3 Direct Soil (including multiple scattering)
Brisco, B. and R.J. Brown, 1998, “Agricultural Applications with Radar”,

Chapter 7, Manual of Remote Sensing, 3rd edition, Vol. 2.

Crop Scattering Contributions
WHEAT
XHH Band
σ°
(dB)
Total backscatter
Ground-Crown-Ground
Crown-Ground
Ground-Crown
Direct Crown
Direct Ground

Crop Scattering Contributions
WHEAT
σ° σ°
(dB) (dB)
LHH LVV
Incident Angle (degrees) Incident Angle (degrees)

σ° σ°
(dB) (dB)
CHH CVV
Incident Angle (degrees) Incident Angle (degrees)

Total sigma0
Ground_cover_ground
Cover_ground
Ground_cover
Source: Touré, A., K.P.B. Thomson, G. Edwards,
Direct cover
R.J. Brown, and B. Brisco, 1994.
Direct ground

Crop Information
• Crop type and growth stage identification
• Crop vigor evaluation
• Crop damage identification and assessment
• Yield estimation
For applications such as

• Acreage and yield estimations for crop marketing
purposes (similar to Canadian Crop Information
System)
• Crop insurance assessments
• Marketing of products (seeds, fertilizer, herbicides,

implements)
• Mitigation for fertility and infestation problems

Crop Type Identification
• Crop separability for a single date C-band SAR

image provides three basic categories:
1) smooth dry dark surfaces (e.g., summer fallow);
2) intermediate shades of grey as a function of soil
moisture, surface roughness, and crop type
interactions (forage and grain crops, e.g., wheat);
3) bright targets at or near saturation due to a high
degree of both volume and surface scattering often
including corner reflector like effects between
plant/field geometry and incident microwaves (e.g.,
canola).

Crop Type Information
Melfort, Saskatchewan Airborne C-VV
Fallow
Wheat
Canola
July 1989 Resolution: 1.4 m (Rg) x 1.4 m (Az)

Sensitivity of C-Band Linear
Polarizations to Different Crop Types
Airborne CV-580 SAR data July 26, 1995
Of all three
polarizations, the
cross-polarization
appears to be most
sensitive to
differences in crop
type from field to Colour
field. However, each
polarization provides
some unique
information and a
three-band
composite is
required to separate
all crop types.
Altona, Manitoba (Canada)

Crop Condition
• Radar is sensitive to crop structure and
moisture content
• Changes in crop structure and moisture
content are indicators of crop condition and
crop damage, for example:
• crop vigor related to biomass, leaf area index and
height;
• water stress;
• damage resulting from weather events (hail, wind,
rain); and
• insect infestation.

Correlation Between Backscatter
and Crop Productivity
CV-580 Airborne Radar (R=HH; G=HV; B=VV)
Yield Map
Wheat Yield
(bushels per acre)
Clinton, Ontario June 30, 1999
The SAR detects variability in the condition of this wheat crop.

Backscatter Response as a Function of
Crop Condition
Indian Head, Saskatchewan June 28, 2000
Wheat Barley (west field) and

(variety AC Barrie) Oats (east field)
Bright areas are crop residue
(variety AC Elsa)
N
Wheat and Barley
Radar is detecting
zones of moisture
and nitrogen stress
Canola
Areas of crop stress Patterns are related
related to excess soil to variations in
crop biomass
moisture earlier in the
season are clearly
evident in this multi-
polarization composite.
CV-580 Airborne Radar

Multipolarization composite (R=VV; G=VH; B=HH)

Detecting Crop Damage with Radar
Altona, Manitoba - summer 1993
Altona
After eight months of heavy rain the
American mid-west, in particular the
Mississippi River system, was
experiencing record flood levels.
North of the American mid-west in the
Red River Valley, the region around
Altona also experienced above
average rainfall. The resulting crop
damage can clearly be observed in
the SAR imagery where the "blow-
down" or lodging of cereals and the
uneven germination and crop growth
create the mottled appearance of the
fields. Healthier fields are a more
uniform grey tone. Thus, the SAR
data can be helpful in delineating the
location and severity of crop damage.
C-HH image acquired by the JPL AIRSAR system

Biomass Effects
1979 Wheat 1980 Corn

COEFFICIENT σ° can (m2 m-2)
13.0 GHz VV 50 Deg 13.0 GHz VV 50 Deg
COEFFICIENT σ° can (m2 m-2)

BACKSCATTERING
BACKSCATTERING
LEAF AREA INDEX
LEAF AREA INDEX
The backscattering coefficient of the canopy is dominated by leaf contribution if LAI is > 0.5
for corn. It is sensitive over a wider range of LAI for wheat (up to time of heading).
(σ° can = sum of contributions directly from the canopy and the soil as
well as the multiple scattering between soil and canopy)
Source: Adapted from Ulaby, F.T., C.T. Allen, G. Eger and E. Kanemasu, 1984.

Tillage and Residue
Management Practices
• Identification of type and amount of crop
residue/trash
• Identification of type and timing of tillage and
number of tillage applications
For applications such as

• monitoring adoption of conservation practices
• estimation of soil erosion as input into wind and
water erosion models (e.g., Universal Soil Loss
Equation (USLE), Wind Erosion Equation (WEQ),
Water Erosion Prediction Project model (WEPP))
• estimation of runoff into rivers and lakes
http://www.agr.ca/pfra/pub/crsprair.htm

Effects of Different Tillage Treatments
control (no-till)
5
cultivator
cultivator plus rod-weeder
0 disk harrow
Ku -5
-10
-15
Cultivator with rod-weeder attachment
Disk harrow
(rod turns the surface layer exposing http://www.casecorp.com/lar/english
Backscattering Coefficient (σo)
roots and leveling the soil) /agricultural/newequip/tillage/disk.html

0 http://www.pima.ca/members/Hexirod.html
-5
C -10 • Wheat stubble plots tilled with cultivator,

-15 cultivator plus rod-weeder, and disk harrow
-20 produce increasingly rougher surfaces,
-25 compared to no-till (control)
-5 • All plots are confused at Ku-band where

-10 surfaces all appear rough. L-band shows
L -15 little sensitivity as all plots appear smooth
-20
-25 • C-band provides most sensitivity as clod

-30 size approximates wavelength
-35
16 24 32 40 48 56 64 Source: Brisco, B., R.J. Brown, B. Snider, G.J. Sofko,
J.A. Loehler and A.G. Wacker, 1991.
Incident Angle (θ)
Important Considerations During
Image Acquisition
• Incident Angle
• Shallower angles provide better crop
discrimination (more interaction with the
vegetation and less soil contribution)
• Shallower angles minimize contributions from
soil moisture
• Shallower angles also maximize differences
due to residue cover and tillage type

Crop Discrimination
as a Function of Incident Angle
F-sum =
600
Arithmetic total
of F - ratios 500
between crop F
types calculated 400
for each
incident angle. S 300
The higher the
F-sum the u
greater the m 200
information
content for crop 100
discrimination
purposes. 0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50 60 70
Incident
IncidenceAngle
Angle
Ground-based scatterometer measurements for 1987 growing season from western Canada
Source: Brisco B., Brown R. J., Gairns J., and Snider B., 1992.

Effects of Crop Residue on Backscatter
Corn Residue Grain Residue
C-HH BACKSCATTER (October 29) C-HH BACKSCATTER (September 25)
20 30 40 50 20 30 40 50
6 6
4 4
2 2
Backscatter (dB)
Backscatter (dB)
0 0
-2   PLOT1 -2   PLOT1
-4   PLOT2   PLOT2
-4
 PLOT3  PLOT3
-6 -6  PLOT4
 PLOT4
-8  PLOT5 -8  PLOT5
-10 -10
-12 -12
-14 -14
Incident angle (degrees) Incident angle (degrees)
Corn Residue Grain Residue

Plot 1 = low residue cover (harvester - removed plants, Plot 1 = intermediate residue cover (lying)
leaving short stubble) Plot 2 = intermediate residue cover (standing)
Plot 2 = high residue cover (combine - removed only top Plot 3 = high residue cover
portion of plants to stip the cobs) Plot 4 = low residue cover
Plot 3 = high residue cover (lying) (combine and mower Plot 5 = control plot (bare)
- removed cobs, then cut stalks leaving them lying on the field )
Plot 4 = intermediate residue cover (harvester - removed Source: McNairn H. , Boisvert J. B. , Duguay C.,
part of plants, stubble longer than in Plot 1) Huffman E. , Brown R. J. 1997
Plot 5 = control plot (bare)

Important Considerations
During Image Acquisition
• Timing - crops
• Crop calendar is very important in crop classification
• Multi-temporal data sets may be required, but must be corrected for
incident angle effects before quantitative extraction and modelling
• Using the crop growth characteristics in relationship to the crop
calendar for the region of interest in a multi-temporal approach will
provide additional information. Note the saturation effect and other
such interaction mechanisms are a function of the system parameters
so multi-parameter SAR (RADARSAT-2) is another approach for
increasing information content.
• Timing - soil management practices
• Conditions are very dynamic and timing is important
• Multi-temporal data sets may be required to monitor farming practices
during post harvest and seed bed preparation

Growth Stage Dependence
Number indicates Vanderlip growth stage

The temporal
BACKSCATTERING COEFFICIENT σ° can (m2 m-2)
SIGMA0
LAI
relationship of radar
backscatter for a
Half bloom Hard dough
sorghum field with
growth stages identified
Left Scale
Nine-leaf Soft dough (after Vanderlip, 1972)
and measured leaf area
LAI (m2m-2)
Six-leaf
Harvested
index (LAI). The radar
frequency was 13.0
Five-leaf GHz with VV
polarization at 50°
Four-leaf
Right Scale
incident angle.
JULIAN DATE (1980)
Source: Adapted from Ulaby, F.T., C.T. Allen, G. Eger and E. Kanemasu, 1984.

Crop Discrimination
as a Function of Crop Calendar
July 22 - Descending Orbit
barley beans canola corn flax oats sunflower
beans 1.82
canola 1.69 0.05
corn 1.77 0.01 0.02
flax 0.04 1.67 1.50 1.61
oats 0.01 1.92 1.83 1.89 0.08
sunflower 2.00 1.05 1.61 1.35 2.00 2.00
wheat 0.34 0.77 0.64 0.73 0.18 0.50 1.90
Average Divergence: 1.11
August 5 - Descending Orbit

beans 1.07
canola 1.63 1.35
corn 0.48 0.05 0.99
flax 0.35 1.98 2.00 1.91
oats 0.19 1.81 2.00 1.45 0.01
sunflower 2.00 1.99 0.10 2.00 2.00 2.00
wheat 0.07 0.41 0.77 0.09 1.26 0.65 2.00
August 8 - Descending Orbit

beans 0.87
canola 1.35 0.62
corn 0.63 0.00 0.46
flax 0.43 2.00 2.00 2.00
oats 0.08 1.51 1.90 1.34 0.08
sunflower 1.80 1.55 0.37 1.25 2.00 1.99
wheat 0.05 0.46 0.98 0.30 1.66 0.35 1.56
Source: McNairn, H., R.J. Brown, J. Ellis and D. Wood, 1998.
Crop Monitoring with Multi-temporal
RADARSAT-1 Imagery
Clinton, Ontario
Sensors like RADARSAT-1
(C-HH) and ERS-2 (C-VV)
provide one-dimensional data
sets. Thus only broad crop
classes (small grains versus
broadleaf crops) can be
detected with a single-date
acquisition. However, once
images from multiple dates
are combined, most crop Composite RADARSAT-1 Image RADARSAT-1 Image
classes can be R:July 03 G: July 27 B: June 02 June 02, 1999
separated.
In the multi-temporal
composite presented here,
the following crop types are
detected:
green beans
red wheat
magenta/pink barley
orange corn RADARSAT-1 Image RADARSAT-1 Image
purple alfalfa July 03, 1999 July 27, 1999

Stage 1
Growth Stages of
Rice Paddy Crops
Stage 2
Stage 3

Backscatter from Paddy Rice
• 12 dB change in rice
areas from beginning
Backscatter from
from Land
Land Cover
CoverClasses
Classesinin
Backscatter
Zhao
of growing season to
Zhao Qing,
Qing,China
China
peak growing season
15-Apr25-Apr
25-Apr 05-May
05-May 15-May
15-May25-May
25-May04-Jun
04-Jun 14-Jun
14-Jun 24-Jun
24-Jun 04-Jul
04-Jul 14-Jul
14-Jul 24-Jul 03-Aug
15-Apr
0
24-Jul 03-Aug
• Banana trees are
consistently bright
-5
targets
nought)
(Beta nought)
-10
• Grass provides
constant returns of -5
dB (Beta
-- -- Water
Water
-15
to -8 dB, until flooded

dB
—— Rice
Rice
— — Aqua
Aqua
-20
-- -- Grass
Grass
mid-season
-25
-- -- Banana
Bananas
• Water and aqua-
Date
Date
culture are consistently
dark between -19 and
Source: Ross S., Brisco B., Brown R. J., Yun S., Staples G., 1998
-24 dB
Rice Crop Monitoring
Acquisition Schedule
RICE GROWTH RADARSAT INFORMATION

STAGE RESPONSE
Acquisition 1 Early season Specular Field boundaries and
flooded paddies reflections from paddy locations
water surfaces
gives low
backscatter
Acquisition 2 Mid-season Backscatter Finalize rice growing
growing crop increases due to region, early
more surface and condition estimates,
volume scattering acreage estimates
as rice grows
Acquisition 3 Late-season Backscatter Validation of
Mature rice decreases due to production region and
lower plant water final yield estimates
content
Source: Brisco B. , Brown R. J. , Stapes G. , and Nazarenko D. 1995

RADARSAT - Rice Crop Monitoring
Zhao Qing, China
 1996 Canadian Space Ageny Imagery Courtesy RSI
RED GREEN BLUE

6-Apr-96 17-Jun-96 4-Aug-96
F4 Descending F4 Descending F4 Descending

Image Acquisition
• Environmental Effects
• Rain on the target increases backscatter and may
reduce crop classification accuracies
• Dew on the canopy increases backscatter but may not
affect classification (relative differences between crops)
• Rain and dew effects have implications for modelling and
quantification (when absolute differences are compared)
• Residue classes are easier to distinguish when the
residue is wet, as occurs following a rain event
Source : Wood, D., H. McNairn, R.J. Brown et R. Dixon. 2001 "Using RADARSAT-1 for Crop Monitoring: Choosing
Between Ascending and Descending Orbits". Submitted to Remote Sensing of the Environment.
McNairn, H., C. Duguay, J. Boisvert, E. Huffman et B. Brisco. 2001. “Defining the Sensitivity of Multi-frequency and Multi-
polarized Radar Backscatter to Post-Harvest Crop Residue”, Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, in press.

Class Separability Due to
Target Moisture Conditions
SCATTERING COEFFICIENT σ°HV (dB)

C-Band (4.75 GHz)
C-Band (4.75 GHz) Corn Flight 4
SCATTERING COEFFICIENT σ°HV (dB)
Flight 1
Angle of Incidence θ : 50º
Corn
Angle of Incidence θ : 50º
Pasture
Corn
Fallow (Wheat Stubble
Pasture
Fallow (Wheat Stubble
and Bare Soil) Fallow
and Bare Soil)
Fallow
Pasture
Pasture
SCATTERING COEFFICIENT σ°HH (dB) SCATTERING COEFFICIENT σ°HH (dB)
Dry Conditions Wet Conditions
Source: Ulaby, F.T., R.K. Moore and A.K. Fung, 1986

Environmental Effects : Dew and Rain
-3
-3 canola wheat corn sunflower potatoes beans
canola wheat corn sunflower potatoes beans
canola wheat
wheat corn
corn sunflower
sunflower potatoes
potatoes beans
-5
-5
-7
-7
Backscatter
Backscatter
Backscatter
Backscatter
(dB)
-9
dB
dB
dB
-9
-11
-11
-13 Mean (ASC)

Mean (ASC)
-13 Mean (ASC)
Mean (ASC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC) -15
-15
June 27 (Asc)- June 28 (Desc) August 14 (Asc)- August 15 (Desc)

Dew Effect Rain Effect
-3
-3
canola
canola w heat
wheat corn
corn sunflow er
sunflower potatoes
potatoes beans
beans
canola
canola wheat
wheat corn
corn sunflower
sunflower potatoes
potatoes beans
beans
-5
-5
-7
-7
Backscatter
Backscatter
Backscatter
Backscatter
dB
-9
(dB)
-9
dB
dB
-11 -11
Mean (ASC)
Mean (ASC) -13
-13
Mean
Mean (ASC)
(ASC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC)
Mean (DSC)
-15 -15
July 21 (Asc)- July 22 (Desc) August 21 (Asc)- August 21 (Desc)

Dew Effect Dew Effect
Source: Wood, D., R.J. Brown and H. McNairn, 1998
Image Acquisition
• Look Direction and Row Direction

• Row direction effects can be significant at or near
perpendicular look directions
• For crops, row effects are prominent at incident
angles around 40o and at low vegetation densities
• Sensitivity to these effects may be reduced using
cross-polarizations

Polarization Comparison:
Row Direction Effects
In the HV
polarization, the
look direction
effect is virtually
Look eliminated.
Direction
Colour
Both C-HH and C-

VV polarizations
are sensitive to the
direction in which
this field was
harvested. Where
the row direction is
perpendicular to
the radar look
direction,
backscatter is
significantly
C- Band Airborne JPL AIRSAR
Altona, Manitoba (Canada) October 8, 1994
higher.

RADARSAT Recommendations
by Sub-application
Application Preferred mode & Advantages Disadvantages

incident angle (θ)
Land Cover Mapping Standard (large θ) Sensitive to target roughness, Geometric distortions due
structure and moisture to topography
Crop Information (type, Standard or Fine (large θ) Sensitive to canopy structure Backscatter is also
condition, damage) dependent upon growth
stage and crop condition
Soil Moisture Standard or Fine Sensitive to dielectric constant Roughness and
(small θ) topography also influence
backscatter
Soil Tillage and Crop Standard or Fine (large θ) Sensitive to surface roughness Soil moisture and row
Residue direction also influence
backscatter
Precision Farming Fine (large θ for crop Sensitive to canopy structure Resolution of current
information; small θ for and moisture, as well as soil sensors limits use to
soil moisture information) moisture mapping zonal information
rather than site specific

Forestry
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Forestry Applications
• Forest Scattering
• Environmental Effects
• Boreal Forestland Applications
• Clearcuts
• Fire Scars
• Tropical Forestland Applications
• Cover Type Mapping
• Deforestation Mapping
• Forest Flood Mapping
• Mapping of Fire Scars
• Recommended Radar Configurations

Forest Scattering Principles
• Forest architecture or structure controls scattering behaviour for all
• frequencies
• polarizations
• incident angles
• Response of σ° is a function of the relative importance of various

scattering pathways, and sizes of scattering objects relative to the
wavelength
• Dominant backscattering sources in forests:
• Crown volume
• Direct scattering from trunk
• Direct scattering from soil surface
• Trunk-ground scattering or ground-trunk scattering
• Crown-ground scattering or ground-crown scattering

Forest Scattering
~ Forest Targets ~
Canopy Backscattering Soil - Trunk

Reflection
(Corner Reflector)
Soil
Backscattering
Canopy - Soil Reflection

Canopy I, HH polarization
Backscattering Cross Section (dB)

Total
Ground - Trunk
Total Crown
Forest Scattering
Direct Ground
θ (degrees)
~ Sources ~ Canopy I, VV polarization

Total
Ground - Trunk
Total Crown
Direct Ground
θ (degrees)
Plots courtesy F.T. Ulaby Figure H.6 : C-Band Like-Polarized Canopy

Backscatter Components vs Incident Angle

Canopy I, HH polarization

Total
Ground - Trunk
Total Crown
Direct Ground
Forest Scattering θ (degrees)
~ Sources ~ Canopy I, VV polarization
Backscattering Cross Section (dB) Total

Ground - Trunk
Total Crown
Direct Ground
θ (degrees)
Plots courtesy F.T. Ulaby

Figure H.3 : L-Band Like-Polarized Canopy
Backscatter Components vs Incident Angle

Forest Scattering
~ Flooded Forest ~
Water - Canopy Reflection

(Corner Reflector)
Canopy
Backscattering
Canopy -
Water
Reflection
Water Backscattering

Forest Scattering
~ Flooded Conditions ~
Modelled C-HH and C-VV Modelled L-HH and L-VV Modelled P-HH and P-VV
backscatter from the backscatter from the flooded backscatter from the flooded
flooded igapó forest, Brazil igapó forest, Brazil igapó forest, Brazil
C-HH Backscatter (dB)
P-HH backscatter (dB)

L-HH backscatter (dB)
(a) Incident angle (deg.) (a) Incident angle (deg.) (a) Incident angle (deg.)
P-VV backscatter (dB)

C-VV Backscatter (dB)
L-VV backscatter (dB)
(b) Incident angle (deg.) (b) Incident angle (deg.) (b) Incident angle (deg.)
c – canopy volume scattering,

d – trunk - ground term,
Source: Wang, Yong and John M. Melack, IGARSS 1994
m – canopy - ground term, and
t – total backscatter (t=c+d+m)
BIOMASS SENSITIVITY
Biomass (tons/ha)
C-Band
Source: Dobson, M.C. et al. 1992
BIOMASS SENSITIVITY
Biomass (tons/ha)
L-Band

BIOMASS SENSITIVITY
Biomass (tons/ha)
P-Band
Image Texture
Corn Field Forest
300 m 300 m
Source: Ulaby, Moore and Fung, 1986

~ Precipitation Effects ~
• Effect on image interpretability

• In general, precipitation reduces the dynamic range
(i.e., contrast) within the scene

• Moisture becomes abnormally high, so backscatter
dominates the scattering process and the structure
(architecture) of the target has a lesser role.

~ Precipitation Effects ~
RADARSAT-1 Fine Mode Beam 4, Asc.
Whitecourt, Alberta
Forest
August 4, 1996
(56.2 mm precipitation in previous 24 hours) Clearcuts
Forest

Forest
October 15, 1996 (dry conditions)

Forest

~ Precipitation/Seasonal Effects ~
Tropical Humid Forest
Wet vs Dry conditions
(Ivory Coast)

Wet Season
Acquired on:
December 10, 1997
Dry Season
Acquired on:
February 20, 1998

~ Local Incident Angle Effects ~
• The topography modulates the backscatter response
• Backscatter is enhanced when local incident angle (LIA)
gets closer to 0º
• Related effects: layover, shadow, foreshortening
• Discrimination between natural features is reduced
• The target will be characterized by a signature which is a
function of the LIA, thus making interpretation difficult
• Solutions
• Avoid steep incident angles

~ Local Incident Angle Effects ~
θloc
Ra
da
θloc
rS
θloc
ha
Brighter -
do
w
smaller local
Darker - incident angle
larger local Nominal
incident angle Brightness

~ Local Incident Angle Effects (LIA)~
Slope facing Ridge of the hill
away from Slope facing
the SAR the SAR
Larger LIA
Nominal LIA
Small LIA
Look direction
* All arrows are pointing at clearcuts / deforested areas
Boreal Forestland Applications
• Clearcut Mapping
• Fire Scars Mapping

~ Clearcut Mapping ~

• In general, the clearcuts have lower backscatter than
the natural forest
• Different structures of tree architecture, local
topography (e.g., site preparation), and slash are
observed

Contrast between forestland and clearcuts
WHITECOURT, ALBERTA 96-Jan-25
RADARSAT-1 Beam S7 (θ = 45° - 49°) C-HH Resolution: 20m (Rg) x 27m (Az)
Ascending Pass (Right Loooking) ————————→
Full Swath - Pixel Spacing for Display: 56 m  1996 Canadian Space Agency
Image Courtesy RSI

RADARSAT-1 Whitecourt, Alberta
Effects of Look Direction, Local Incident Angle,
and Seasonality on Clearcut Discrimination
March 5, 1996: Fine Mode Beam 4 Desc.
Imagery  Canadadian Space Agency, 1996
April 5, 1996: Fine Mode Beam 5 Asc.

Imagery  Canadadian Space Agency, 1996
Forestland Information Group

~ Clearcut Mapping ~
Factors affecting contrast
(decreasing order of importance)
• Snow wetness
• Slope and aspect relative to illumination
• Surface roughness and slash
• Residual vegetation
Clearcut Mapping Recommended Configurations

• Select optimal seasons to increase contrast between
forest and clearcuts
• Most suitable season is when clearcuts are
covered by wet snow
~ Fire Scars Mapping ~
- What influences the interpretability -
• Fire type
• Crown versus ground fire
• Target
• Dielectric (water content)
• Architecture / structure
- tree architecture
- stand characteristics (composition, density)
- ground characteristics (vegetation, roughness)
• Geometry
• Sensor-Target (including topography)
• Sensor
• Frequency, polarization (transmit and receive configurations)

Forest Fire Mapping Update
with RADARSAT
Labeau Lake - Québec
(50° 45′ N 75° 30′ W)
LANDSAT TM : 1996 RADARSAT-1 S1 Beam Desc. : May 5, 1998
Image Courtesy: Ministère des Ressources Naturelles du Québec  1998, Canadian Space Agency
Vectors Extracted from RADARSAT

~ Fire Scars Mapping ~
Fire Scars Mapping : Recommended Configurations

• Acquisition time after the burn
• During or shortly after, the burned areas are not
always apparent unless major structural change of
the canopy structure has occurred
• In the spring season (wet conditions), following the
fire event, the burned forest can be mapped

Tropical Forestland Applications
• Cover Type Mapping
• Deforestation Mapping
• Forest Flood Mapping
• Fire Scars Mapping

~ Cover Type Mapping ~
Mapping Classes
• Forestland cover types
– Primary/secondary forests
– Plantations
– Disturbed forest
• Pastures and cultures villages (agroforestry)
• Wetland
• Savannah...

Tropical Environments
• Heavily vegetated, always humid
• Dense forest canopy acts as a surrogate for topography
• No SAR backscatter from ground for high frequency SAR
Savannah Environments
• Sparse vegetation, dry soil conditions
• Backscatter mainly controlled by soil moisture and surface
roughness
• If possible, avoid precipitation events

RADARSAT-1 Mosaic
Beam Wide 1, Ascending
June 9 & 16, 1998
Roraima State, Brazil
© 1997 Canadian Space Agency Image Courtesy RSI

Wetland mapping (Roraima, Brazil)
Wetland with standing
vegetation Forest
Floodplain
Forest
Wetland without
standing vegetation
RADARSAT-1 Beam Ext. Low, Desc. : June 22, 1998

Forest type mapping

(Ivory Coast)
Multi-date RADARSAT
Standard 7
Dec. 10, 1997(R);

Feb. 20, 1998 (G);

texture (B)

RADARSAT S7
Dec. 10, 1997(R);
Feb. 20, 1998 (G);
texture (B)
LEGEND
FO = Primary & Secondary Forest
PF = Plantations
NI = Swamp Forest
RA = Raphia
SC = Secondary & Mixed Agro Forestry
CS = Mixed Agro & Secondary Forest
CC = Mixed Agro Froestry
SV = Savannah

Cover Type Mapping : Recommended Configurations

• Incident angle
• Shallow angles provide better discrimination for forestland cover
mapping
• Shallow angles preserve information on deforested areas (riparian
vegetation, regeneration, crop…)
• Steep angles provide better distinction between forest vs non-forest
in flat areas; images acquired at these steep angles suffer from
geometric distortion which compromises the spatial accuracy
• Timing
• Dry season imagery shows better discrimination between forestland
classes, compared with wet season imagery
• Wet season allows better discrimination of forestland classes, when
combined with a dry season acquisition

Cover Type Mapping : Recommended Configurations

• Optimal dataset
• Multi-date acquisitions (wet and dry season) combined with
a texture/contrast channel offer the best results
• Imaging Mode
• Fine mode should be used to detect roads, fine features, and
riparian vegetation
• Multi-beam approach should be considered when mapping a
wide territory
• Frequency
• Determines the penetration within the canopy, and samples
different parts of the forest canopy

~ Deforestation Mapping ~
• Why map deforestation ?

• Monitor deforestation
– planned
– unplanned
• Monitor extraction from forest reserves

• Assess agricultural expansion

• Deforestation for Cattle Ranching

• current assessment of changes in deforested
area
• riparian vegetation, regeneration in ranch
• Problems
• deforestation
– biodiversity, potential for major climate

change
• questionable sustainability
– soil fertility, soil erosion, natural succession,

water quality

• Agricultural Colonization
• location of unplanned colonization
• changing boundary of cleared area
• productivity
• land use: pasture vs crop vs fallow
• Problems
• Unplanned colonization
• Failures of planned colonization
– sustainability issues -> repeated migration
– accumulation of land by fewer and fewer owners
– excessive deforestation -> loss in biodiversity,

release of carbon to atmosphere
ProRADAR
Example of Tropical Deforestation
Humaita Settlement, Acre, Brazil 98-May-15
RADARSAT-1 Standard Mode Beam 5 (θ = 36°-42°) Resolution: 24.2m (Rg) x 27m (Az)
 Canadian Space Agency 1996

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS)
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE)

State of Acre, Brazil
Change Detection Vectors in Tropical Rainforest
Landsat TM: Bands 5 4 3, 1996 RADARSAT-1 S6 Beam, Desc. : 31 January 1999
© 1999, Canadian Space Agency, Image Courtesy RSI

Image Courtesy INPE
Forest Change Vector: 1996 to 1999 (S6 Detection)

Tropical Deforestation : Recommended Configurations

• Incident angle
• Shallower angles provide better discrimination between forest and
deforested area
• Shallower angles preserve information on deforested area (riparian
vegetation, regeneration, crop…)
• Steep angles (Extended Low or Standard 1) provide better distinction
between forest vs non-forest in flat areas. Images acquired at these
steep angles suffer of geometric distortion which compromise the spatial
accuracy
• Beam mode
• Fine modes should be used to detect roads, fine features, and riparian
vegetation
• Multi-beam approach should be considered when mapping a wide
territory

Tropical Deforestation : Recommended Configurations

• Polarization
• Cross-polarisation (HV or VH) provides better discrimination of
man-made features (depolarization) - (RADARSAT-2)
• Timing
• Dry season imagery shows better discrimination between forestland
classes, compared with wet season imagery
• Optimal dataset
• Multi-date approach provides better accuracy on state of growth in
deforested areas
• Dry conditions are preferred (end of dry season is best)

~ Flood Mapping ~
• Forest flooding
• Extent of flooding
• Floodplain lakes
• Floodplain vegetation
– aquatic
– terrestrial

~ Flood Mapping ~
Tucurui Reservoir,
Para State (Brazil)
Multi-temporal
RADARSAT-1
S6A (Dec 5, 1996)

S5A (Aug 14, 1996)
S6A (May 27, 1996)

~ Flood Mapping ~
Lago Grande,
Para State (Brazil)
Multi-temporal
RADARSAT-1
S5D (Nov 28, 1996)

S6D (Aug 7, 1996)
S6D (May 27, 1996)

~ Flood Mapping ~
Flood extent, Limpopo River (Mozambique)
© 1997 Canadian Space Agency Image Courtesy RSI

RADARSAT-1
Feb 28, 2000 RADARSAT-1
March 1, 2000
RADARSAT-1
March 23, 2000
~ Flood Mapping ~
Flood mapping : Recommended Configurations
• Incident angle
• Medium angles (30o - 40o) are a compromise for discrimination of forest
types and low density, flooded forest
• Frequency
• High frequency can detect low aquatic vegetation (detects macrophytes
missed by L-Band)
• Low frequency is better to detect water under closed canopies
• Timing
• Multi-temporal imagery allows the monitoring of growth and movement of
floating vegetation
• Optimal dataset
• A multi-frequency dataset would lead to better characterization of the
dynamic ecosystem of a periodically flooded area

~ Mapping of Fire Scars ~
• In tropical forest…
• burned forest scars are not always detectable (function of fire type
and the state of structural change of the forest)
• reaction time is critical for data acquisition (tropical ecosystem is
very dynamic)
• In tropical forest… crown fire results in
• increased backscatter from burned forest at steep incident angles
• decreased backscatter from burned forest at shallow incident
angles, but it is harder to detect scars than at steep incident angles
• Detectability of fire scars is a function of the type of fire
• if the upper strata (layer) of forest has not been affected
significantly, the likelihood of detecting the fire scars is considerably
reduced

Recent Burns
Acre State,
Brazil
Multi-Date RADARSAT (Red = S3, Green = S7, Blue = Difference)

RADARSAT S7 Asc. April 23, 1996 RADARSAT S3 Desc. October 23, 1996
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS)
(with 18.5 mm Rainfall)

~ Mapping of Fire Scars ~
Mapping of Fire Scars : Recommended Configurations

• Incident angle
• Steep angles allow better discrimination between burned and un-burned
forest for crown fire type
– e.g., Standard 1, 2
• Timing
• Response time is critical; acquisition should be done during or close to
the end of the dry season
• Optimal dataset
• Multi-date acquisition increases chances to map fire scars (crown fires)
• Acquisitions during the fire period (dry state) and early in the wet
season provide the optimal dataset

Forestland Applications
Summary and Recommendations

~ Summary and Recommendations ~
Beam Selection : Considerations

• Steep incident angle
• Greater radiometric effects due to modulation of the relief (see
local incident angle)
• Less return from architecture of the target
• More sensitive to moisture (refers to scattering regime)
• Shallow incident angle

• The structure of the tree contributes more to the backscatter,
so forest elements with different architectures will be
discriminated easier
• Topography has a lesser role in backscatter mechanisms
since the local incident angle will often be greater than 20
degrees

Acquisition Planning : Considerations
• Use seasonal changes to your advantage
• Dry season provides better contrast
• Avoid rainy season and high dust months if you plan a single
acquisition
• Select time of acquisition (ascending vs descending)
• Daily changes occur in vegetation moisture
• Exploit vegetation phenology
• Leaf-off vs leaf-on
NOTE: Always monitor the precipitation from 2 days before to

the acquisition time.

Data Fusion : Considerations
• Dry season imagery normally has greater dynamic range (more
discrimination of land features possible)
• Multi-temporal dataset adds new dimensions and better
discrimination for mapping purposes
• Composite of images acquired during periods with dry and wet
conditions plus a texture channel (contrast) of the dry-period
acquisition provides better discrimination
• RADARSAT-TM fusion using intensity-hue-saturation (IHS)
transformation technique seems to provide better qualitative
results - especially for visual interpretation
• SAR-Optical data fusion provides better optimization of the
dimensionality offered by remote sensing data (radiometry and
texture)

Geology
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Geological Applications
Outline
• SAR and Geology
– Terrain relief and SAR
– Look direction
– Environments (Tropical, Polar, Desert)
– Data Integration
– Stereo image pairs
• Applications
– Geological mapping
– Mineral exploration
– Hazards mapping

Terrain Relief and SAR
• Low relief environment (~ 100 m)

→ backscatter controlled by changes in local incident
angle and surface roughness
• Surface roughness controlled by
– weathering process of the bedrock
– “reworking” processes of unconsolidated surficial
deposits (e.g., fluvial sorting, glacial action, wind
erosion)

Comparison of RADARSAT Viewing Geometry
of Low Relief Terrains at Morden, Manitoba
Low relief
environment
Courtesy RADARSAT International

Standard Mode Standard Mode

Beam S2 Ascending Look Beam S7 Ascending
Orbit
17-Oct-96 06-Oct-96
Incident Angle: 24º - 31º Incident Angle: 45º - 49º
Singhroy V. , R. Saint-Jean, 1999. Resolution: 22 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az) Resolution: 20 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Effects of relief on the selection of Displayed Pixel Spacing: 27.3 m Displayed Pixel Spacing: 27.3 m
RADARSAT-1 incidence angle for
Strandline Ground moraine Deltaic deposits
geological applications; Canadian 4 km
Journal of Remote Sensing , Landslide Alluvium
Vol. 25, No. 3, 1999, pp. 211-217
http://dweb.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/db/biblio/papere.cfm?BiblioID=4723
Effect of SAR Incident Angle
on Terrain Mapping
RADARSAT-1 Whitecourt, Alberta Orbit
Look
Intermediate RADARSAT-1 C-HH
96-Feb-12
Ascending Orbit
relief Right Look

STANDARD Mode
Beam 1
environment Inc. Angle: 20º - 27º

Resol.: 26 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Partial Swath
Displayed Pixel size: 56 m
Orbit
Look
RADARSAT-1 C-HH
96-Jan-25
Ascending Orbi t
Right Look
STANDARD Mode
Beam 7
Inc. Angle: 45º - 49º
Resol.: 20 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Partial Swath
Displayed Pixel size: 56 m
Singhroy V. , R. Saint-Jean, 1999.
Effects of relief on the selection of
geological applications; Canadian
Journal of Remote Sensing ,  Canadian Space Agency, 1996
Vol. 25, No. 3, 1999 , pp. 211-217

Terrain Relief and SAR (cont...)
• High relief environment (~1000 m)

→ backscatter strongly controlled by angle and
orientation of slopes
• Yields a very refined “terrain-texture” image of the
landforms
• Erosional processes which define the landforms are
often diagnostic of the underlying rock type
• Interpretation of high relief SAR imagery must
contend with the effects of radar foreshortening,
layover and shadow

Comparison of RADARSAT Viewing Geometry
of High Relief Terrains, Hope, B.C.
Extended High Mode
Beam EH6 Ascending
17-Oct-96
High relief Incident Angle: 57º -59º
Resolution: 18 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Displayed Pixel Spacing: 29.4 m
environment
Legend
Block slide Faults
Transverse ridges
Slide scarp
Transverse block fracture
Standard Mode
Beam S1 Ascending
 Canadian Space Agency, 1996
08-Oct-96
Incident Angle: 20º - 27º
Resolution: 26 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Displayed Pixel Spacing: 29.4 m
Singhroy V. , R. Saint-Jean, 1999.

Effects of relief on the selection of
Orbit
Look
geological applications; Canadian
Journal of Remote Sensing ,
Vol. 25, No. 3, 1999 , pp. 211-217
Sarawak, Malaysia
Incident Angle Effect on Terrain Appearance
RADARSAT-1
EH6 Loo
k
θ : 57° - 59°
Orbi
Effect of
t
incident
angle RADARSAT-1
Standard 5 Loo
k
θ : 36° - 42°
Orbi
t
RADARSAT-1
EL1 Loo
k
Orbi
θ : 10° - 23°
t
 Canadian Space Agency, 1996
Received by the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing
Processed and distributed by RADARSAT International Inc.
D'Iorio M. , P. Budkewitsch,
N.N. Mahmood, 1997.
Look direction
• Since SAR sensors provide their own illumination

source, the look direction can influence the information
content of the imagery.
• Greater morphological enhancement can be obtained
when illumination is perpendicular to the topographical
features (cardinal effect).
• In low relief environments, the look direction can be
used to provide a greater enhancement of lineaments.
• In high relief environments, the look direction can be
used to provide information on areas that are occulted
the the other look direction or subject to layover or
foreshortening.

Geological Application: effect of look direction
Tropical forest environment : interlayered sandstone and shale
layering not apparent layering apparent
Effect
of look

direction
layering apparent layering not apparent
Ascending pass Descending pass

(east-looking) (west-looking)
RADARSAT-1 RADARSAT-1
date: 26 August 96 date: 3 June 96
beam mode: Standard (S6) beam mode: Standard (S6)
incident angle : 44º incident angle : 44º
Sarawak, Malaysia
D'Iorio M. , P. Budkewitsch,
N.N. Mahmood, 1997.
Tropical Environments
• Heavily vegetated
• Always humid
• Tropical weathering of bedrock reveals structures

and rock type
• Dense forest canopy acts as a surrogate for
topography
→ no SAR backscatter from ground

MATO GROSSO, BRAZIL
RADARSAT-1 23-Dec-98
Descending Pass
Geomorphology
in tropical
environments
Extended High Mode (EH6)

Incident Angle: 57º - 59º
Resolution: 18 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az), Pixel Spacing: 40 m

Polar Environments
• Sparse vegetation
• Frozen ground
• Bedrock weathered by frost action ; related to rock

type
• Thin, dry snow cover is transparent to SAR

• Best imaged during frozen ground conditions
→ eliminates soil moisture effects

BATHURST ISLAND
Lithological discrimination (roughness)
at low and moderate incident angles
Geological Map
Kerr, 1974
Lithology (1:250,000 scale)
in polar
environments
Standard 7
21 March 96
incident angle: 45º - 49º
resolution: 20 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
display pixel spacing: 60 mº
Extended Low 1
17 February 97
incident angle: 10º - 23
resolution: 36 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
display pixel spacing: 60 mº
Paul Budkewitsch,
Marc A. D’Iorio,  Canadian Space Agency, 1996-97
and J. Chris Harisson.
1996.
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/radarsat/images/nwt/rnwt01e.html
descending pass
BATHURST ISLAND
POLAR BEAR PASS
Lithology from SAR
Siltstone : 1.7 cm
Lithology
in polar
environments
Limestone : 4.6 cm
Courtesy RADARSAT International Inc.

RADARSAT-1 C-HH
Standard beam (S7)
21-March-96
θ = 45° - 49°
Paul Budkewitsch, Res.: 20 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Marc A. D’Iorio, Pixel spacing : 32 m look direction
1996.
BATHURST ISLAND
Calibrated RADARSAT-1 Data
Backscatter variation with angle of incident

(fossiliferous carbonates vs. siltstone)
Effect of beam mode
incident angle
β° Radar backscatter (dB)

on backscatter
‘rough surface’
(carbonates)
‘smooth surface’
(siltstone)
Incident angle
Paul Budkewitsch, Marc A. D’Iorio,
and J. Chris Harisson. 1996.
Desert Environments
• Sparse vegetation
• Dry soil conditions
• Pebble size of alluvium strongly affects backscatter

• Backscatter mainly controlled by soil moisture and
surface roughness
• If possible, avoid precipitation events

Lunar Lake Volcanic Field, NEVADA
RADARSAT-1 Fine Mode F4 18-Oct-96
Lithology
in desert
environments
Image courtesy RADARSAT International Inc.

Look

Orbit
Incident
angle :
45º -48º
Resolution : 7.8 m (Rg) x 8.4 m (Az)
Display pixel spacing : 25 m
D'Iorio M. , B. Rivard,
P. Budkewitsch, 1996
LAVA FLOW
LUNAR LAKE
Nevada, USA
High and low

surface Nevada, USA
roughness

ZAGROS FOLD BELT, IRAN
RADARSAT-1 11-Nov-97
ScanSAR
Narrow B
Morphology
Ascending pass
in desert
environments Incident angle
31º - 46º
Nominal
Resolution
50 m x 75 m
(Rg x Az)
Pixel Spacing
160 m

Data Integration
• SAR imagery may be used as a basis for data
integration.
• Any properly geocoded digital dataset can be
integrated with the SAR imagery.
• The resulting integrated product has a greater
information value than the sum of the information of
the individual constituents.
• Techniques such as IHS, Addition, Multiplication,
Principal Component Analysis, etc. can be used to
merge the datasets.
• With the IHS technique, the SAR imagery is used to
modulate intensity, while the merged dataset is used
to modulate hue.
Airborne C-SAR and Soil Geochemistry
Nickel in soil (0-16 ppm Ni)
Data
integration SAR + Geochemistry IHS integration
(soil geochemistry
and SAR)
Airborne Synthetic Aperture Radar C-HH
Source: Singhroy V. , R. Saint-Jean,

B. Rivard 1995.
Data Integration and Interpretation
Bathurst Island, N.W.T.

Data
integration
(geological map
and SAR)
Source: Paul Budkewitsch,

Marc A. D’Iorio,
1996.

Azraq, Jordan
Data Integration
Data
integration
(Optical imagery
and SAR)
Airborne C-SAR and Landsat TM

C-SAR Landsat TM PCA (TM4,5,7)
Source: Singhroy V. , R. Saint-Jean,

B. Rivard 1995.
RADARSAT Stereo Image Pairs
• Appropriate RADARSAT image pairs can be viewed

stereoscopically to provide a three-dimensional
perspective of terrain landforms
• Stereo pairs have proven useful for terrain mapping

and DEM generation
• Subtle features not discernible in single RADARSAT

images are often recognized in stereo pairs

Selection of Stereo Image Pairs
• Best results obtained from same-side (i.e.,
descending/descending or ascending/ascending)
image pairs with large overlap
• Opposite-side (i.e., ascending/descending) image
pairs only recommended for very low relief areas;
similar tonal characteristics
• Preference for one image with a large incident angle
(i.e., S7 or EH1-6) to minimise terrain displacement
effects
• The larger the difference between incident angles,
the greater the vertical exaggeration in the stereo pair
– high relief : 5°- 20° is sufficient
– low relief : 20°- 40° is required

MULTI-ANDEAN PROJECT, BOLIVIA
Stereo Image Pair
98-Aug-23 S3 Desc 97-Mar-27 S6 Desc
Descending pass (right looking)

Stereo
image pair
Display Pixel Spacing : 123 m

Sub - scene
RADARSAT-1
Source: Lizeca J. L. ,
W.M. Moon,
C.A. Hutton, L. Wu,
C.W. Lee, 1999  1997 Canadian Space Agency

Digital Elevation Model of Multi-Andean Project of Bolivia
DEM produced
using
radargrammetry
and
RADARSAT-1
image pair
Source: Lizeca J. L. , W.M. Moon,

C.A. Hutton, L. Wu,
C.W. Lee, 1999 Standard Image Pair : 98-Aug-23 (S3, Desc) & 97-Mar-27 (S6, Desc)
Perspective Viewing Image
Multi-Andean Project, Bolivia
RADARSAT-1
perspective
image
Ortho colour image (IHS) draped over DEM

Source: Lizeca J. L. , W.M. Moon, Pixel Spacing = 25 m
C.A. Hutton, L. Wu,
C.W. Lee, 1999
Geological Applications
• SAR can provide information for :
– Geological mapping: regional surveys, map
updating, geomorphological mapping, structural
and tectonic interpretation
– Mineral exploration: provides simultaneous
interpretation of information coming from several
datasets
– Geological hazards mapping: The all weather
capabilities and the sensitivity to surface
morphology provides information on remote areas

Geological mapping
Sarawak, Malaysia
Geological Map (Yin, 1992) Structural (stereo) Interpretation
RADARSAT-1 S6 (descending)
Map updating,
Regional surveys,
Structural
interpretation
(west looking
MACRES/CCRS Resolution : 21 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Source: D'Iorio M. , P. Budkewitsch, Pixel Spacing: 50 m
N.N. Mahmood, 1997.
Mineral exploration
Sudbury mining district, Ontario
RADARSAT-1 and Magnetics (VG) Integration
SAR provides
Wanapitei
Granite and Granite Gneiss Lake
geomorphological One
pin
g Fm
information while Chelmsford Fm
the other dataset

gives additional Sudbury
tive
information Nick
el Ir
rup
Granite
Greenstones and Sedimentary Rock
LEGEND
 1996 Canadian Space Agency Mining
Properties
RADARSAT-1 Magnetics
Orbit 3043, 1996-June-04 Vertical Gradient of the magnetic field
STANDARD Mode, Beam 1 From GSC Airborne Survey
Resol.: 26 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az) Line Spacing: 500 m
Pixel Size Approx. 39 m x 39 m Integrated through IHS with:
Inc. Angle: 20º - 27º
Intensity : RADARSAT SAR
Sub-image
Hue : Magnetics VG
Saturation : Constant (DN=65)
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/geology/sudbury/sudburye.html
Geological hazards mapping
YALE LANDSLIDE
Fraser Valley, B.C.
SAR provides
geomorphological
information
Geological hazards mapping
Nevado Del Ruíz, Colombia
Dec. 1, 1998, RADARSAT-1 Beam F2
SAR provides
information
about remote
areas
Landslide
Ascending Pass, right looking
Pixel Spacing = 12 m
Sub-scene

RADARSAT and Geological Mapping
• Topographic relief is the main factor for selecting

beam position (incident angle)
• Preference of radar look-direction (ascending vs.
descending) to be close to orthogonal to the principal
trend of the bedrock structure ; often the most
compelling factor for choosing between ascending or
descending images
• Viewing stereo image pairs significantly improves
interpretation of geological structures (i.e., folds and
faults)

(continued)
General guidelines :
• Low to moderate relief (100-500 m) : all Standard
beam modes (application dependent) ; moderate
preference for S1 to S5 for revealing terrain detail.
• High relief (1000 m) : highest incident angles are
best (i.e., S5-7). EH1-EH6 beams also
recommended to minimise terrain displacement
effects, however shadows may result
• F1 to F5 in all cases exhibit few differences

(continued)
Regional Studies :
• ScanSAR Narrow (SN1, SN2) or ScanSAR Wide
(SW2) useful for wide-area mosaics
• Information content in Wide mode (W1-W3) is similar
to Standard mode (S1-S7) images
Detailed Studies :
• Information content in all Fine modes (F1-F5) is
essentially the same
• Fine mode is recommended from 1:20 000 - 1:50 000
or smaller scale image maps

Hydrology
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Hydrology Applications
• Soil Moisture
• Wetlands Mapping
• Flood Mapping
• Snow Mapping
• Hydrological Modelling

Soil Target Parameters
• Water content (complex dielectric constant) of

surface layer
• Penetration depth depends on soil moisture content
of soils, frequency and incident angle
• Surface roughness (usually tillage related and
measured using two parameters: rms surface
height and correlation length)
• Surface macro-structure (ie. tillage row
characteristics, tillage direction and seed bed
structures)

Soil Moisture Mapping
• Quantify surface (0-15 cm) soil moisture
• Identify moisture spatial variability
• Extrapolation of surface moisture to root zone for yield
estimation
• Crop stress assessment and input to growth models
• Irrigation scheduling
• Flood forecasting
• Climatological and hydrological models

Soil Moisture Sensitivity
Results from the Université Laval obtained with the Michigan Microwave
Canopy Scattering Model (MIMICS)
σ° σ°
dB dB
Cvv CHH
Incident angle (θ) degrees Incident angle (θ) degrees
Volumetric soil
moisture
content (g/cm3) Ls = 5 cm, s = 0.5 cm
mv = 0.05 Small perturbations model used (for smooth surfaces)
mv = 0.15 The two surface roughness parameters are:
s = rms surface height (cm) (vertical character of the soil surface)
mv = 0.25 Ls = large-scale correlation length (cm) horizontal character of the soil surface)
mv = 0.35
mv = 0.45 Reference: Touré, A., K.P.B. Thomson, G. Edwards, R.J. Brown and B.Brisco, 1991
mv = 0.55

Surface Roughness Sensitivity
Results from the Université Laval obtained with the Michigan Microwave
Canopy Scattering Model (MIMICS)
σ° σ°
dB dB
Cvv CHH
Incident angle (θ) degrees Incident angle (θ) degrees
RMS surface
height Ls = 5 cm, mv = 0.1 cm
s = 0.5 cm Small perturbations model used (for smooth surfaces)
s = 1.5 cm mv = volumetric moisture content (g/cm3)
s = 2.5 cm The two surface roughness parameters are:
s = rms surface height (cm) (vertical character of the soil surface)
s = 3.5 cm Ls = large-scale correlation length (cm) (horizontal character of the soil surface)
s = 4.5 cm
s = 5.5 cm Reference: Touré, A., K.P.B. Thomson, G. Edwards, R.J. Brown and B.Brisco, 1991

QUANTITATIVE SOIL MOISTURE
ESTIMATION
RADARSAT Images
Standard Mode Beam 2
Dry conditions Wet conditions

May 5, 1996 May 15, 1996
Source: Pultz, T.J., Y. Crevier, B. Brisco, R.J. Brown and Q.H.J. Gwyn, 1997. Soil Moisture Estimation with
RADARSAT; Proceedings, International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE), 22-25 Sept. 1997, London,
UK, p. 143-148

Quantitative Soil Moisture Estimation
Regression of RADARSAT Backscatter
Carp River Watershed
corrected for Incident Angle May 5, 1996 Asc. and May 15, 1996 Desc.
versus Range of
Soil Moisture in the top 3 cm Date Variable* R observed values Incident Angle
05-May-96 0-3 cm Mv 0.83 19-50% (31%) 29
0-5 cm Mv 0.82 19-42% (23%) 29
Regression coefficient = 0.88 0-10 cm Mv 0.84 21-47% (26%) 29
0-3 cm Mv,
& RMS 0.91 11-20 mm 29
15-May-96 0-3 cm Mv 0.27 22-35% (13%) 26-27
0-5 cm Mv 0.49 18-29% (11%) 26-27
Observed σ ° Values
0-10 cm Mv 0.4 24-34% (10%) 26-27

0-3 cm Mv,
& RMS 0.39 9-19 mm 26-27
May 5 and 15 0-3 cm Mv 0.88 19-50% (31%) 26-29
0-3 cm Mv,
& RMS 0.83 9-19 mm 26-29
Regression * Single (Mv) or mulitiple (Mv and RMS) variable regression
and 95% Mv = Volumetric soil moisture content (%)
confidence
interval
in top 0-3 cm, 0-5 cm or 0-10 cm of soil
RMS = Root mean square height [Measure of surface roughness]
R = Regression coefficient
Predicted σ ° Values
The strongest relationship between radar backscatter and soil moisture was observed with the 0-3 cm volumetric soil
moisture. Regression coefficient increased from R=.66 to R=.88, after the inclusion of a first-order correction for
incident angle.
Source: Pultz, T.J., Y. Crevier, B. Brisco, R.J. Brown and Q.H.J. Gwyn, 1997.
C-band Regression Results
(Backscatter Versus Surface Soil Moisture and Roughness)
Data from CCRS ground-based scatterometer
Regression
Polarization Model Variables θ R*
Model Type
HH Simple Soil moisture (0-2.5 cm) 20º 0.63
50º Not significant
Simple Roughness 20º 0.38
50º 0.90
Multiple Soil Moisture and roughness 20º 0.77
50º 0.93
VV Simple Soil moisture (0-2.5cm) 20º 0.59
50º 0.33
50º 0.78
Multiple Soil moisture and roughness 20º 0.75
50º 0.88
HV Simple Soil moisture (0-2.5cm) 20º 0.62
50º Not significant
50º 0.76
Multiple Soil Moisture and roughness 20º 0.91
50º 0.83
Source: McNairn et al.,

* significant at p1996
< 0.05 bare soil *significant at α < 0.05
source: McNairn et al., 1996

Recommended Radar Configurations
• Incident angle
• Steeper angles minimize roughness contributions
• Correction factor required when combining data sets with
different incident angles
• Imaging mode
• Wide, Standard and Fine modes are most suitable for field
based information
• ScanSAR provides regional moisture estimates

Implications for Data Acquisition
• Timing
• Soil moisture conditions are very dynamic and timing of
acquisitions is very important, particularly if tied with field
measurements
• Ascending and descending acquisitions will have different
temperatures and moisture conditions
• Obtain climate data to determine environmental conditions
at time of overpass
• Moisture content of frozen soil cannot be measured with
microwaves
• Penetration depth
• Depends on moisture conditions and incident angle
• Important to understand penetration depth for modelling purposes
Wetlands Mapping
• Canopy architecture important in backscatter
• Corner reflector effect between underlying water

and vegetation important in wetland discrimination
• Wetlands...
• Improve water quality and groundwater recharge
• Support a diverse wildlife habitat and unique vegetation
• Maintain a balanced hydrological system
• Act as indicators of environmental health

Mississippi River Flood April 7, 1998
RADARSAT F5F Incident Angle: 45.6° - 47.8° Ascending
Rivière des Outaouais
Data received and interpreted by the

Processed and distributed by RADARSAT International  1998 Canadian Space Agency

Wetlands Mapping
• Incident angle
– Angles in the mid-range are best to ensure that both direct
canopy and canopy-water interactions are detected
• Imaging mode
– Most wetlands require only local coverage
– Standard and Fine modes provide most detail
Implications for Data Acquisition

– Rain and dew affect absolute backscatter and can
significantly degrade contrast among targets

Flood Mapping
• Specular reflection from water produces dark return

• Corner reflector effect highlights flooded vegetation
Applications in flooding monitoring

• Mapping flood extent and duration
• Monitoring of lands flooded throughout the flood period
• Flood damage assessment
• Mapping inundated vegetation

Flood Mapping
• Imaging mode
• Wide, Standard or Fine for local area coverage
• ScanSAR for regional coverage
• Incident angle
• Shallow angles provide best contrast between land and
water (water surface becomes more specular and these
angles enhance roughness associated with land surfaces)
• Intermediate angles are a good compromise when mapping
surface water and flooded vegetation

Flood Mapping
• Timing
• Extremely critical for mitigation activities and relief efforts
• Less critical for refinement of prediction models and damage
assessment.
• Wind can increase backscatter from flooded surfaces due to
increased roughness
• Wet snow appears very dark and can cause confusion with
flooded areas

Flood Monitoring
Red River, Manitoba Spring 1996
March 23, 1996 April 25, 1996 May 09, 1996

RADARSAT S1 ascending RADARSAT S1 descending RADARSAT S3 descending
A During the acquisition on March 23, the site was

B The combination of above normal snow precipitation
covered by a thick layer of snow. The air tempterature
and late spring runoff created optimal conditions for the
was below the freezing point creating dry snow
development of a flood event on the Red River. The
conditions transparent to the microwave. The ground
flood extent on the April 25 and May 9 images is
was also frozen during the acquisition, which explains
identified by the darker tones. The very bright features
the lack of contrast between features on the image.
are classified as flooded standing vegetation.

Source: Pultz, T.J., Yves Crevier, 1996.
Flood Monitoring
Red River, Manitoba Spring 1996
C A color composite image was created

using the May 9, April 25 and March 23
images. This RADARSAT color
combination is showing the evolution of
the flood during a 2 week period. The
dark blue tones are classified as the
common flood area on the two dates.
The red features, located on the west side
of the Red River, are identiifed as the
flooded area on the early date. The
blue/green surfaces, north of Morris, are
flooded areas only on the later date. The
yellow rectangle is the levee-protected
town of Morris, located approximately 60
km south of Winnipeg. This example
demonstrates the strong potential of
RADARSAT for flood extent mapping,
damage assessment and flood
monitoring.
Source: Pultz, T.J., Yves Crevier, 1996. "Early Demonstration of RADARSAT for Applications in
Hydrology". Third International Workshop on Applications of Remote Sensing in Hydrology,
Greenbelt, Maryland. October 16-18, pp.271-282.

SNOW AREAL EXTENT DELINEATION
USING MULTI-DATE RADARSAT DATA
DRY SNOW COVER
RADARSAT-1 image
 Canadian Space Agency

Date: January 12, 1996
Acquisition: 17:07 local time
Region: Ottawa, On. Canada
Beam mode: STANDARD
Beam postion: S7
Incident angle: 45° - 49°
Orbit: ASCENDING
WET SNOW COVER

RADARSAT-1 image
 Canadian Space Agency

Reference: Pultz T. J.
Date: January 19, 1996
and Crevier Y., 1996 Acquisition: 17:07 local time
Estimation of Snow Region: Ottawa, On. Canada
Areal Extent Using Beam mode: STANDARD
RADARSAT Data Beam postion: S6
Incident angle: 41° - 46°
Orbit: ASCENDING
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/
ccrs/comvnts/rsic/2401/
2401ap4e.html
Hydrology Applications Laboratory

Distributed Hydrological Model
Models simulate the following
hydrological processes: PRECIPITATION
• Interception
• Precipitation
• Snowcover and Snowmelt
• Evapotranspiration
• Infiltration SNOW ON
GROUND
• Groundwater flows EVAPOTRAN-
SPIRATION
PRODUCTION
• Interflow and baseflow FUNCTION
• Overland and channel routing

• Surface storage
TRANSFER
Jobin, D.I., T.J.Pultz, 1996. "Assessment of three FUNCTION
Distributed hydrological models for use with remotely
sensed inputs". Third International Workshop on
Applications of Remote Sensing in Hydrology,
Greenbelt, Maryland. October 16-18, pp. 109-130. HYDROTEL Model - developed by the Institute
de la recherche scientific - Eau, Quebec
Distributed Hydrological Models
• Distributed models use a finite element

approach to conceptually represent the
physical system. They already are used in
other water resources disciplines (atmospheric
& hydraulic modelling).
• Scalability, System (Ecology) Integration,

Maximize informational content of spatially
distributed datasets.

Hydrology
RADARSAT Recommendations
Preferred Mode and
Application Advantages Disadvantages
Incident Angles
Timeliness Linear Calibration; Vegetation &

Soil Moisture S1 / S2 (<30o)
Relationship Roughness
Level 2+ Land Cover

Good Separability of
Classes more difficult
Land Cover & Wetlands Mid to Shallow Level 1 Land Cover
(combining with optical
Classes
data improves results)
Timeliness; Water
Wind (Shallow);
Flood Mapping Time Dependent Specular; Flooded Veg.;
Vegetation (Steep)
Sensitivity
Steep (Wet Snow)

Snow Mapping Timeliness Temperature
Shallow (Dry Snow)

Applications in
Land Use & Land Cover

CanadaCanada
Canada
Land Use & Land Cover Applications
The way the people use the land is strongly influenced by the
history and cultural characteristics of a region.
RADARSAT multi-temporal colour composites
RADARSAT Fine R:Jun 28, 1997 G:Jul 05, 1997 B:Jul 22, 1997 RADARSAT S7 R:Sept. 6, 1997 G:Feb 21, 1998 B:Mar 17, 1998
Carmen, Manitoba (Canada): Artigas Department (Uruguay):

Regular pattern of agricultural land use Irregular pattern of agricultural land use
and land cover and land cover

Applications in
• Primary level mapping, for example:
• forest, agriculture, water, urban, wetland, and barren land
• Monitoring of changes, for example:
• changes along the fringes between urban and rural
• deforestation and reforestation
• disaster impact assessment
• Sources of information for environmental protection
and natural resource management, for example:
• impacts of access roads in remote areas
• encroachment into conservation areas
• coastal erosion
• unplanned colonization
• construction on flood plains

Applications in
Land use and land cover mapping and monitoring are
required for many purposes, e.g.:
• local and regional planning
• environmental impact assessment
• distribution of disaster relief
• compliance monitoring
• monitoring the effects of climate change
• policy development
• wildlife management

Land use and land cover applications
~ Primary level mapping ~
TIERRA DEL FUEGO, CHILE
Feb 12, 1997 RADARSAT-1 Beam S5
Very short
prairie
grasslands
Bushes and shrubs

on damp soil
Descending pass
(west-looking)
Forest lands
Display Pixel Spacing = 81 m Mature forest

Sub Scene
Source: Castro Ríos, R., M. Espinosa Toro, 1999 http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/internat/glbsar2/imagery/chi/chi_1e.html

~ Orientation effects (streets) ~
Visual interpretation of single date ROSARIO, ARGENTINA
image
In the wetland complex,
• water, flooded vegetation, wetland
associations, and upland vegetation
In the urban area,

• very bright returns, due to corner
reflections which occur when the radar
beam is orthogonal to the street direction
• variations in tone can also indicate
differences in construction material and
housing density
In the dryland agricultural areas

• dark tones -> bare, dry fields such as
pasture or harvested crops
• intermediate tones -> forage and grain
crops such as wheat or soybeans
• bright tones -> broad-leafed high biomass
crops like canola.
Source: Cotlier, C. G., A. Ravenna y M. F. Huisman 1999 RADARSAT-1 Mode F1 acquired April 5, 1997
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/internat/glbsar2/imagery/arg/arg_29e.html
Coastal Guyana
RADARSAT-1 Beam S7 Asc. Apr.12, 1996
Source:
Singhroy V., 1996
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing Kilometres

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA)  Canadian Space Agency, 1996

Agricultural Land Cover Mapping
~ Multipolarimetric Data ~
CV-580 C-band SAR, South of Ottawa, 9 July 1998
Linear Polarization Composite: Red = HH; Green = HV; Blue = VV
Alfalfa
Wheat
Barley Corn Soybeans
Multipolarimetric data provides improved land use/cover monitoring capabilities

http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/radarsat/r2demo/demo5/oviewe.html
Geological Land Cover Mapping
~ Integration of RADARSAT and airborne
gamma-ray data ~
The gamma-ray data
provided information about
near surface geology. The
texture in the SAR image
allowed detection of subtle
features related to lithologic
domains associated with
known gold deposits.
The RADARSAT image also
enhanced structural features,
most of which were
orthogonal to the radar
illumination.
Potassium - K (%)
Thorium - eTh (ppm)
Uranium - eU (ppm)
Source: Pedroso, E.C., B. Rivard, A.P. Crósta, C.R. De Souza Filho, F.P. de Miranda, 2001

~ Change detection ~
Iguazú Falls Area

(Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay) Brazil
Multi-temporal data integration

highlights changes in land
cover within a specific time Paraguay
period. Grey indicates no
change. Colours in agricultural
areas are related to crop
rotation. Forest harvesting and
differences in water levels
 Canadian Space Agency, 1997, 1998, 1999

among the three years were
also detected.
Multi-temporal data integration
RADARSAT-1 S7 desc.
Red = May 1997
Blue = May 1998
Green = May 1999 Argentina
Image enhancement by CCRS; Images courtesy of RADARSAT International

Evaluation of the Impact of El Niño
Land cover and land use
Mangrove
Shrimp cultivation (Active)
Mangrove ecosystem,
Tumbes, Peru
Shrimp cultivation (In-active)
Arborescent matorral
Matorral
Arbor. matorral - Cultivated land
Matorral - Pasture
Matorral - Cultivated land
Cultivated land 1
Cultivated land 2
Saline areas
Playas and sand banks Land cover and land use map
ean
Urban areas
Waterbodies
Walls
Airport Pa
cifi
cO
c
created by visual
Matorral = sclerophyllous scrub
interpretation of the 1997
RADARSAT-1 image
Scale
Produced by : Lab. of Applications of Remote Sensing and GIS, Faculty of Forest Science,
Universidad Nacional Agraria - La Molina Date: May 1999
Multi-temporal data integration -

RADARSAT-1 S6 images acquired
June 1997 and June 1998
Red: brighter tone in 1997 image than in 1998
(changes related to flooding, salinity, sedimentation)
Green: brighter tone in 1998 image than in 1997 (mainly
changes in forest foliage)
Black and white: no change Source: Huerta Sánchez, P., V.Barrena Arroyo e C.Garnica Philipps, 1999

Impact in Honduras
of Flooding Resulting from
Hurricane Mitch
Hurricane Mitch was one

of the most destructive
storms to hit Central
America. It peaked on
October 26 and 27, 1998
with sustained winds in
excess of 280 km/h. On Flooded Areas
October 30, Mitch made
landfall over Honduras. Flooded
Vegetation
This image shows the
flooding in the Rivers and
Chamelecon River Basin Lakes
after Hurricane Mitch. Roads

RADARSAT S2
October 30, 1998 at 06:47 local time
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/em/disasters/atmsphre/mitche.html
Monitoring flood impact in China
Farms inside dykes
Around Poyang
Lake, dykes were
build to hold
back water and
create farmland.
Pre-flood Landsat TM image April 3, 1998 566 lines x 1241 pixels
When the Areainside

Farms of Interest
dykes
Yangtze River Peak
areFlood
floodedseason
flooded in 1998,
water overflowed
the dykes and
severe flooding
occurred in this
area.
Maximum flood level Chinese Airborne L-band SAR image August 2, 1998
Source: Shao Yun, Institute of Remote Sensing Applications (IRSA), Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing, China.
Monitoring land use change
~ Poyang Lake, China ~
The approach to management of the Yangtze floodplain, known as the “reconstruction principle”,
encourages activities and land uses that will reduce future flood damage. Returning farmland to
the Poyang Lake reduces potential crop losses. Also the lake’s role as a reservoir increases;
more water is collected and stored and flood levels are reduced.
Productive farms
surrounded Farms inside dykes
by dykes
are now flooded
(paddy rice fields)
and not in
production
Landsat TM image April 3, 1998 Landsat TM image Oct. 9, 2000

400 lines x 400 pixels 400 lines x 400 pixels
Source: Shao Yun, Institute of Remote Sensing Applications (IRSA), Chinese Academy of Sciences. Beijing, China.
Agricultural Colonization
ProRADAR - Humaita Settlement, Acre, Brazil 98-May-15
RADARSAT-1 Standard Mode Beam 5 (θ = 36°-42°) Resolution: 24.2m (Rg) x 27m (Az)
Changing
Land Use
Boundaries of
the areas
cleared for
settlement in can
be used to infer

land use change.
Source: Kux H.J.H. , J. R. dos Santos,

F. Ahern, R. W. Pietsch, M. S. Lacruz,
1998 Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS)

~ Recommended Radar Configurations ~
• Incident angle
• Large angles provide better discrimination (less soil
contribution)
• At these angles, more interaction with vegetation
occurs and information is provided on vegetation
structure
• Imaging Mode (ScanSAR, Wide, Standard, Fine)
• Depends on application and desired coverage
(local or regional). Always a trade-off between
image resolution and swath coverage

~ Recommended Radar Configurations ~

• Look direction
• Orientation (streets) and row direction (agriculture)
effects can be significant at or near perpendicular look
directions
• For crops, row effects are prominent at incident angles
around 40o and at low vegetation densities

~ Important Considerations for Image Acquisition ~
Acquisition Planning : Considerations
• Rain affects absolute backscatter and can significantly degrade
contrast among targets
• Collection of meteorological data during and prior to acquisition
campaign will help identify these effects
• Select time of acquisition (ascending vs descending
pass) to reduce the effects of dew and wind
• Select configuration taking into consideration
vegetation type, distribution and phenological stage
and their effects on backscatter

~ Important Considerations for Image Acquisition ~
Data Integration : Considerations
• Change detection
• Important to isolate non-target effects (differences in incident angle,
environmental effects, calibration effects …) to ensure that backscatter
changes can be attributed to changes in the state of the target
• Multiple data sets
• Multi-temporal data sets are often required
• Differences in incident angle within a data set must be accounted for in
processing and analysis, particularly for extraction of quantitative values
and for modeling,
• Integrating optical and SAR data can provide useful results

Mapping
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Mapping Applications
Outline
• Orthorectification
• Data fusion
• Radargrammetry (Stereo)
See also “Applications of SAR Interferometry”

Orthorectification
• Background
• Mapping applications using
orthoimages

Background
• Mathematical modelling is needed to transform the
original image into an orthoimage in the cartographic
projection of the user.
• Mathematical model is the radargrammetric method
(Earth geometry, platform, known sensor).
• Ground Control Points (GCPs) are used to precisely
establish the transformation.
• Terrain elevation information is used for the
orthorectification.
• Resampling algorithm is cubic convolution or an
adaptive filter.

Topographic Displacement
Radar Sensor
apparent
viewing
θ direction
mountain top

projection of
mountaintop
radar ground range
projection of
mountaintop
airborne
θ
satellite
Source: T. Toutin, 1992, MOS and SEASAT Image Geometric Correction IEEE-TGARS, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 603-609.

Principle of Image Geocoding
Grey value Interpolation (Resampling)
Radar Image
Map to Image
Grey Value Assignment
Transformation
Digital Elevation
Model
Geocoded
Image

Georeferenced Images
image
image
map
vector
grid
Georeferenced
images
Source: PCI Geomatics

Data Integration and Fusion
• Image Maps
• Integration of topographic features with an
orthoimage
– example: Chicoutimi, Lac-Saint-Jean
• Extraction of planimetric features from an
orthoimage (road lake, power line, railway etc.)
• Data fusion
• Different sources data are registered [GIS, digital
maps, grids and other orthoimages (VIR and
SAR)]
– example: Charlevoix, Canada
• Data fusion usually increases interpretability
3-D Image Map

Fusion of orthoimages
Charlevoix, Canada
Red: TM-C7 Green: TM-C4 Blue: ERS-1

Radargrammetry (Stereo)
• Stereo SAR
• Mapping applications using
stereo SAR

Stereo SAR
• Stereo viewing reproduces the natural process of
stereo vision
• Natural stereo process needs two images acquired
from different positions
• Theoretical error modelling accounts for geometric
error propagation and not radiometric image content
• Radiometric disparities have more impact on SAR
than on VIR imagery
• Compromise has to be reached between geometric
and radiometric disparities

Geometry - Stereo
Extreme Configurations
Opposite Side Same Side
SOLUTION
Large geometric disparities Small geometric disparities

Large radiometric disparities Small radiometric disparities

Radar Stereoscopy
General Guidelines for DEM Extraction
Terrain Flat Rolling Mountainous
Slopes 0°-10° 10°-30° 30°-50°
Radiometric
disparities Small Medium Large
Geometric
disparities Large Medium Small
Opposite side, Same side, large Same side, small

Compromises small look angles intersection angle intersection angle and
large look angles
S1 asc - S1 desc S7 - S1 (asc or desc) S7 - S4 (asc or desc)
Stereo
RADARSAT
F1 asc - F1 desc F5 - F1 (asc or desc) F4 - F1 (asc or desc)
Configurations
Source : Toutin, IEEE-TGARS, 37(5):2227-2238, 1999

Evaluation of RADARSAT Stereo
Results (manual image matching)
Stereo Look Intersection Type LE90 Minimum Maximum
Mode Resolution Bias
Pair Angles Angle Of Relief 90% Value Value
F1 asc Fine 9m x 8m 37º - 40º 8º Low 21m -7.2m -44.6m 42.6m
F5 asc. Fine 7m x 8m 45º - 48º Moderate 39m -5.5m -78.5m 70.7m
S4 desc. Standard 26m x 27m 34º - 40º 10º Low 24m 7.8m -36.4m 53.8m
S7 desc. Standard 20m x 27m 45º - 49º Moderate 35m 1.4m -58.8m 74.9m
S7 desc. Standard 20m x 27m 45º - 49º 11º Low 26m -1.4m -49.1m 46.6m
EH6 desc Extended 17m x 27m 57º - 59º Moderate 42m 8.6m -78.8m 86.1m
EH3 desc Extended 18m x 27m 51º - 55º Moderate 37m 0.4m -69.1m 74.4m
S7 asc. Standard 20m x 27m 45º - 49º 17º Low 21m -2.4m -40.5m 36.4m
S2 asc. Standard 24m x 27m 24º - 31º Moderate 41m 6.3m -94.5m 69.9m
F4 desc. Fine 8m x 8m 43º - 46º 89º Low 12m -5.6m -27.7m 21.8m
F5 asc. Fine 7m x 8m 45º - 48º Moderate 47m 11.7m -66.1m 109.7m
F4 filter Fine 8m x 6m 43º - 46º 89º Low 14m -7.8m -30.0m 28.1m
F5 filter Fine 7m x 8m 45º - 48º Moderate 44m 6.6m -97.0m 114.3m
Toutin Th., 1999 Radar Stereo Pairs for DEM Generation RADARSAT for Stereoscopy;
Geomatics Info Magazine International, Vol. 13, No 1, 1999, pp. 6-9
Evaluation of RADARSAT Stereo
Results (automatic image matching)
Stereo Vertical Type of LE90 Bias Minimum Maximum
Pair Parallax Relief 90% Value Value
Ratio Confidence
F5-F1 0.31 Low 12 m -13.3 m -33.2 m 8.4 m
Same side Moderate 36 m 4.2 m -39.6 m 95.0 m
Entire DEM 25 m -1.1 m -89.1 m 95.0 m
S7-H6 0.31 Low 44 m -18.9 m -89.4 m 57.5 m
Same side Moderate 58 m -77.1 m -153.4 m -3.0 m
Entire DEM 85 m -55.9 m -270.0 m 142.1 m
S4-S7 0.39 Low 24 m 25.8 m -16.1 m 58.6 m
Same side Moderate 46 m -6.5 m -81.2 m 42.6 m
Entire DEM 45 m -1.3 m -126.0 m 150.3 m
S4-H3 0.59 Low 23 m 11.7 m -101.7 m 42.0 m
Entire DEM 54 m -21.9 m -161.8 m 82.0 m
S1-S4 0.97 Low 15 m -17.1 m -40.2 m 16.2 m
Entire DEM 23 m -11.9 m -81.0 m 82.0 m
S2-S7 0.99 Low 16 m -19.3 m -44.2 m 13.0 m
Entire DEM 39 m -33.9 m -148.7 m 61.0 m
S1-S7 1.37 Low 11 m -3.7 m -22.0 m 25.3 m
Entire DEM 14 m -5.0 m -61.0 m 71.3 m
F4-F5 1.97 Low 16 m -15.0 m -108.6 m 19.1 m
Opposite Moderate 107 m -7.4 m -179.0 m 199.0 m
Side Entire DEM 34 m -11.8 m -312.7 m 199.0 m
F4-F5 1.97 Low 21 m -17.4 m -52.4 m 36.8 m
Opp. Side Moderate 77 m -2.2 m -132.2 m 132.8 m
Filtered Entire DEM 47 m -14.3 m -289.5 m 260.1 m
Toutin Th. , A.L. Gray 2000, State-of-the-art of extraction of elevation data using satellite SAR data;
ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing , Vol. 55 , No 1 , 2000 , pp. 13-33
Stereo SAR Applications
• Stereo mapping (planimetry):
• Extraction of map features: road, lake, urban, power line,
railway etc.
référence : Th. Toutin, Potential of Road Stereo Mapping with RADARSAT
Images, Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, Sept. 2001,
Vol. 67 no. 9, pp.1077-1084
• Digital Elevation Model of Pastos Grandes Caldera volcanic

region, S.W. Bolivia
• DEM generation (S3 Desc. / S6, Desc.)
– example: DEM, Bolivia
• Contour line creation
– example: DEM with contours, Bolivia
• Analysis and interpretation
• Perspective viewing
– example: perspective image, Bolivia
Examples of DEM Applications
• Chromo-stereoscopic images (Intensity/Hue/

Saturation colour space and 3-D viewing)
• a relief image with colour-coded elevations. The
colours were derived in the IHS colour space and
mapped to Red/Green/Blue (RGB) colour space
– example: chromo-stereoscopic image, Bolivia
• Perspective-view images
• orthoimage draped over Digital Elevation Model
– example: perspective image, Bolivia
• Digital Elevation Model from Fine mode RADARSAT

images of Espíritu Santo Region, Bolivia
– example: stereo image pair, chromo-stereoscopic image

Digital Elevation Model of Multi-Andean Project, Bolivia
Lizeca J. L. ,
W.M. Moon,
C.A. Hutton,
L. Wu,
C.W. Lee, 1999
http://dweb.ccrs.nr
can.gc.ca/ccrs/db/b Relative elevations
iblio/papere.cfm?Bi Min. = 350 m
blioID=4734 Max. = 3100 m
Stereo Image pair: 98-Aug-23 (S3, Desc) & 97-Mar-27 (S6, Desc)
Kilometres
Miles

DEM with Contour Overlay of Multi-Andean Project, Bolivia
Contour Interval 100 Metres

Kilometres
Miles

Chromo-Stereoscopic Image
Descending Pass (west looking)

IHS = RADARSAT & DEM
I: 97-Mar-27 (S6, Desc) H: DEM S: CONSTANT (gray value: 150)

Perspective Viewing Image
Lizeca J. L. , W.M. Moon,

C.A. Hutton, L. Wu,
C.W. Lee, 1999
Ortho colour image (IHS) draped over DEM
http://dweb.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/
ccrs/db/biblio/papere.cfm?Bi
blioID=4734  1997 Canadian Space Agency

RADARSAT -1 Stereo Image Pair
~ Espíritu Santo, Bolivia ~
97-Jul-25 F2 Desc. 97-Jun-14 F5 Desc.
Descending Passes (right looking) →

Area of interest: 16°55’S 65°50’W and 17°15’S 65°25’W

Chromo-stereoscopic Image
~ Espíritu Santo, Bolivia ~
Descending Passes (right looking) →

N
DEM generated by
Technologies Ltd.
Metres above
sea level
3100 m
IHS - RADARSAT & DEM
I: RADARSAT
H: DEM
1725 m S: CONSTANT
(Gray value: 150)
Pixel spacing: 6.25 m

350 m
More Examples of DEM Applications
• Digital Elevation Model, Coclé Region, Panama,
generated with PCI OrthoEngine software using
satellite orbital data and ground control points
acquired from 1:50,000 scale topographic maps
• RADARSAT stereo image pair
• Digital Elevation Model
• Chromo-stereoscopic image
• Perspective view
• Digital Elevation Model, Colombia, produced using
Intermap Technologies’ SATMAP software
technology
• Orthorectified image
• Chromo-stereoscopic image

RADARSAT stereo image pair
Coclé Region, Panama
RADARSAT-1 Image S4 Asc, 05-May-99 RADARSAT-1 Image S6 Asc, 08-May-97
GlobeSAR-2 Panama project

Juan de Dios Villa Mata
Departamento de Exploraciones Geologico-Mineras
Direccion General de Recursos Minerales

Digital
Elevation
Model
Coclé Region,
Panama
Produced from
stereo image pair
08-May-97 (Asc, S6)
05-May 99 (Asc, S4)

Chromo-stereoscopic image
~ Coclé Region, Panama ~
N
Intensity: May 8, 1997 RADARSAT image
Hue: DEM
Saturation: Constant (150)

Perspective view
~ Coclé Region, Panama ~
Metres above sea level
0 630 1260

SATMAP Orthorectified Image
~ Volcano del Ruíz, Colombia ~
RADARSAT-1 orthorectified image Chromo-stereoscopic image

Manizales Region, Colombia DEM - 50 m postings
June 22, 1997 (S7, Asc)
Second Image : 24 Aug. 1997 (S4, Asc) http://www.intermaptechnologies.com/html/mapp%5Fsatmap.htm
DEM & IHS generated by
GlobeSAR-2 project COL10 - Jaime E. Jaramillo Echeverri, Gustaveo A. Ochoa
Villegas, Centro de Estudios Regionales Cafeteros y Empresariales (CRECE)
and Olga P. Bohorquez, Maria L. Nomsalve, INGEMINAS
Technologies Ltd.
SAR Ocean Imaging
and Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
SAR Ocean Imaging and
Applications
Outline
• Ocean-SAR interaction
• Ocean SAR applications
• Ship detection
• Oil spill and natural slick detection
• Extraction of wind and wave speed and direction
• Mapping of mesoscale ocean features
• Mapping of atmospheric processes
• Mapping coastal zones
• Suggested RADARSAT beam modes
• Complementary ocean sensors

Ocean - SAR Interaction
• SAR backscatter influenced entirely by ocean surface

roughness -- no radar penetration
• Backscatter strongly related to SAR incident angle

and wind speed / direction
• Wide range of backscatter levels for ocean surfaces

• e.g., -40 dB < σ° < + 10 dB

Ocean - SAR Interaction (continued)
• Bragg scattering model often used to describe SAR

scattering over oceans
• appropriate for intermediate incident angles
(approx. 20º-60°)
• describes resonant scattering from waves on the order of the
wavelength of the radar (C-band ≈ 5cm)
– at C-band, these are commonly wind generated
• Higher wind speeds typically increase ocean surface

roughness, which increases backscatter
• Ocean backscatter typically decreases with

increasing incident angle

Hybrid Ocean Backscatter Model
based on CMOD_IFR2
CVV; phi=0 deg; U=10 m/s
CVV; phi=0 deg; U= 4 m/s
CHH; phi=0 deg; U=10 m/s
CHH; phi=0 deg; U= 4 m/s
σ0 (dB)
Noise floor
Incident Angle (deg)

Source: Gray, A.L, P.W. Vachon, C.A. Bjerkelund and M.J. Manore, GER’97
Effect of
Incident Angle
on Ocean
Backscatter
Near Range
West Coast of Vancouver.

RADARSAT ScanSAR Narrow
(Near Range Portion of Image)
Aug. 3, 1996

• Backscatter is influenced by direction of the wind

• higher backscatter when the radar looks in the same direction
as the wind (upwind, downwind)
• lower backscatter when radar looks across the wind direction
• Variations in wind speed modulate the roughness of

the Bragg scale surface waves → results in local
changes in backscatter
• Detection of ocean features decreases with high sea

states due to higher level of clutter

RADARSAT-1: West Coast of Vancouver Island (N48.6° W125.4°)
Fig. 1 : 22 July 1997 14:21 UTC S7 Desc. Fig. 2 : 12 August 1997 02:00 UTC W1 Asc.
Fig. 3 : 8 August 1997 14:26 UTC S6 Desc
Fig. 1: Large incident angle with low wind speed

θ = 47.3°, σ° = -27, U = 2 m/s
Fig. 2: Small incident angle with low wind speed

θ = 23.9°, σ° = -9.6 dB, U = 5 m/s
Fig. 3: Large incident angle with higher wind speed

θ = 43.8°, West of Front σ° = -16 dB, U = 11 m/s
East of Front σ° = -24 dB
Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources

Vachon Canada
P. W. and R. Olsen, 1998
• Bragg Scattering is modulated by three principal

mechanisms that can enhance or suppress average
backscatter of ocean surface:
• tilt modulation
– change in local incident angle
• hydrodynamic modulation
– alteration of Bragg scale waves due to surface currents
• damping by surfactants
– suppression of Bragg scale waves

Ocean SAR Scattering
BRAGG SCATTERING
X
=L
SI
N
θ
TO SATELLITE
BRAGG SCATTERING WHEN:

2x = 2L SIN θ = n λ, n = 1, 2, 3…
RADAR SHORT WAVES

SIGNAL WIND ON A
LONG WAVE
MOVING
CE
FACETS
FA
R
SU
Source: NASA

• Additional influence on ocean backscatter is

“Velocity Bunching”
• artifact of SAR system caused by moving ocean surface
• moving waves introduce Doppler offsets and result in azimuth
displacement ‘errors’ in images
• displacements can combine in non-linear fashion and cannot
be removed
• most prevalent for azimuth travelling waves
• Velocity bunching does not change average

backscatter; it introduces only local variations due to
location displacements
Velocity Bunching Illustration
u + ve u - ve
Orbital
Velocity
“Linear”
Source :
Vachon P. W.,
J. W. Campbell,
“Non Linear”
et F.W. Dobson,
1999

Ocean Features - Scotian Shelf
RADARSAT 1 Beam W1 Desc. March 30, 1996
 CSA 1996 Kilometres

Ocean SAR Applications
SAR is capable of providing operational information for:

• Ship detection
• Oil spill and natural surfactants monitoring
• Extraction of wind and wave vectors (speed and direction)
– forecast models
– search and rescue
– oil spill clean-up
• Ocean mesoscale features
– circulation models
– search and rescue
– fisheries resource management
– oil spill clean-up
• Detection of marine atmospheric boundary layer phenomena
• Mapping coastal zone features and processes

Ship Detection
• Ship detection involves the identification of point

targets in a radar background
• ships are bright point targets in an ocean clutter background
• Detection dependent on
• sea state
• incident angle
• vessel size, orientation, speed, etc.

Ship Detection (continued)
• Sea State
• at high sea states:
– ocean clutter increases and ship detection is reduced
• C-HH has lower clutter signature than C-VV

– for similar wind + wave conditions + resolution
→ C-HH is better than C-VV
• Incident Angle
• ocean clutter is lower with increasing incident angle
• detection improves with increasing incident angle
• greater contrast is due to higher signal-to-noise (ship-to-
clutter) ratio
• Vessel length, speed and orientation
• radar cross-section of vessel is affected by these parameters
• fishing vessels are more difficult to identify due to size

RADARSAT and Ship Detection
Ship Detection Figure of Merit
Ship
Wind speed = 10 m/s
FOM (m)
Ship
Ocean
Incident angle (deg)

Relative comparison of RADARSAT beam modes for ship
83 m Coast Guard Ship detection as a function of incident angle.
Standard 3 Source: Vachon P. W., J.W. Campbell, C. Bjerkelund, F.W. Dobson, M.T. Rey, 1997

Scotian Shelf
Ships Detected by Ocean Feature Workstation
RADARSAT-1 Beam Mode: S5 26-03-96
Source:
Chunchuzov I.,
P.W. Vachon, X.
Li, 2000
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/iceocn/rsatship/shipe.html
RADARSAT Ship Detection
Field Experiment off Halifax
Standard 3 March 20, 1996
Wind speed 11.2 m/s from 92 degrees
Wave Heigth 1.9 m
Canadian Coast Guard Ship

“Parizeau”
65 m
1360 tons
“Parizeau” ship Profile

Ocean Monitoring Workstation (OMW)
Case Study
RADARSAT Image
Standard 5 Acquired: Oct 07, 1998 Collocation Product
M008671, 07OCT1996 02:13:08.41000
Latitude (degrees)
Legend
Longitude (degrees)
Zoom-in of Collocation Product

M008671, 07OCT1996 02:13:08.41000
RADARSAT Subimage
Latitude (deg)
Fish Factory Trawler
Legend
Longitude (deg)

Vachon, Thomas, Cranton, Edel, Henschel, 2000
Validation statistics
Validated Detection
Beam Mode Images Negative
Positive Rate
Overall 27 174 34 84%
Least Favorable
13 95 28 77%
(S1-3,W1, W2)
ScanSAR Narrow Far 2 17 4 81%
Recommended
12 62 2 97%
(F1-5, S4-7, W3)
Summary detection statistics for Ocean Monitoring Workstation (OMW)
ship validation study
Source: Vachon, P.W., S.J. Thomas, C.J. Cranton, H.R. Edel, and M.D. Henschel, “ Validation of Ship Detection by the
RADARSAT Synthetic Aperture Radar and the Ocean Monitoring Workstation”, Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing,
Vol. 26, No. 3, 2000, pp. 200-212.

• Smallest vessel for which detection is validated
• 20 m vessel has been detected in RADARSAT Standard 7
(wind speed = 4 m/s)
• Manual and automatic detection techniques possible

• Preferred RADARSAT modes:
• W2, W3
• S4-S7
• F1-F4
• EH1-EH6
• Detection of ship wake also possible with SAR,

depending on
• ship size and speed
• wind conditions
• angle of incidence
• etc
Oil Spill and Natural Slick Detection
• Surfactants cause localized suppression of Bragg scale

waves
• SAR can identify location of oil spills and map their

extent
• cannot determine oil slick thickness
• difficulty in distinguishing between oil and “look-alikes”,
e.g., areas of low wind, grease ice and natural surfactants
• detection optimum in moderate wind conditions
– 3m/s - 10m/s

RADARSAT and Oil Spill Detection
• Since launch, RADARSAT has been effectively used in
the monitoring of several oil spills around the world
• Frequent revisit time invaluable for monitoring
movement and dispersal of spill
• Preferred RADARSAT modes:
• ScanSAR Narrow Near
• S1-S4
• W1
• Automatic detection and mapping of oil spills in SAR
imagery shows promise
• look alike targets still a difficulty in most algorithms, therefore,
only identification of ‘candidate’ oil spills is provided

SEA EMPRESS OILSPILL
MILFORD HAVEN, WALES
RADARSAT-1 22-Feb.-96
Beam Mode S1 (θ = 20° - 27°) C-HH Resolution: 26 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
← descending pass

Full Swath - Pixel Spacing: 78 m  Canadian Space Agency, 1996
Image Courtesy of RSI
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/eduref/tutorial/indexe.html Section 5.9.3

IRVING WHALE SALVAGE OPERATION
RADARSAT-1 31-July-96
Beam Mode W2 (θ = 31° - 39°) C-HH Resolution: 26.6 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Source: :
Werle, Dirk,
B. Tittley,
E. Theriault,
and B.
Whitehouse,
1997
Full Scene- Display Pixel Spacing: 113 m  1996 Canadian Space Agency
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/iceocn/irving/irvinge.html

Extraction of Wind and Wave Vectors
from SAR Data
• Assists prediction of local drift
• support search and rescue operations
• oil spill monitoring
• Used as input to atmospheric and ocean circulation
models
• weather forecasting
• fisheries resource planning
• Steeper (smaller) incident angles are preferred:
• S1-S3
• W1

Extraction of Wind Vectors
from SAR Data
• Wind vector extraction is possible based on
semi-empirical model
• e.g., HH polarization hybrid of CMOD_IFR2 model
• predicts ocean backscatter (σ°) as a function of:
– wind speed
– wind direction relative to SAR
– SAR incident angle
• Procedure
• measure backscatter (σ°) from the SAR image
• invert model to extract wind speed
• requires radiometrically calibrated data
• wind direction must be known
– can be derived from SAR imagery or from atmospheric models

Extraction of Wind Vectors
from SAR Data (continued)
• Wind direction
• from SAR image
– possible to detect wind direction in approx. 50% of images
– use wave spectral signature of boundary layer rolls
– subject of ongoing research
– advantage: sensitive to local wind direction, greater local
accuracy
• from atmospheric models
– advantage
• normally available several times/day
– disadvantages
• coarse grid spacing, not sensitive to local variations

(e.g. coastal areas)
• model output versus direct observation

Wind Speed and Wave Height
Experiment off Halifax
Standard 3 March 20, 1996
Wind speed 11.2 m/s from 92 degrees
Wave Height 1.9 m
Canadian Coast Guard Ship

“Parizeau”
65 m
1360 tones
“Parizeau” ship Profile

Vent OMW Wind
Marine Environmental Data Service

Dept. of Fisheries & Oceans
Satellite: RSAT-1
Image Type: SGF
Mode: Single Beam
Beam: S3
Date: 10:23:33 20-03-1996
Filename: dt22364-01
Ocean Monitoring 45°05’
Workstation 44°55’
(OMW) 44°45’
A1
Wind Product
x
B1
x
C1
44°35’
D1
E1
44°25’ F1
G1
H1
44°15’
atiude
L
I1
J1
K1
L1
44°05’
43°55’
www.meds-sdmm.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/
meds/Databases/Satellite/omw/ 43°45’
Products_e.htm
43°35’
43°25’
Manore, M.J., P.W. Vachon, C. Bjerkelund,
-64°30’ -64°15’ -64°00’ -63°45’ -63°30’ -63°15’ -63°00’ -62°45’ -62°30’ -62°15’ -62°00’
H.R. Edel and B. Ramsey, 1998
Longitude
Production: 15:55:56 04-01-1999
Contact: services@ottmed.meds.dfo.ca
Satlantic
Extraction of Wave Vectors
from SAR Data
• Partial information on the ocean wave directional height
spectrum can be retrieved from SAR images (i.e., a
description of the energy distribution of the waves in terms
of their components - direction and frequency or wavelength
- is determined)
• The retrieval is often carried out using model spectra to

derive a more complete wave spectrum
• The retrieved spectra may be assimilated into wave forecast

models
• Starting point: a power spectrum is extracted from the SAR

image using a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)

• Detection of range travelling waves is limited by the

resolution
• e.g. minimum detectable wave for RADARSAT
≈ 20m (Fine mode)
≈ 50m (Standard mode)
• Image spectra have 180° ambiguity in wave direction

• Ambiguity may be resolved by using multiple-look techniques

Wave Spectrum
versus
SAR Image Spectrum
Wave Buoy SAR Image Spectrum
Directional
λ = 100 m
ambiguity
λ = 200 m
AZIMUTH
RANGE
Azimuth
Source: Vachon, P.W., H.E.
Krogstad and J.S. Paterson (1994) cut-off

Wave imaging limitations:
• azimuth smearing reduces the effective azimuth resolution
– due to velocity bunching and the duration of the synthetic
aperture
• azimuth smearing imposes a lower limit on the detectability
of short azimuth travelling waves
– described as ‘azimuth cut-off’
– a function of sensor-target range (R) and platform velocity (V)
- e.g. for RADARSAT (R/V > 115s) - azimuth cut-off ≈ 200m
- e.g. for aircraft SAR (R/V ∼ 30s) - azimuth cut-off ≈ 50m
• swell is imaged best; wind seas may be distorted

• SAR image spectra may be inverted with guidance
from wave spectra from models
• SAR spectra are best for swell (e.g. λ > 200m)
• model spectra are best for wind seas (e.g. λ < 200m) and
do not have a directional ambiguity
• use an iterative approach to invert the SAR spectra
– use model spectra as first guess
– blend the image and model spectra using a SAR model and
a weighting scheme
– eliminates the 180° direction ambiguity
– Hasselmann & Hasselmann (1991)

from SAR Ocean Data
model
wave buoy first-guess
100m
200m
model + ERS
inverted spectrum
ERS image ERS forward-

spectrum mapped spectrum
Note how the ERS-1 data have modified the strength of the swell system in the inverted spectrum.
Azimuth is left to right and the circles represent 200-m (inner) and 100-m (outer) wavelengths.
Vachon, P.W., H.E. Krogstad and J.S. Paterson (1994)

RADARSAT Mapping of
Mesoscale Ocean Features
• Modulation of sea surface roughness can permit the
detection of mesoscale ocean features in SAR imagery
• e.g., fronts, eddies, current shears and internal wave patterns
• modulation of roughness can be caused by:
– surface wind stress
– wave to wave interaction and convergence
• Applications
• circulation modelling
• detection of upwelling areas for fishing
• meteorological modelling
• search and rescue
• oil spill clean-up
• coastal erosion/accretion studies.
• Low incident angle modes are best for detection
• S1-S2, W1, ScanSAR Narrow Near

South Atlantic Ocean - Argentina
Descending Pass, Right Looking

Source : Gagliardini,
D.A., J. Bava, J.A.
Milovich, et L.A. Frulla, Sept. 5, 1998, SCW
1999 RADARSAT-1
Pixel Spacing = 58.4 m

SAR Mapping of Atmospheric
Processes
• Atmospheric stability
• in an unstable atmosphere:
→ increase in atmospheric turbulence
→ increase in atmosphere-ocean friction
→ increase in short wave density
→ increase in radar backscatter
• Boundaries between stable (low backscatter) and

unstable (high backscatter) atmospheric conditions
can appear as brightness differences in RADARSAT
ocean imagery

SAR Mapping of Atmospheric Processes
(continued)
• Detection of storm cell activity
• cells appear in SAR imagery as isolated, concentric dark areas
• caused by wave-dampening effect of heavy rain and
downward turbulence
• surrounding area has brighter returns due to higher outflow
winds
• Detection of boundary layer rolls

• vertically moving air parcels in an unstable atmosphere cause
a detectable wave like pattern in SAR ocean imagery

LABRADOR SEA
RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Wide C-HH
30 Jan. 1997 21:31 UTC
ascemdomg pass
Source:
Chunchuzov I. ,
P.W. Vachon et
B. Ramsay, 2000 AVHRR image courtesy of the University of
Toronto, Department of Physics
30 Jan. 97 21:03 UTC

Mapping Coastal Zones with SAR
• Coastal zones are highly dynamic regions with a

diverse mix of land use and marine activity
• Many viewing options useful for mapping coastal

zone features and processes at a wide range of
spatial and temporal scales

Mapping Coastal Zones with SAR
(continued)
• Human activities
• coastal agriculture (e.g. rice)
• fisheries (e.g. open water and farming)
• land use planning
(e.g. monitoring urban sprawl, identification of beaches for
tourism)
• environmental impact assessment
• Natural processes
• erosion or accretion areas (e.g. shoreline change)
• shallow water bathymetry (e.g. coral reef mapping)
• intertidal vegetation (e.g. mangrove forests)
• coastal zone sensitivity mapping (e.g. identifying at-risk
shorelines for oil spill response planning)
Coastal
COCLE
Shrimp Farming
Aguadulce, Panama
Río Estero Slado
Dark ponds are

flooded. Dry ponds
GOLFO DE
PARITA are bright. Beams
separating the
ponds are visible.
Río Santa María
RADARSAT-1 S6 Ascending Pass

May 1, 1997
Resolution: 12.5 m x 12.5 m
Sub-scene
Source : GlobeSAR-2 project PAN12

HERRERA B. Cornelio Lara
Ministerio de desarrollo agropecuario,
DINAAC

Ordering Coastal Zone RADARSAT Data
• If intertidal zone is focus, tidal range and schedule

should be considered when ordering data
• Coastal zone areas where coastline is orientated
along satellite path (approx. North-South) are
susceptible to automatic gain control (AGC) effects
• When deciding between ascending or descending orbits,
keep target of interest in the near range or use appropriate
fixed AGC setting
• Higher incident angles (S6-S7, W3, F1-F5) provide
best separation of land - water and more information
regarding surface features → however, little detail
water

Recommended RADARSAT
Modes and Beams
Application Surveillance Tracking
(location of the feature of (location of the feature of interest
interest is not known) is known approximately)
Slick Detection SCNnear, SCW S1-4, W1-2
Ship Detection SCNfar, SCW W3, S4-7, F1-5, EH1-6
Oceanic Features SCNnear, (SCW) S1-4, W1-2
Atmospheric Features SCNnear, W1, SCW
Ocean Waves S1, W1, SCNnear, (SCW)
SCW in brackets signifies that only a portion of the acquired swath may be suitable.
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/iceocn/beam/beame.html

Complementary Ocean Sensors
• Ocean Colour:
• MOS-IRS (1996), SeaWiFS (1997), MODIS (1999),
• chlorophyll, currents, fronts, eddies, ice concentration, upwelling, sea
surface temperature (SST)
• Scatterometers:
• ERS-2 (1995), NSCAT (1996), QuickScat (1999)
• wind direction and speed, ice edge
• Altimeters:
• TOPEX/POSEIDON (1992), ERS-2 (1995), GEOSAT Follow-on
(1998)
• current direction + speed, wave height, wind speed
• SARs:
• ERS-2 (1995), JERS-1 (1992)
• ice type + concentration + drift, oilslicks, ocean features, ship location,
wind speed + direction
Sea Ice SAR
Applications

CanadaCanada
Canada
Sea Ice SAR Applications
Outline
• Ice information requirements
• SAR advantages
• SAR - sea ice interaction
• First year ice
• Multi-year ice
• RADARSAT and sea ice mapping

• RADARSAT sea ice applications

Information Requirements
• Interests in Sea Ice
• ship routing, navigation safety
• marine engineering (e.g. ship design, bridges, oil platforms)
• important component of aquatic ecosystem
• effects on regional and global climate
• possible indicator of climate change
• Ice information requirements

• ice edge location
• ice concentration
• ice type (thickness)
• age (first, second, multi-year)
• floe size distribution
• ice velocity
• hemispheric ice volume
Sea Ice Mapping
~ SAR Advantages ~
• Microwave
• penetration of clouds, fog
• operational, reliable imaging
• Active
• not restricted by low/no solar illumination at high latitudes
• High resolution/wide area coverage

• SAR permits high resolution from satellite altitudes
• 50km - 500km swath widths
• Information content
• can distinguish between ice and open water
– ice edge, concentration
• radar is sensitive to ice type, surface roughness
– age discrimination, ice topography

Aging Process of Sea-Ice
salinity (%) salinity (%) salinity (%)
Depth (m)
Snow
snow snow
surface 81/82 surface
83/84
surface melt snow
surface
FY ice FY ice
82/83
Ice Thickness (m)
SY ice
Cumulative
FY ice
bottom ice moves
melt out of bay
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3

growth melt growth melt growth melt
Aging Process of Sea-Ice at Mould Bay, N.W.T., October 1981 to June 1984
(adapted from Bjerkelund et al., 1985)

SAR - Sea Ice Interaction
• Ice is mixture of
• ice
• water
• salt
• brine (dissolved salt)
• air
• Physical and chemical properties of ice change over
time
• ice temperature
• ice growth/decay (thickness, strength)
• deformation
• Ice thickness
• generally increases with age
• SAR cannot directly measure ice thickness
• thickness can be estimated by identifying ice type (age)

SAR Scattering
~ First Year Sea Ice ~
• Large dielectric constant due to high salinity content
• no penetration into the FY ice volume
• sensitive primarily to surface roughness
• Smooth FY ice appears dark
• specular reflection
• Rough/deformed areas appear bright

• high surface roughness
• multi-bounce
• Brightness of ice will evolve with changing surface
characteristics
• e.g. from grease ice to pancake to smooth ice
• Ice signature affected by melt of surface snow cover

SAR - Sea Ice Interaction
Low backscatter High backscatter
Open Water First Year Ice

no penetration high salinity
Multi-Year Ice
surface scattering little penetration
sensitive to sea state surface scattering low salinity
sensitive to roughness penetration
volume scattering

SAR Scattering
~ Multi-year Sea Ice ~
• Multi-year ice
• experiences one or more melt seasons
• lower salinity levels due to brine drainage
• lower dielectric constant
• More penetration into volume of ice

• scattering by air and brine inclusions in ice volume
• scattering from both volume and surface
• appears bright compared to undeformed first year ice
• Ice signature is affected by melt of surface snow

cover

RADARSAT and Sea Ice Mapping
• C-HH radar well suited to ice mapping
• Beam options permit local and regional mapping
• Wide swath permit short revisit periods at high
latitudes (1-2 days)
• Large incident angles preferred for
• ice/water discrimination
• ice topography
• Analysis should include complementary sensors
• optical/thermal (e.g. NOAA-AVHRR)
• passive microwave (e.g. DMSP-SMM/I)
• Canadian Ice Service is one of the largest operational
users of RADARSAT data

RADARSAT - Canadian Ice Service
RADARSAT
1 -1 .5 hrs.
ISIS
CDPF (Gatineau) MMO (CSA - St. Hubert)
CIDAS-COMM
Products Imagettes Forecasts

Charts
FTP Cellular
1 - 3 hrs. Phone INMARSAT Ramsay B. , M.J.
Manore, L. Weir, K.
Wilson, 1998
Clients
RADARSAT Sea Ice Applications
• Ice concentration (classification) maps

• Route planning for ships in ice
• Ice motion forecasting
• Ice pressure forecasting
• Iceberg detection
• Ice climatology

ICE DISTRIBUTION
GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE, CANADA
RADARSAT-1 ScanSAR Wide 96-Mar-06
Darkest tones ->

open water
Ascending Pass
(right looking)
Greatest
concentration of
ice is north of PEI.
As the ice moves
around the
islands, into the
Gulf it thins and
takes on a flowing PEI
appearance.
Full swath  1996, Canadian Space Agency

Display Pixel Spacing: 250 m

RADARSAT Gulf Validation Experiment
ScanSAR Narrow March 6, 1996
pressure ridges
brash ice
“crack" or "lead“
first year floes in first year floe
pancake ice
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca
/ccrs/tekrd/radarsat/images/
que/rque01e.html
http://www.cis.ec.gc.ca/ Nilas (thin

(thin tears
about/term.html
elastic
elastic crust
crust of
of ice
ice )) (open water cracks)
150 km sub-scene, 100 m pixel spacing  1996, Canadian Space Agency Image courtesy of RSI

ICE ANALYSIS AND SHIP ROUTING
RADARSAT-1 96-Aug-11
Beam SCW-A (θ = 20º - 49º) C-HH Resolution: 146.8 m (Rg) x 93.1 m (Az)
Bent Horn Oil
Terminal
Bathurst
Island
Polaris
Mine
Subscene
Display Pixel Spacing: 300 m
Ice Analysis by Canadian Ice Service,

Environment Canada  1996 Canadian Space Agency

http://www.cis.ec.gc.ca/about/code.html
ICE RECONNAISSANCE
RADARSAT-1 96-Feb-28
Beam mode W2 (θ = 31º - 39º) C-HH Resolution: 26.6 m (Rg) x 27 m (Az)
Îles de la Madeleine,
Gulf of St. Lawrence
Image courtesy of RSI  1996, Canadian Space Agency

ICE MOTION PRODUCT
RADARSAT-1 Gulf of St. Lawrence 96-Mar-06
Reference Image: ScanSAR Narrow A, Descending  1996 Canadian Space Agency

Match Image: ScanSAR Wide A, Ascending Image courtesy RSI

http://www.noetix.on.ca/ - Auto Tracker
RADARSAT Observes the Calving of Iceberg A-38
Ronne Ice Shelf, Antarctica
ScanSAR Wide B
98-11-01
Display pixel spacing:

300 m
Images received by CCRS and ASF (Alaska SAR Facility)

Processed by RSI and ASF.  1997, 1998 Canadian Space Agency
Image courtesy of CCRS, CSA and NIC (U.S. National Ice Centre )
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/apps/em/cchange/glaciers/iceberge.html
WEDDELL SEA, ANTARCTICA
RADARSAT - DMSP/OLS
RADARSAT-1
ScanSAR Narrow
19-01-99
« Defense
Meteorological
Satellite
Program /
Operational
Linescan
System »
Source: Picasso,
Manuel, H. Salgado, Iceberg
and B. Lorenzo,
Monitoreo de hielo
marino, Proceedings of
GlobeSAR-2 Final
Symposium, Iceberg
May 17-20, 1999
p. 103-108
LCC, Clarke 1866 (NAD 27)
ScanSAR Narrow 99-01-19 01:10:39 UTC  1999, Canadian Space Agency

Kilometers
Miles
Miles

Scale / Echelle
Kilometers / Kilometres
Nautical Miles / Milles Marins

Western Arctic / L'Ouest de l'Arctique
http://www.cis.ec.gc.ca/
Applications
of SAR
Interferometry

CanadaCanada
Canada
Applications of
SAR Interferometry
• Overview of interferometry
• Interfermetric SAR (InSAR) systems
• Satellite InSAR (repeat pass principle,
geometry)
• InSAR processing
• Limitations of RADARSAT for interferometry
• InSAR Applications
• Measuring topography
• Measuring motion of the Earth’s surface
See also “Mapping Applications”

Radar Interferometry
• Interferometry is the method of using two SAR images,
taken with a time delay and/or cross-track parallax, to
infer height or motion information of the Earth’s surface.
• With a selected time delay and zero parallax, pure
motion is measured.
• With zero time delay and a selected cross-track parallax,
pure height is measured.
• Between most satellite image pairs, both time delay and
parallax exist; therefore motion and height information
must be separated.
• With airborne SAR, the time delay or the parallax
between images is nearly zero, so near-ideal height or
motion measurements can be achieved.
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/ana/interfer/interfre.html
Interferometric SAR Systems
• Repeat-pass or repeat-track interferometry
• single antenna SAR systems which acquire images of the
same scene from slightly displaced tracks (aircraft) or orbits
(all spaceborne SAR systems to date, except SRTM). The
ERS-1 / ERS-2 tandem mission was designed to
demonstrate repeat-pass interferometry.
• Across-track interferometry
• single-pass SAR systems with two receive antennas
displaced in the across-track plane (e.g., systems on the
SRTM, the Convair 580 and the STAR-3i aircraft)
• Along-track interferometry
• single-pass SAR systems with two receive antennas
displaced in the along-track direction, used to measure the
velocity of targets moving towards or away from the radar
(e.g. Convair 580’s along-track interferometric SAR, JPL’s
AIRSAR using the L- and C-band channels, RADARSAT-2’s
experimental Moving Object Detection (MODEX) - wings of
the SAR antenna serve as two independent receivers)
Repeat-pass Satellite Interferometry
• To date, satellite interferometry has been the repeat-pass
type, where an image is taken one day, and a second image
is taken of the same scene one or more days later
(exception SRTM Mission)
• More images can be taken at later intervals and used in the
processing, as long as the scene retains reasonable
coherence over the longer time interval. Temporal
decorrelation times: geologic change takes many years, but
only a few seconds of wind produces motion in trees and
lake surfaces
• Because there is always a time delay, and usually parallax
as well, assumptions must be made, or processing must be
done to remove the unwanted component of motion or
topography

Principle of
• Based on two image acquisitions of the same scene
from slightly displaced orbits of the satellite.
• Phase information of the two image data files is then
superimposed.
• The two phase values at each pixel are subtracted,
leading to an interferogram that records only the
differences in phase between the two original images.
• Phase differences can be related to the altitude
variation at each position in the swath and enable the
production of a Digital Elevation Model (DEM).

Principle of
Pass 2
Pass 1
Repeat pass interferometric SAR uses two antenna

positions to acquire two SAR images. Vertical height is
determined by comparing phase measurements. Observable
terrain shifts are on the order of the radar wavelength or smaller.

Geometry of Satellite Repeat-pass InSAR
S2
B
S1 B⊥ S satellite position
R range to point P
R2 B baseline between satellites
A satellite altitude
R1 h height of point P
Earth's surface h

InSAR Processing
• Process data to SLC images
• Register the two images to 1/10 pixel
• Over-sample by a factor of 2 in both dimensions
• Filter common bands in spectrum
• Conjugate multiply to form interferogram
• Smooth the interferogram
• Measure coherence
• Unwrap the phase
• Estimate geometry parameters (especially baseline)
• Remove flat-earth fringes
• Convert unwrapped phase to height or motion

Limitations of RADARSAT Interferometry
Critical issues or requirements
• Must use single beam, single look complex (SLC) products
• To maintain the coherence there should be no change in
backscatter. (Vegetated sites are a problem and dry conditions
are preferable.)
• Results can be affected by anisotropic propagation of one or
both of the data takes (mainly variation in atmospheric water
vapour content)
• For topographic mapping RADARSAT orbits should be
approximately 0.5 - 1.5 km apart
• For detection of feature movement, orbits should as close as
possible
• Ground Control Points are required
• Knowledge of sensor location is critical; orbit selection is
important
InSAR Applications
~ Topographic Mapping ~
• Conditions for measuring topography -
• Satellite InSAR - DEM accuracy
• Topographic Mapping Applications
• Cross-track satellite interferometry (SRTM)
– Perspective View with Landsat Overlay, Santa Clara River Valley,
California
• Repeat-pass satellite interferometry (ERS-1, RADARSAT-1)
– ERS-1 - IHS composite of three image components derived from the
interferogram, Schefferville, Québec
– RADARSAT-1 - Image components derived from the interferogram, Bathurst
Island, N.W.T
• Cross-track airborne interferometry (Convair-580)
– DEM and perspective view of Kananaskis Valley, Alberta
• Cross-track airborne interferometry (Star-3i)
– Image and DEM, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany
– Data fusion of topographic map with STAR-3i IFSAR radar image and digital
elevation data, Freiburg, Germany

Topographic Mapping
~ Conditions for Measuring Topography ~
• To measure topography, the following conditions must
exist:
• the baseline must lie within acceptable limits
• motion in the scene must be negligible
• coherence must be high enough (e.g. |γ| > 0.4)
• If the baseline is too small, the sensitivity to topography
will be low, and phase noise may dominate
• need B⊥ > 50 m for ERS
• If the baseline is too large, phase aliasing may occur
and the coherence will drop
• need B⊥ < 300 m for ERS

Satellite InSAR - DEM accuracy
Satellite Resolution Accuracy Notes
(m) (m)
ERS –1 and 24 3-20 For most areas, except tropical
ERS-2 forest or regions with significant
vegetation or moisture variability.
The ERS-1/2 tandem data
archive is extensive.
JERS 18 10-20 L-band shows better coherence
(for more terrain tyeps and for
longer time periods) than C-band.
RADARSAT 20-29 10-20 Dry terrain is preferred due to the
(Standard 24-day orbit repeat cycle and
mode) potential loss of coherence.
RADARSAT 7-9 3-10 Dry terrain preferred. Larger
(Fine mode) baselines are possible,
increasing accuracy and reducing
sensitivity to propagation effects.
Toutin Th., A.L. Gray 2000
Note: Results from low relief terrain (lowest values) will be better than those
from areas with significant relief (highest values).

The NASA/DLR SRTM Mission
Auxiliary radar antennas
Main radar antennas
60-m long boom
The Space Shuttle

Coverage of 11-day SRTM Mission
SRTM Terrain Coverage
Latitude
East Longitude
NUMBER
OF
IMAGINGS
LAND OCEAN

SRTM Perspective View with Landsat Overlay
~ Santa Clara River Valley, California ~
Elevation data from

C-band across-track
interferometric radar,
SRTM
Acquired Feb. 16, 2000
Height exaggeration 2x
Pacific
Landsat overlay
Ocean Acquired: Dec. 14, 1984
View toward the North

34.42°N 119.17°W
City of
Santa Paula
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/PIAGenCatalogPage.pl?PIA02789
Image credit: NASA/JPL/NIMA/USGS

ERS-1 Repeat-Pass Interferometry
~ Schefferville, Québec ~
Pass 1: 15 January 1994 Pass 2: 24 January 1994
9 day separation Colour: Interferogram Phase, 16 steps
from 0 to 2pi radians
Intensity: Interferogram Magnitude
Saturation: Coherence
Interferogram Magnitude is the

background black-and-white image -
similar to regular SAR image.
Coherence (colour brightness)
indicates the degree of phase
correlation. Low coherence indicates
greater change (lakes at upper left).
High coherence indicates least
change (exposed rocks at lower left).
Colour-coded interferogram phase: a
phase change of 2pi radians
corresponds to an altitude change of
232 m.
Nominal Baseline: 40.1 m
Nominal Pixel Size: 20 m (az) x 20 m (ground range)
Nominal Scene Size: 20 km by 20 km
Nominal Scene Centre: N54.9 W66.6
Processor: dtSAR (VMP algorithm)
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/comvnts/rsic/2301/2301rn2e.html

RADARSAT-1 Repeat-Pass Interferometry
~ Bathurst Island, N.W.T. ~
Scene coherence RADARSAT SAR F5
Interferogram magnitude Descending passes
Nom. incident angle: 47°
Pass 1:
04 March 1996
13:03 UTC
Pass 2:
28 March 1996
13:03 UTC
Nom. baseline: 847m
Height of ambiguity: 28 m
Nominal resolution:
10 m x 12 m
(azimuth, ground range)
Nominal scene size:
10.2 km x 12.3 km
Raw interferogram phase Composite : (azimuth, ground range)
intensity: interferogram magnitude Processor: dtSAR
saturation: coherence
One phase cycle represents a
colour: flat-earth corrected (relative) phase relative change in elevation of
21 m.
Coherence is high (close to 1)

for land areas even after the
24 day interval. Areas of
reduced coherence are
associated with sea ice and
the drainage system.
Source: Geudtner D. , P.W.
Vachon, K. Mattar, A.L. Gray,
1998

http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/rd/ana/interfer/interfre.html
DEM derived from RADARSAT
Interferometric SAR Data
Western Argentina
Coherence image
resulting from N
interferometric processing
Input images:
RADARSAT-1 SLC Fine Beam Mode
Aug. 24, 1998 & Sept. 17, 1998
Time interval : 24 days

Baseline (B⊥): 1113.7784 m
High quality DEM data is expected

where coherence is high (bright)
Geocoded Image
showing locations of
ground control points
Georeferencing
(15 points)
Map scale: 1:250,000 Height calibration
Map projection: UTM, WGS84 (1263 points)

EarthView InSAR Processing
for the Western Argentina DEM
• Process raw SAR data to zero Doppler, slant range projection,
phase preserved single-look imagery using Atlantis Scientific’s
Advance Precision Processor (APP).
• Generate interferogram of area of interest. A special slope
enhancement algorithm was used which is effective for large
baselines and/or steep topography. Fringes in the interferogram
correspond to approx. 15.975 m of height change.
• Unwrap phase to produce phase image.
• Convert to a height image (heights in slant range projection)
• Remove known radar terrain distortions (for each pixel, distance
between satellite and ground and the pixel height are known
accurately)
• Resample DEM to UTM grid to produce non-calibrated height
image. Backscatter and coherence image are also geocoded.

Georeferencing and Height Correction
for the Western Argentina DEM
• Geocoded DEM and backscatter image were registered to
1:250,000 Argentine topographic map. The supplied
ground control points (GCPs), representing oil well sites,
were converted to UTM projection, referenced to WGS84.
• For georeferencing, 15 x,y coordinates were used.
• Mean error: (x, y, x*x+y*y) = (-0.000, 0.000, 13.030)
• RMS error: (9.497, 13.827, 16.774)

• For height calibration, 1263 points were used. The GCPs
provided were concentrated in the centre of the area of
interest, not evenly distributed. Primary area of interest
was centered on: 37°18' 54"S and 69°13 ’40"W °. Quality
control was done on 1203 GCPs (many of these were
used in the DEM correction), with an RMS elevation error
for 95% of the points between 0 and ±10 m.
Colour-coded DEM
Western Argentina
Area of interest (Pampa):

36°52’12’’S, 69°37’08’’W
37°45’33’’S, 68°50’23’’W
derived from
RADARSAT-1 Fine
Mode SAR data
by Atlantis Scientific
N
using EarthView InSAR
software

The Convair-580 InSAR System
http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/satsens/sarbro/sbc580e.html
Convair 580
RF Equipment SAR Control Digital

Racks Station Recording
InSAR Main Antenna Real-time

Antenna Radome Radome Display Station

DEM of Kananaskis Valley, Alberta
C-band InSAR data – Convair-580 Feb. 1992
Terrain elevations derived from across-track interferometric SAR data

http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/satsens/sarbro/sbintere.html
Perspective view
~ Kananaskis Valley, Alberta ~
C-band InSAR data – Convair-580 Feb. 1992

http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/tekrd/satsens/sarbro/sbintere.html
The Intermap STAR-3i Aircraft SAR
http://www.intermaptechnologies.com/HTML/mapp_star3i.htm

Baden-Wurttemberg Image and DEM -
5 km x 7 km sub-area of Kurnbach ~ 35 km NW of Stuttgart
Image and DEM courtesy of
Technologies Ltd.
STAR-3i SAR Image and DEM
STAR-3i SAR image Digital elevation model

Resolution: 2.5 m processed interferometrically
Frieburg, Germany from the STAR-3i raw radar data
2 m vertical accuracy
Image and DEM courtesy of
Technologies Ltd.
Map-IFSAR Data Fusion
Data fusion of a
standard 1:25,000
German topographic
map of the city of
Freiburg, with STAR-
3i IFSAR radar
image and digital
elevation data.
Fused images may

be used for 3-D
views and automated
classification. The
elevation data for
landscape features
such as buildings
and forests is
retained.
Image courtesy of
Technologies Ltd.
Image processing and editing by: W.Geile
Ge matics Consulting
InSAR Applications
~ Measuring Motion of the Earth’s Surface ~
• Applications of differential interferometry
• Measurement of systematic deformation
• Conditions for measuring motion
• Limitations of differential interferometry
• Examples of deformation mapping
• Belridge Oil Field, Lost Hills, California
• Lost Hills, California
• Cold Lake, Alberta
• Multiple scene analysis - the time dimension

• Vancouver, B.C.

Applications of Differential Interferometry
• Differential SAR interferometry is used to measure:
• vertical height change
• horizontal shift in ground range direction
• surface scattering change using coherence
measurements
• Applications include:
• Subsidence due to oil and gas extraction (Belridge and Lost Hills
areas of California) and groundwater depletion
• Deformation due to cyclic steam stimulation for oil recovery (Cold
Lake, Alberta)
• Deformation related to geodynamic processes (landslides,
volcanos, earthquakes)
• Mapping motion of glaciers, ice streams, ice sheets (examples in
advanced interferometry section)
• Classification of land use and change detection using coherence
http://otter.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca:80/ccrs/tekrd/programs/rudp/rudprepe.html
Differential Interferometry
~ Measurement of Systematic Deformation ~
ρ1B
ρ2B
Case A Case B
ρ1A = ρ2A
∆hA = 0
ρ2B - ρ1B = (λ/4π) ∆φB
Shift between passes
h = height
ρ = slant range ∆hB = (ρ2B - ρ1B)/cosθ
θ = incident angle
φ = phase
∆hB - ∆hA = ( ∆φB • ∆φA)λ /4π cosθ  Atlantis Scientific Inc.

Satellite InSAR
~ Conditions for Measuring Motion ~
To measure motion, the following must apply:
• The time delay must be appropriate to the scale of motion to
be measured (i.e., the motion must obey the Nyquist
sampling theorem), and
• The motion must have enough spatial cohesiveness that the
coherence is high enough
• Plus one of the three conditions needed to remove the
topographic component of the phase:
• the baseline must be small enough that the topography
component can be neglected, or
• an accurate DEM must be used to remove the
topographic component, or
• three passes must be used to remove the topographic
component
Satellite InSAR
~ Limitations of Differential Interferometry ~
• While individual pixel motions may not be that
accurate, satellite InSAR has an advantage over in-situ
measurements because it takes a large number of
measurements over a wide area. In this way, a
velocity field can be constructed, and matched to a
geophysical model of the motion (e.g., glaciers and
post-seismic deformation).
• Heavy vegetation and damp climates can adversely
affect InSAR measurements. Conventional InSAR
techniques have failed when applied to landslides
resulting from creeping, waterlogged and vegetated
slopes. Successful applications are generally in dry
areas and areas with stable radar reflections.
Subsidence in the Oil Fields
~ Belridge and Lost Hills Oil Fields, California ~
DEM: ERS tandem  ESA
The Belridge and Lost Hills
SAR image: RADARSAT F2  CSA Oil Fields have been subject
Deformation map: ERS-1, Sept-Nov 1992 to subsidence for the past
10-15 years.
Monitoring of subsidence is
being done to understand the
relationships between
injection, extraction,
subsidence and well failures.
This knowledge is being used
in development of production
strategies.
The area around the oil fields

has little natural vegetation
and recieves little
precipitation. Coherence is
generally high, and InSAR
results correlate well with
 Atlantis Scientific Inc.
Project in collaboration with Shell Exploration and Production GPS point measurements of
subsidence.
Deformation Mapping
~ Ground subsidence due to oil extraction ~
Well failures and well failure rates

Oil Pressure Failed Well Pipe
Ground subsidence
1 mile
South Belridge Diatomite Waterflood
Well Failure Rates (% of active wells)

Well Failure Rates
10%
8%
6%
4%
2 miles
2%
0%
Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja Ja
n- n n n n n n n n n n n n
86 -87 -88 -89 -90 -91 -92 -93 -94 -95 -96 -97 -98
http://www.atlsci.com/library/commercial_apps_of_SAR_interferometry_for_change_detection.htm

4 - Pass Differential InSAR
~ Belridge and Lost Hills Oil Fields, California ~
DEM: ERS 1/2 Tandem + Differential InSAR: ERS-1 92/09/17 and 92/11/26
1
Height change
1 -0.010 m
2 -0.058 m
2
3 -0.039 m
4 -0.019 m
5 -0.021 m
6 -0.025 m
7 -0.049 m
8 -0.026 m
3
4 9 -0.012 m
5 10 -0.016 m
11 -0.020 m
6
7 8
12 -0.017 m
9 14
13 -0.017 m
15
10
13
14 -0.017 m
11
12 15 +0.008 m
© Atlantis Scientific 1997
http://earth.esa.int/symposia//program-details/data/vanderkooij1/index.html
InSAR mapping product
Lost Hills Oil field, Change in Elevation (subsidence)
08/ 20/00 to 01/ 07/ 01 (140 days)
Annual Rate
Inches/Year

InSAR mapping product
December 28, 1999
DEFORMATION RATE
(inches / year)
0.00
-12.50
-27.50

Deformation Mapping
~ Deformation due to cyclic steam stimulation
for oil recovery ~
The oil-bearing sands at Cold Lake are
buried too deeply for surface mining, so
a production process called cyclic
steam-stimulation is used to recover the
bitumen (heavy oil). Multiple wells are
drilled from surface pads. High-
temperature steam from a central plant is
carried through insulated pipelines and
injected at high pressure down the
wellbores into the oil-sand formation.
The heat sits there for a few weeks,
softening the bitumen so it will flow. It is
pumped to the surface, processed at a Multiple wells are drilled from surface pads.
central plant and shipped by pipeline to Photo credit: Imperial Oil Ltd
http://esso.ca/investors/operating/natural_resources/mn_sands.html#cold_lake
markets in Canada and the U.S.
The high pressure of the steam injection causes the surface of the reservoir to heave.
After each production cycle (injection, steam soak, pump), the surface subsides.
Imperial Oil produces an average of 47 million barrels of crude oil annually from the
Cold Lake project.
RADARSAT Differential Interferogram
Cold Lake Oil Field
Measurement of
deformation due to Cyclic
Steam Stimulation
process used for
recovery of bitumen
RADARSAT F1 ascending
Location:
54.63372 N, -110.47909 W
Master:
orbit 25289, Sept 8, 2000
Slave:
orbit 25632, Oct 2, 2000
Perpendicular Baseline:
-276 m
Ambiguity Height: -61 m/cycle
Stancliffe R.P.W. and M. van der Kooij, 2001 http://www.atlsci.com/news.html
Cold Lake RADARSAT Deformation Map
September 8 - October 2, 2000
Deformation (m)
Stancliffe S. and M. van der Kooij, 2001 http://www.atlsci.com/news.html

Multiple Scene Analysis
~ Analysis of Permanent Scatterers over Time ~
Stacked
Interferograms Point Target Phase Variation with Time
Phase
Point
Target
This new InSAR technique relies By constructing a time history of many

on the presence of permanent or measurements, atmospheric effects can be
persistent point scatterers within filtered out and deformation rates can be
an area of interest. They are determined at the permanent scatterer
identified from a temporal series locations.
of coregistered interferograms.
Differential measurements (~1 mm / yr) for a network of permanent point scatterers

can be used to monitor slow deformation due to seismic motion, subway
construction, oil production and water pumping. The technique has been
demonstrated for rocky terrain and urban areas using ERS SAR data, and is being
tested for other types of terrain.
Processing Steps
• Coregistration of a large number of SAR scenes (n > ~15)
• Generation of n-1 interferograms
• Relative calibration of interferograms using a stable reference
point
• Calculation of “temporal coherence”
• Detection of permanently coherent targets (e.g. buildings)
• Atmospheric filtering
• Measurement of temporal deformation rates (or correlation with
other parameters)
• Continuous monitoring of targets
Source: Ferretti, A. C. Prati, R. Focca, 2001
Vancouver No. 2 Displacement rate
-3.6 mm/year
Deformation Rate Map
Displacement (cm)
Displacement rate Number

[mm/year] of Points
Time (year)
 2001 Atlantis Scientific Inc.
Vancouver No. 5 Displacement rate

-0.6 mm/year
Displacement (cm)
Displacements at thousands of locations in an Time (year)

area near the Vancouver airport (~4x4 miles) were
plotted. Only 17 targets were detected with an average subsidence of 3.6 mm/yr (0.15"/yr) or
more during the period 1992-2000. No targets were detected with significant uplift.

http://orbit35i.nesdis.noaa.gov/orad/sarconference/presentations.html
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Glossary Page 1 of 19
Radar Glossary
a|b|c|d|e|f|g|h|i|j|k|l|m|n|o|p|q|r|s|t|u|v|w|x|y|z
Source: Raney, R. Keith (Principal Professional Staff), 1999, Radar Glossary, Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics
Laboratory, 11100 Johns Hopkins Road, Laurel, MD 20723-6099.
ABSORPTION
Reduction in strength of an electromagnetic wave propagating through a medium. The absorption of an electromagnetic
wave is determined by the dielectric properties of the material.
ACTIVE RADAR CALIBRATOR (ARC)
Ground-based microwave device that generates in the final image a point response of known strength (radar cross
section) and position. When illuminated by a pulse from a SAR, an ARC amplifies it and retransmits the pulse back
towards the radar. An ARC may impose controlled amounts of time delay, Doppler shift, or polarization rotation onto the
returned signal to aid in specific calibration objectives.
ALMAZ
A Russian SAR satellite launched in May 1991, which operated until October 1992.
ALONG-TRACK
Dimension parallel to the path of the vehicle carrying the radar. For side-looking radars, this dimension is sometimes
called the cross range or azimuth direction.
ALOS
Advanced Land Observing Satellite, planned to be launched by NASDA, Japan, in 2002. The payload will include the
PALSAR imaging radar system.
AMPLITUDE
Measure of the strength of a signal, and in particular the strength or "height" of an electromagnetic wave (units of voltage).
The amplitude may imply a complex signal, including both magnitude and the phase.
ANTENNA
Device to radiate electromagnetic energy on transmission by a radar, and to collect such energy during reception. An
antenna pattern is designed with spatial directivity, which concentrates the energy into a beam in both the vertical
(elevation) and the horizontal (azimuth) directions. The electrical losses of an antenna together with its directivity
determine the antenna gain. In general, the beamwidth in any plane is inversely proportional to the aperture width in that
plane, and directly proportional to the wavelength of the radiation. Polarization on transmit and on receive is determined
by the antenna.
ASAR
Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar to be included in 2001 in the payload of ESA’s Envisat. ASAR, a C-band SAR, will
have variable incident angle, variable swath widths and resolutions, and will include a ScanSAR mode. Further, it will
introduce the Global Monitoring Mode, a 1 km resolution 405 km swath width mode with either HH or VV polarization.
Dual polarizations will be available, but not full quadrature polarimetry.
ASPECT ANGLE
Description of the geometric orientation in the horizontal plane of an object in the scene with respect to the
illuminating wavefront. (See incident angle.)
ATTENUATION
Decrease in the strength of a signal. The decrease in the strength of a signal is usually described by a
multiplicative factor in the mathematical description of signal level. A signal is attenuated by application of a gain
less than unity. Common causes of attenuation of an electromagnetic wave include losses through absorption and
by volume scattering in a medium as a wave passes through.
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL
Adaptive change in radar gain in the along-track direction, to compensate for changes in average scene
reflectivity.
AZIMUTH
The relative along-track position of an object within the field of view of an antenna following the moving radar's
line of flight. The term is commonly used to indicate linear distance or image scale in the along-track direction.
AZIMUTH AMBIGUITIES
(See DOPPLER shift).
AZIMUTH RESOLUTION
Resolution characteristic of the azimuth dimension, usually applied to the image domain. Azimuth resolution is
fundamentally limited by the Doppler bandwidth of the system. Excess Doppler bandwidth is usually used to allow
extra looks, at the expense of azimuth resolution.
BACKSCAN MODE
Special mode that is a logical compromise between the SpotSAR mode and the strip-map mode, which implies
that the azimuth Doppler bandwidth, and hence the achievable resolution, are enhanced.
BACKSCATTER
The (microwave) signal reflected by elements of an illuminated scene back in the direction of the radar. It is so
named to make clear the difference between energy scattered in arbitrary directions, and that which returns to the
radar and thus may be received and recorded by the sensor.
BANDWIDTH
A measure of the span of frequencies available in a signal or other distribution, or of the frequency limiting stages
in the system. For a SAR system, typical bandwidths in the range channel are on the order of 20 Megahertz, and
in the azimuth channel are on the order of 1 Kilohertz. Bandwidth is a fundamental parameter of any imaging
system, and determines the ultimate resolution available. For any pulse, the basic parameter that describes its
structure is the time bandwidth product.
BEAM VELOCITY
Rate of progress along the imaged surface of the antenna’s illumination pattern. In the case of a satellite SAR’s
strip-map mode, the beam velocity (alternatively the footprint velocity) is smaller than the satellite velocity by the
ratio of the footprint’s radius of rotation to the satellite’s orbit radius (with respect to the Earth’s centroid). The sub-
satellite point on the earth’s surface has velocity about 6.6 km/s for typical SAR satellites. Since the imaged area
is laterally offset, and therefore closer to the axis of rotation of the satellite, the beam velocity will be smaller.
BEAMWIDTH
A measure of the radiation pattern of an antenna. For SAR applications, both the vertical beamwidth and the
horizontal beamwidth or azimuthal antenna pattern are frequently used concepts.The vertical beamwidth affects
the width of the illuminated swath. The horizontal beamwidth determines, indirectly, the azimuth resolution.
Beamwidth may be measured in the one-way or two-way form, and in either voltage or power.
BETA NOUGHT (β°)
Radar brightness coefficient. The reflectivity per unit area in slant range, dimensionless. (See sigma nought).
BRAGG SCATTERING
Enhanced backscatter due to coherent combination of signals reflected from a rough surface having features, with
periodic distribution in the direction of wave propagation, and whose spacing is equal to half of the wavelength as
projected onto the surface.
BRIGHTNESS
Property of a radar image (digital or optical) in which the observed strength of the radar reflectivity is expressed
as being proportional to a digital number (digital image file) or to a grey scale mapping, which, for a photographic
positive, shows "bright" as "white".
C-BAND
Microwave band in which the wavelengths are at or near 5.6 cm.
CALIBRATION
The act or process of comparing certain specific measurements in an instrument with a standard.
CANADA CENTER FOR REMOTE SENSING (CCRS)
The leading centre in Canada for the development of imaging radar and other remote sensing applications and
technology.
CANADIAN SPACE AGENCY (CSA)
Organisation located in St. Hubert, Québec, Canada.
CHIRP
Typical phase coding or modulation applied to the range pulse of an imaging radar designed to achieve a large
time-bandwidth product. The resulting phase is quadratic in time, which has a linear derivative such that coding is
often called linear frequency modulation, or linear FM.
CHIRP SCALING
SAR processing algorithm that corrects for range curvature and two-dimensional focusing with no interpolation.
COHERENT
Property of a signal or data set in which the phase of the constituents is measurable, and plays a significant role
in the way in which several signals or data combine. The combined power Pcoh of a set of coherent signals {si} is
the vector sum of the signals, magnitude squared, Pcoh = s1 + s2 + …2 (See incoherent.)
COHERENT REFLECTOR
Simple or complex surface (such as a corner reflector) from which reflected wave components are coherent with
respect to each other, and thus combine to yield larger effective power than would be observed from a diffuse
scattering surface of the same area.
COMPLEX (NUMBER)
For radar systems, this implies that the representation of a signal or data file needs both magnitude and phase
measures. In the digital SAR context, a complex number is often represented by an equivalent pair of numbers,
the in-phase (I ) component and the quadrature (Q) component. For any complex number a, the relationships are
a = re jϕ= I + jQ, where I = r cosϕ, Q = r sinϕ, and j = (-1)1/2. In the exponential notation, r is the
magnitude and ϕ is the phase of the number a, which is the complex amplitude (sometimes simply called
"amplitude" which could be confused with "magnitude"). For coherent systems such as SAR, the role of complex
numbers is an essential part of the signal, since signal phase is used in the processor to obtain high resolution.
CONDUCTIVITY
Property of a material to allow electrical current to flow with very little loss. For natural surfaces, conductivity in
general is increased with increased moisture content.
CONSERVATION OF CONFUSION
Principle, for imagery derived from a given SAR, that the amount of "information" in the data is constant. One
expression of this rule is that the product of the range and the azimuth resolution divided by the number of
statistically independent looks is a constant. This constant serves as a figure of merit for the number of looks of
the system, a measure of SAR performance. (In this context, "information" is related to the statistical degrees of
freedom in the data ensemble, and not necessarily to knowledge about objects in the scene.) Two special
consequences of this principle: 1) the minimum impulse response width is the system (ideal) resolution, and 2)
there is a trade-off between resolution and speckle reduction.
CONSERVATION OF COORDINATES
Principle, for synthetic aperture radar imagery. The position of a coordinate in an image is theoretically not
changed by pitch, roll, or yaw rotations of the radar. Range is determined by the speed of light, and azimuth is
determined by the along-track radar velocity.
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Principle of SAR. Assuming that all available data is used for each case, then the average value of the estimated
reflectivity from a scene is a constant for a given SAR and processor. The value is independent of the number of
looks used, and independent of any time varying noncoherence in the scene (such as from a moving surface of
water) or in the radar/processor combination.
CONTRAST
Difference between the tone of two neighbouring regions.

CORNER REFLECTOR
Combination of two or more intersecting specular surfaces that combine to enhance the signal reflected back in
the direction of the radar. Strongest reflection is obtained when the materials are good conductors.
DECIBEL (dB)
Measurement of signal strength, properly applied to a ratio of powers: a signal power P compared, by ratioing, to
a reference power Pref. The formal definition of the power ratio in the decibel scale is PdB = 10 log10 (P / Pref ). For
example, the power ratio of 1/2 corresponds to "-3 dB", derived from log10 (0.5) = -0.3010. Decibels often are
used in radar, such as in measures of reflectivity, for which the dynamic range may span several factors of ten.
The unit is named in honour of Alexander Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone.
DEGREE OF POLARIZATION
Ratio of the power in the polarized part of an electromagnetic wave to the total power; P = (s12 + s22 + s32)1/2 / s0 in
terms of the Stokes parameters.
DEPRESSION ANGLE
Usually refers to the line of sight from the radar to an illuminated object as measured from the horizontal plane at
the radar. For image interpretation, use of the term is not recommended because it does not account for the
effects of Earth curvature, and it does not conveniently include effects of local slope in the scene. It is more
appropriate for an engineering description of the vertical antenna pattern at the radar itself. (See incident angle.)
DETECTION (Radar)
Processing stage at which the strength of the signal is determined for each pixel value. Detection removes phase
information from the data file. The preferred detection scheme uses a magnitude squared method, s2, which is
energy conserving, and has units of voltage squared per pixel.
DIELECTRIC
Material which has neither "perfect" conductivity nor is perfectly "transparent" to electromagnetic radiation. The
electrical properties of all intermediate materials, such as ice, natural foliage, or rocks, may be described by two
quantities: relative dielectric constant and loss tangent. Reflectivity of a smooth surface and the penetration of
microwaves into the material are determined by these two quantities.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Fundamental (complex) parameter, also known as the complex permittivity, that describes the electrical properties
of a lossy medium, e.g., a target which has attenuation. (See permeability.) By convention, the relative dielectric
constant of a given material is used, defined as the (absolute) dielectric constant divided by the dielectric constant
of "free space". The (relative) dielectric constant is usually defined as ε = ε’ - jε” (It is common practice to refer to
the real component ε’ as "the dielectric constant", whose partner, the loss tangent, accounts for ε”.)
DIFFUSE
Reflection typically made up of many individual reflections having random phase with respect to each other, such
as from a natural forest canopy or agricultural field. The term is also used to describe a surface that reflects
(microwave) illumination in this fashion. (The opposite term is specular or coherent.)
DIGITAL NUMBER (DN)
A number, between zero and 255 for example, assigned to each spatial grid position in the file representing the
brightness levels of an image. The digital numbers may be related to sigma nought of scene elements through the
process of calibration.
DIHEDRAL
Corner reflector formed by two surfaces orthogonally (perpendicularly) intersecting. For enhanced backscatter,
the dihedral must be open to the radar, and have the axis of intersection at right angles to the direction of
illumination.
DISTRIBUTED SCATTERERS
Elements of a scene consisting of many small scatterers of random location, phase, and reflectivity in each
resolution cell. (See diffuse.)
DISTRIBUTION OF RADAR SIGNAL
General purpose mathematical description of a signal characterized by values with magnitude significantly larger
than zero over only a relatively small span in time or distance. A distribution may have extensive low level tails or
sidelobes. Examples of distributions include the pulse transmitted by a radar, and the description in space of the
pattern of an antenna.
DOPPLER BANDWIDTH
Doppler frequency is the (time) derivative of the phase history generated by a coherent radar as it passes an
illuminated scatterer. Doppler bandwidth is a measure of the spread in Doppler frequencies over the phase
history. The reciprocal of Doppler bandwidth is equal to the available azimuth resolution (in seconds), which
usually is converted to spatial azimuth resolution through multiplication by the beam velocity.
DOPPLER SHIFT
The apparent change of frequency of sound waves or electromagnetic waves, varying with the relative velocity of
the source and the observer. Shift in frequency caused by relative motion along the line of sight between the
sensor and the observed scene. In SAR, it is more formally the first derivative of the signal phase in the azimuth
direction. The distance between the highest and lowest Doppler frequnecies must be smaller than the azimuth
pulse repetition frequency (PRF). If the difference is larger, false image features (azimuth ambiguities) will occur
in the images.
DYNAMIC RANGE
A description of the variety of signal amplitudes (or power levels) available in a system, or present in a data file.
Dynamic range is specified either i) to be within minimum and maximum values, or ii) with respect to the ratio of
maximum to minimum values. The most important specification is linear dynamic range over which signals
combine according to the property of linearity.
ELECTROMAGNETIC (EM) WAVE
A wave described by variations in electric and magnetic fields, elegantly formulated by J. C. Maxwell in 1873.
Light waves, radio waves, and microwaves are well known examples of electromagnetic waves. All such waves
propagate at the speed of light in "free space", which includes most realistic atmospheric conditions. Three
material parameters are necessary and sufficient to describe EM waves in a given medium: dielectric constant (or
permittivity); permeability; and conductivity.
ELEVATION DISPLACEMENT
Image distortion in the range direction of a side and downward looking radar caused by terrain features in the
scene being above (or below) the reference elevation contour. As a result, the position of these features in the
image is closer to (or further from) the radar than their planimetric position. The effect may be used to create
radar stereo images (see parallax). It may be removed from an image through independent knowledge of the
terrain profile. In many applications, an approximate correction may be derived from the shapes of displaced
features using shading techniques.
ENERGY (RADAR WAVE)
For a waveform of time-limited duration such as a radar pulse reflected by an object, the pulse energy is given by
the power of the signal integrated over the duration of the signal (Units of watt-seconds = joules).
ENVISAT
The Environmental Satellite, a very large (8000 Kg, 10 m x 4 m x 4 m, launch configuration) multi-sensor earth-
observing satellite from ESA, is scheduled for launch in mid-2001. The payload includes an imaging radar
(ASAR), and a radar altimeter. Unlike its predecessors ERS-1 and ERS-2, there is no scatterometer aboard.
EOS SAR (EARTH OBSERVING SYSTEM SATELLITE SYNTHETIC APERTURE RADAR)
A proposal by JPL for a three frequency quadrature polarimetric SAR for the Earth Observation Satellite series.
ERS-1
Satellite launched by ESA in July 1991. The main payload of ERS-1, the AMI instrument, includes a SAR at C-
band, VV polarization and 23° incident angle. Other major instruments: the Radar Altimeter (RA), the Along-Track
Scanning Radiometer (ATSR), the Microwave Radiometer (MWR) and the Precise Range and Range Rate
Experiment (PRARE).
ERS-2
Launched in 1995, this ESA satellite is very similar to ERS-1. During the tandem mission, ERS-1 and ERS-2
passes were separated by only one day. The objective of the mission was to gather data for interferometric
studies. The two satellites were controlled in synchronized orbits for about one year
EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY (ESA)
An international organization dedicated to space research and development. Their mission is to advance the
peaceful application of space technology in Europe.
FORESHORTENING
Spatial distortion which occurs where terrain slopes are facing a side-looking radar's illumination. The distance
between the slope and the radar is smaller relative to what it would be if the same terrain was level, so the sloping
terrain appears compressed in range scale of the image.
Foreshortening is a special case of elevation displacement. The effect is more pronounced for steeper slopes,
and for radars that use steeper look angles. Range scale expansion, the complementary effect, occurs for slopes
that face away from the radar illumination.
FOURIER TRANSFORM
Mathematical operation used to derive the frequency domain description of a distribution. An efficient digital
implementation is the "fast Fourier transform", or FFT. The inverse Fourier transform returns a frequency domain
description to the original distribution. The digital inverse form is known as the IFFT.
FREQUENCY
Rate of oscillation of a wave. In the microwave region, frequencies are on the order of 1 GHz (Gigahertz) to 100
GHz. ("Giga" implies multiplication by a factor of a billion.) For electromagnetic waves, the product of wavelength
and frequency is equal to the speed of propagation, which, in free space, is the speed of light.
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
For every distribution f in time there is an equivalent representation F whose independent variable is frequency.
The frequency domain representation is the Fourier transform of the original distribution. F and f are equivalent in
the sense that they carry the same information, but it is expressed in an alternative way. The concept is often
generalized to distributions in the space domain. The Fourier transform is then in the spatial frequency domain
and has units of cycles per unit length. The azimuth frequency domain is also known as the Doppler domain.
GAIN
Change in signal level due to processing functions that increase the magnitude of the signal. Examples include:
signal amplification in a radar receiver; processing gain in the processor; and antenna gain, a result of the
directivity of the pattern.
GAUSSIAN
The classical distribution characterized by a "bell-shaped" curve. This normal distribution plays several roles in
SAR. For example, it is the "normal" probability distribution that describes the in-phase and the quadrature
components of the signal corresponding to a surface that produces diffuse scattering. Targets which exhibit this
distribution are sometimes described as Gaussian scatterers.
GRAZING ANGLE
Angle between the mean horizontal at the scene and the incoming radar illumination. The concept is most apt for
ship-borne or aircraft radars when the illumination is itself close to horizontal.
GROUND RANGE
Range direction of a side-looking radar image as projected onto the nominally horizontal reference plane, similar
to the spatial display of conventional maps. For spacecraft data, an Earth geoid model is used, whereas for
airborne radar data, a planar approximation is sufficient. Ground range projection requires a geometric
transformation from slant range to ground range, leading to relief or elevation displacement, foreshortening, and
layover unless terrain elevation information is used.
HERTZ
Named after H. R. Hertz, a 19th century German physicist, it is the standard unit for frequency, equivalent to one
cycle per second.
HISTOGRAM
Graph which plots the number of samples versus the digital number (the statistical distribution of brightness) of
data selected from a region of an image.
IMAGE (RADAR)
Mapping of the observed radar reflectivity of a scene. For radars with digital image processing, the image consists
of a file of digital numbers assigned to spatial positions on a grid of pixels, and presented either as hard copy
(such as a photographic print) or soft copy (such as a digital data record). All radar images are subject to
statistical variations, mainly speckle and noise. These variations must be accommodated in either visual or
numerical image interpretation. The most commonly used image formats occur after detection. After calibration
(and compensation for speckle and noise effects), image files from magnitude squared detection are proportional,
on average, to sigma nought σ0. Magnitude scaling (formed by taking the square root of the power image which is
proportional to σ0) is the "standard" for most SAR image files. A magnitude image often yields a photographic
copy that is more readily interpreted visually, and requires less dynamic range and data storage space. A digital
SAR image file may be retained in complex format (before detection) for specialized applications.
IMAGE QUALITY (SAR)
QSAR, equal to the product of the number of (statistically independent) looks in range and in azimuth, divided by
the product of the range and the azimuth resolutions. This parameter is proportional to the product of the range
and azimuth bandwidths, and thus is a fundamental estimate of the end-to-end information capacity of the
system.
IMPULSE RESPONSE
Also known as the point spread function, it is the two-dimensional brightness pattern in an image (after
processing) corresponding to the signal reflected by an object whose sigma falls within the dynamic range of the
system, and for which the width of the imaged pattern is determined by the radar and processor rather than by the
size of the object. (A trihedral corner reflector is the most commonly used object for generating an impulse
response in a test image.) A "good" impulse response has a relatively large value for the pixel that maps the point
scatterer location, and very small values for all surrounding pixels. The impulse response is a basic building block
in describing a given radar's imaging performance, since an image is built up from the linear combination of
impulse responses from all individual scatterers illuminated by the radar. The impulse response width (IRW, or
resolution) of the central peak is the most important characteristic of the impulse response, together with the
shape of the impulse response distribution both close to and remote from its centre.
IN-PHASE ( I )
Component of the signal that has the same phase as the complex reference frequency. In-phase is represented
by the constant I.
INCIDENT ANGLE
Angle between the line of sight from the radar to an element of an imaged scene, and a vertical direction
characteristic of the scene. The definition of "vertical" for this purpose is important. One must distinguish between
the (nominal) "incident angle" determined by the large scale geometry of the radar and the Earth's geoidal
surface, and the local incident angle which takes into account the mean slope with each pixel of the image.
Smaller incident angle refers to viewing line of sight being closer to the (local) vertical, hence "steeper". (See
aspect angle.) In general, reflectivity from distributed scatterers decreases with increasing incident angle.
INCOHERENT (OR NONCOHERENT)
Property of a signal or data set in which the phases of the constituents are not statistically correlated, or
systematically related in any fashion. The combined power PNCoh of a set of incoherent signals {si} is the sum of
the powers of all of the individual signals, PNcoh = |s1|2 + |s2 | 2+ |s3|2 (See coherent.)
INTENSITY
Strength of a field or of a distribution, such as an image file, proportional to magnitude, squared.
INTERFEROMETER
Device such as an imaging radar that uses two different paths for imaging, and deduces information from the
coherent interference between the two signals. In SAR applications, spatial interferometry has been demonstrated
to measure terrain height, and time delay interferometry is used to measure movement in the scene such as
oceanic currents.
JERS-1
Satellite launched by Japan in February 1992. The payload included an L-band SAR, HH polarization and 38.5°
incident angle. It also carried a stereo viewing visible and infrared optical sensor. Ref: Proceedings of the IEEE,
June 1991. The satellite ceased operations in October, 1998.
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY (JPL)
Facility located at the California Institute of Technology, in Pasedena, USA. JPL is renowned for their airborne
radar systems and for development of civilian SAR technology.
L-BAND
Microwave band in which the wavelengths are at or near 23.5 cm.
LAYOVER
Extreme form of elevation displacement or foreshortening in which the top of a reflecting object (such as a
mountain) is closer to the radar (in slant range) than are the lower parts of the object. The image of such a feature
appears to have fallen over towards the radar. The effect is more pronounced for radars having smaller incident
angle.
LINEARITY
Property according to which an operation on a sum of signals is equivalent to the same operation applied to each
of the signals individually, and the resulting numbers added together. If C is a multiplicative constant, then a linear
operation on any two numbers x and y satisfies Cx + Cy ≥ C(x+y) + C0. (The additive constant C0 is needed to
account for realistic behaviour of many practical systems that may impose a constant offset onto the sum.)
Linearity, over the dynamic range of the system, is an essential attribute of most measurement devices such as
imaging radars.
LOOKS
Each of the sub-images used to form the output summed image, implemented in a SAR processor. Speckle, the
radiometric uncertainty in each estimate of the scene's reflectivity, is reduced by the averaging implied by adding
together different detected images of the same scene. For N statistically independent looks (which may be
implemented in various ways), the standard deviation of each estimate is reduced by N 1/2. Multiple looks may be
generated by averaging over Nr range cells and/or Na azimuth resolution cells. For an improvement in radiometric
resolution using multiple looks there is an associated degradation in spatial resolution. Note that there is a
difference between the number of looks physically implemented in a processor, and the effective number of looks
as determined by the statistics of the image data.
LOSS TANGENT
Ratio of the imaginary part of the dielectric constant to the real part, written as tan (tanδ = ε”/ε’). Low loss
materials satisfy tan2δ<<1 .
MAGNITUDE
One of three parameters required to describe a wave. Magnitude is the amplitude of the wave irrespective of the
phase. For a complex signal described by in-phase ( I ) and quadrature (Q) components, the magnitude is given
by m = (I 2 + Q 2)1/2. For complex amplitude a, magnitude is, by definition, the absolute value of amplitude, a
(See detection).
MATCHED FILTER
The matched filter (first derived by North in 1942) maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio of the processor output
when the input is a known signal against an additive noise background. A mathematical model of the detailed
structure of a specific two-dimensional distribution, applied in a processor to cancel the phase structure of the
desired set of signals.
MICROWAVE
An electromagnetic wavelength in (or near) the span 1-100 cm.
MULTI-LOOK
(See Looks.)
MOTION COMPENSATION
Adjustment of a sensing system and/or the recorded data to remove effects of platform motion, including rotation
and translation, and variations in along track velocity. Motion compensation is essential for aircraft SARs, but
usually is not needed for spacecraft SARs.
NADIR
Locus of points on the surface of the Earth directly below the radar as it progresses along its line of flight.
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION (NASA)
American organization.
NATIONAL SPACE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (NASDA)
Japanese organization.
NOISE
Any unwanted or contaminating signal competing with the desired signal. In a SAR, two common kinds of noise
are additive (receiver) noise and signal dependent noise, usually either additive or multiplicative. The relative
amount of additive noise is described by the signal-to-noise ratio. Signal dependent noises, such as azimuth
ambiguities or quantization noise, arise from system imperfections, and are dependent on the strength of the
signal itself. "Good" SAR systems usually keep these noise levels below acceptable levels, by design. (Speckle is
sometimes considered to be a kind of signal dependent multiplicative noise in a SAR system.)
NOISE EQUIVALENT SIGMA NOUGHT (σ0Neq)
A measure of the sensitivity of a given SAR. It describes the strength of the (additive) system noise in terms of the
equivalent (average) power in the image domain that would result from an idealized distributed scatterer of the
stated reflectivity. Smaller noise equivalent sigma nought values are better. Within physical limitations, smaller
may be achieved by increasing the power of the radar transmitter, or by decreasing the noise figure of the
electronics.
NOISE FIGURE
Factor that describes the noise level in a radar receiver relative to that in a theoretically perfect receiver. The
noise figure, which is always larger than one, is typically two or more, and is usually expressed in decibels.
ONE-WAY
The radar wave is emitted by the transmitting antenna, so that the antenna gain sweeps the illuminated scene.
The same antenna is used for reception, and the energy backscattered by the scene is amplified by the same
antenna gain for collection and processing by the radar's receiver. Thus the received pulse must travel two ways:
out to each object at range R, and back again the same distance. Numbers relating to only one direction of
propagation are denoted as "one-way", and the corresponding numbers that include the round trip are called "two-
way". The difference between "one-way" and "two-way" is important in measuring signal phase, in measuring the
effective width of an antenna pattern, and in the relationship between two-way delay time t and range distance R,
such that R = ct / 2. (See speed of light and antenna)
P-BAND
As has been adopted by the SAR community, the microwave band in which the wavelengths are at or near 75 cm.
PALSAR
Phased-Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar, to be onboard ALOS. Incident angle range from 18 to 55
degrees. Dual polarization. Nominal 10 m resolution, depending on polarization modes and number of looks.
Modes include ScanSAR, swath width 350 km.
PARALLAX
Apparent change in the position of an object due to an actual change in the point of view of observation. For a
SAR, true parallax occurs only with viewpoint changes that are away from the nominal flight path of the radar. In
contrast to aerial photography, parallax cannot be created by forward and aft looking "exposures". Parallax may
be used to create stereo viewing of radar images.
PENETRATION
Act of microwaves entering a medium such as dry sand or forest leaf canopy. Microwave penetration, in general,
is proportional to the wavelength, and inversely proportional to the loss tangent. The penetration depth Dpen for
most natural materials (except highly conductive media such as water) encountered in radar remote sensing is
given by Dpen = λ / (π tanδ), where λ is the wavelength, and tanδ is the loss tangent.
PERIOD
Time duration of one cycle of a wave, or of one cycle of any regularly recurring pattern. Period is inversely equal
to frequency. (Units of time, such as seconds).
PERMEABILITY
Parameter that describes the magnetic properties of a material. For remote sensing applications, (magnetic)
permeability, µ, is essentially the same for all materials of interest, and plays an insignificant role in image
interpretation.
PERMITTIVITY
(See dielectric constant.)
PHASE
The angle ϕ of a complex number.
PHASE HISTORY
The time series of signals received and recorded by a coherent sensor, especially a SAR. Subsequent processing
is used to match the phase structure of the signal in order to focus or compress the data.
PITCH
Vertical rotation of a sensor platform, in the "nose up" plane.
PIXEL
Term derived from "picture element" in a digital representation to indicate the spatial
position of a sample of an image file, which consists of a spatial array of digital numbers. A two-dimensional
ensemble of pixels forms the geometric grid on which an image is built. The fundamental parameter describing
this grid is the inter-pixel spacing in each of the two image directions. (To confuse matters, pixel spacing is often
referred to as "pixel" or "pixel size" in the literature. Pixel "size" is to be avoided.)
POLARIZATION
Orientation of the electric (E) vector in an electromagnetic wave, frequently "horizontal" (H) or "vertical" (V) in
conventional imaging radar systems. Polarization is established by the antenna, which may be adjusted to be
different on transmit and on receive. Reflectivity of microwaves from an object depends on the relationship
between the polarization state and the geometric structure of the object. Common shorthand notation for band
and polarization properties of an image file is to state the band, with a subscript for the receive and the transmit
state of polarization, in that order. Thus, for example, LHV indicates L-band, horizontal receive polarization, and
vertical transmit polarization. Possible states of polarization in addition to vertical and horizontal include all
angular orientations of the E vector, and time varying orientations leading to elliptical and circular polarizations.
(See quadrature polarization.)
POST-PROCESSING
Steps that may be applied to digital SAR image files to adjust selected attributes of the image, such as geometric
accuracy or radiometric corrections, including speckle reduction and contrast enhancement, or any other form of
value-added processing.
POWER
Power for a given signal is proportional to the square of its magnitude per unit time. (Units are Watts.)
PROCESSING
Sometimes denoted "preprocessing", it is the means of converting the received reflected signal into an image.
Processing consists of image focusing through matched filter integration, detection, and multi-look summation.
The output files of a SAR processor usually are presented with unity aspect ratio (so that range and azimuth
image scales are the same). Images may be either in slant range or ground range projection. Both of these spatial
adjustments require resampling of the image file.
PROPAGATION
The movement of energy in the form of waves through space or other media. Electromagnetic waves move at the
speed of light c in free space, but the speed v of propagation through other materials is reduced according to the
dielectric constant of the material in question, according to v = c / ( εµ )1/2.
PULSE
Group of waves with a distribution confined to a short interval of time. Such a distribution is described in the time
domain (or in spatial dimensions) by its width and its amplitude or magnitude, from which its energy may be
found. In radar, use is made of modulated or coded pulses which must be processed to decode or compress the
original pulse to achieve the impulse response observed in the image. Coded pulses have a time-bandwidth
product that is much larger than unity. The resolution that may be achieved after processing is determined by the
bandwidth of the original pulse.
PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF)
Rate of recurrence of the pulses transmitted by a radar.
QUADRATURE ( Q )
Signal component that is 90° out of phase with respect to the reference frequency.
QUADRATURE POLARIZATION ("QUAD POL") RADAR
System designed to simultaneously collect imaging data of a scene in two orthogonal polarization states on
transmit and the same two polarization states on receive. From such a data set a complete scattering matrix of
the reflectivity of the scene may be synthesized, leading to the concept of polarization signature. The best known
example of a "quad pol" radar is the AirSAR of JPL.
RADAR
Electromagnetic sensor characterized by RAdio Detection And Ranging, from which the acronym RADAR is
derived. Predicted in the early part of the 20th century, the first important system was built in England in 1938.
Basic building blocks of a radar are the transmitter, the antenna (normally used for both transmission and for
reception), the receiver, and the data handling equipment. A synthetic aperture radar system, by implication,
includes an image processor, even though it may be remotely located in time or space from the radar electronics.
RADAR ALTIMETER
Active microwave sensor designed to measure the sea surface height (relative to the geoid) and significant wave
height. State-of-the-art height measurements (eg. TOPEX/Poseidon and ERS) are accurate to a few centimeters,
which requires extensive precision orbit determination and corrections for propagation delays.
RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS)
Measure of radar reflectivity. RCS is expressed in terms of the physical size of an hypothetical uniformly
scattering sphere that would give rise to the same level of reflection as that observed from the sample target.
(See sigma.)
RADAR EQUATION
Mathematical expression that describes the average received signal level (or, sometimes, the image signal level)
compared to the additive noise level, in terms of system parameters. Principal parameters include transmitted
power, antenna gain, noise power, and radar range R. The range effect is sometimes called the spreading factor,
since effective power decreases significantly with a small increase in range. All else equal, the power received by
a SAR per image pixel is proportional to R-3.
RADARSAT-2
Multi-mode C-band SAR satellite sponsored by Canada, being prepared for launch in 2003, and which
incorporates all of the modes of RADARSAT-1 plus full quadrature-polarimetry and enhanced resolution.
RADAR VELOCITY
As it arises in the processing literature, the so-called radar velocity is the square root of the product of spacecraft
velocity and footprint (or beam) velocity. Note that this number is a fiction, in that it does not correspond to a
physical velocity. Its use is to be discouraged.
RADIOMETRIC RESOLUTION
The expected spread of variation in each estimate of scene reflectivity as observed in an image. Smaller
radiometric resolution is "better". Radiometric resolution for a given radar may be improved by averaging, but at
the cost of spatial resolution. (See looks.)
RANGE
Line of sight distance between the radar and each illuminated scatterer (see one-way). In SAR usage, the term is
also applied to the dimension of an image away from the line of flight of the radar. (See slant range and ground
range.)
RANGE AMBIGUITIES
Unwanted echoes that fall into the image from positions that in fact are outside of the intended swath, due to the
range sampling operation of the radar. Range ambiguities may be minimized by antenna pattern and imaging
mode control and are observed only rarely in imagery from well designed systems.
RANGE CURVATURE
Describes the changing distance between the radar and an object during the time that the object is illuminated by
the antenna. Range curvature is more important for long range systems such as satellite SARs, and must be
compensated in the processor as a part of image focusing.
RANGE RESOLUTION
Resolution characteristic of the range dimension, usually applied to the image domain, either in the slant range
plane or in the ground range plane. Range resolution is fundamentally determined by the system bandwidth in the
range channel.
RAR (REAL APERTURE RADAR)
Real aperture radar, as opposed to SAR. Real aperture implies that the cross-range resolution is given by the
product of beamwidth and radar range. Beamwidth is inversely proportional to aperture size.
REFLECTIVITY
Property of illuminated objects to reradiate a portion of the incident energy. Reflectivity, in general, is larger in the
specular direction for smaller surface roughness. For side looking radars, backscatter is the observable portion of
the energy reflected. Backscatter, in general, is increased by greater surface roughness. In general, reflectivity is
increased for higher conductivity of the scattering surface. The relative strength of radar reflectivity is tabulated by
sigma, for discrete objects, and by sigma nought for natural terrain surfaces.
REFLECTIVITY, COMPLEX COEFFICIENT OF
Ratio of the complex amplitude of the reflected electric component to the incident electric component of an
electromagnetic wave at a surface orthogonal to the incoming illumination.
RELIEF DISPLACEMENT
Alternative term for elevation displacement.
RESOLUTION (Radar)
Generally (but loosely) defined as the width of the "point spread function", the "Green's function", or the " impulse
response function", depending on whether one has an optics, a physics, or an electronic systems background.
More properly, "resolution" refers to the ability of a system to differentiate two image features corresponding to
two closely spaced small objects in the illuminated scene when the brightness of the two objects in question are
comparable and fall within the dynamic range of the radar in question. (Definition adapted from Lord Rayleigh
[1879]). "Higher resolution" refers to a system having a smaller impulse response width.
RESOLUTION CELL
A three-dimensional cylindrical volume surrounding each point in the scene. The cell range depth is slant range
resolution, its width is azimuth resolution, and its height, which is conformal to the illumination wavefront, is limited
only by the vertical beam width of the antenna pattern. Resolution cell often is defined with respect to the local
horizontal. (See ground range).
ROLL
Rotation of a sensor platform around the flight vector, hence in a "wing down" direction.
ROUGHNESS
Variation of surface height within an imaged resolution cell. A surface appears "rough"
to microwave illumination when the height variations become larger than a fraction of
the radar wavelength. The fraction is qualitative, but may be shown to decrease with incident angle.
SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar, so-called because azimuth resolution is achieved through computer operations on a
set of (coherently recorded) signals such that the processor is able to function like a large antenna aperture in
computer memory, thus realizing azimuth resolution improvement in proportion to aperture size. The SAR concept
was introduced by C. Wiley (USA) in 1951.
S-BAND
Microwave band in which the wavelengths are at or near 10 cm.
SCATTERING MATRIX
Array of four complex numbers that describes the transformation of the polarization of a wave incident upon a
reflective medium to the polarization of the backscattered wave. It is the polarization vector counterpart to the
coefficient of reflectivity.
SCENE
Object space; that part of the Earth's surface illuminated by the radar for which image acquisition may occur.
SEASAT
NASA ocean research satellite that was in operation July-September of 1978. SEASAT was the first (civilian)
satellite to carry a SAR. It operated at L-band, using horizontal polarization at 22° incident angle. Data from
SEASAT is still important for applications and processing technique development.
SENSITIVITY TIME CONTROL (STC)
Pre-programmed change in radar amplitude due to weaker backscatter from greater ranges and varying incident
angles across the imaged swath.
SHADOW
From an optical point of view as seen from the position of a radar, a region hidden behind an elevated feature in
the scene would be out of sight. This region corresponds to that which does not get illuminated by the radar
energy, and thus is also not visible in the resulting radar image. The region is filled with "no reflectivity", which
appears as small digital numbers, or a dark region in hard copy.
SIDELOBES
Non-zero levels in a distribution that are separated from the desired central response. Sidelobes arise naturally in
antenna patterns, although in general, they are considered to be a nuisance, and must be suppressed as much
as possible. Large side-lobes may lead to unwanted multiple images of a single feature.
SIGMA ( σ )
The conventional measure of the strength of a radar signal reflected from a geometric object (natural or
manufactured) such as a corner reflector. Sigma specifies the strength of reflection in terms of the geometric
cross section of a conducting sphere that would give rise to the same level of reflectivity. (Units of area, such as
metres squared). (See radar cross section.)
SIGMA NOUGHT (σ° )
Scattering coefficient, or the conventional measure of the strength of radar signals reflected by a distributed
scatterer, usually expressed in dB. It is a normalized dimensionless number, comparing the strength observed to
that expected from an area of one square metre. Sigma nought is defined with respect to the nominally horizontal
plane, and in general has a significant variation with incident angle, wavelength, and polarization, as well as with
properties of the scattering surface itself. (See speckle, statistics.)
SIGNAL
Generalized terminology used to signify a mathematical description of a wave, pulse, or other sequence of
interest. It often suggests the ensemble of data corresponding to observed scattering from the scene, either
before reception, within the radar or processor, or in the image file. Normally there is a distinction between
"signal" and noise.
SIR-A (SHUTTLE IMAGING RADAR-A)
NASA sponsored radar mission in the Shuttle, lasting about one week. SIR-A (November 1981) was at L-band,
HH polarization, nominally 50° incident angle, and was optically processed.
SIR-B (SHUTTLE IMAGING RADAR-B)
NASA sponsored radar mission in the Shuttle, lasting about one week. SIR-B (October 1984) was at L-band, HH
polarization, offered a variety of incident angles from about 20° to 50°, and was digitally processed.
SIR-C (SHUTTLE IMAGING RADAR-C)
A Shuttle radar used for missions in the 1990s.
SLANT RANGE
Image direction as measured along the sequence of line-of-sight rays from the radar to each and every reflecting
point in the illuminated scene. Since a SAR looks down and to the side, the slant range to ground range
transformation has an inherent geometric scale which changes across the image swath. (See ground range.)
SLAR
Side-looking airborne radar, a term originally coined in the late 1940’s to describe a real aperture radar configured
to generate imagery using side-looking geometry. The term sometimes is invoked as an antonym to SAR, but
strictly interpreted, a SAR is one type of SLAR. To remove this ambiguity, the term RAR was introduced.
SPACECRAFT VELOCITY
Physical velocity of the spacecraft along its orbital path. The spacecraft velocity of a satellite in low-earth orbit
(near 800 km altitude) is about 7.4 km/s.
SPECKLE
Statistical fluctuation or uncertainty associated with the brightness of each pixel in the image of a scene. A single
look SAR system achieves one estimate of the reflectivity of each resolution cell in the image. Speckle may be
reduced, at the expense of resolution, in the SAR processor by using several looks. Speckle appears as a
multiplicative random process whose variance and spatial correlation are determined primarily by the SAR
system.
SPECULAR
Coherent reflection from a smooth surface in a plane normal to the surface at an angle opposite to the local
incident angle. (From speculum, mirror in Latin.)
SPEED OF LIGHT ( c )
Approximately 300,000,000 metres per second. This is the speed of light in "free space", a condition typical of
electromagnetic propagation through most atmospheric conditions found on Earth. Denser media, such as the
atmosphere of Venus, that have a low loss dielectric constant, retard the speed of propagation according to their
material properties.
SpotSAR (SPOTLIGHT MODE)
SAR imaging mode in which the antenna pattern is skewed so that only one (small) area is illuminated as the
radar passes. The benefit is that the data collected has very large Doppler bandwidth, which can be converted
into very fine resolution. The disadvantage is that only the illuminated area is imaged. Adjacent regions that are
not illuminated cannot be imaged.
SQUINT MODE
SAR imaging mode in which the antenna pattern is maintained at an angle that is not orthogonal to the line-of-
flight. The most common configuration has the antenna pointed towards the nose of an aircraft, sometimes as
little as ten degrees with respect to the forward velocity vector. Since RADARSAT’s antenna is pointed orthogonal
to the satellite’s line-of-flight, Earth rotation imposes an effective squint angle up to ±3 degrees relative to the
zero-Doppler plane.
SRTM (SHUTTLE RADAR TOPOGRAPHY MISSION)
The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, which flew February 11-22, 2000, was a dedicated re-flight of the SIR-C /
X-SAR hardware, augmented by C-band and X-band antennas mounted on a 60 m boom extended orthogonal to
the slant range plane, thus to form a real-time cross-track interferometer. The mission gathered data for eight
days, collecting topographic data for all of the Earth’s land mass that was within view of the radar.
STATISTICS
Set of numbers that describes average properties of a random process. For example, σ0 is the reflectivity
observed from a uniform target with a two-dimensional surface, say x and y. Each observation of σ0 (x,y) is a
sample function having a variety of values at each location due to speckle. The probability distribution function is
determined primarily by the number of independent looks used in the processor (NL ). The average value of the
corresponding image brightness is the mean reflectivity σ 0, and the average difference between the highest and
lowest brightness values is given by the standard deviation, σ0/ √NL.
STOKES MATRIX
A description of the complete polarization signature of a reflective medium. 4x4 array of real numbers that
describes the transformation of the Stokes parameters of the incident wave into the Stokes parameters of the
electromagnetic wave reflected by each element of a scene illuminated by a radar.
STOKES PARAMETERS
Set of four real numbers that together describe the state of polarization of an electromagnetic wave.
STRIP-MAP MODE
The default side-looking imaging radar configuration, wherein the antenna illumination pattern is maintained to be
orthogonal to the radar’s line-of-flight. Note that for a satellite SAR, the spacecraft velocity vector is offset from the
ground-track vector as a consequence of Earth rotation.
SWATH
Width, in the range direction, of the imaged portion of a scene.
TEXTURE (Radar)
Second order spatial average of brightness. Scene texture is the spatial variation of the average reflectivity. For
areas of nominally constant average reflectivity, image texture consists of scene texture multiplied by speckle.
TIME-BANDWIDTH PRODUCT (TBP)
Parameter found from the width of a distribution in the time (or space) domain multiplied by the width of the same
distribution observed in the frequency domain. (Typically, the azimuth [Doppler modulated] signal and the range
chirp coded pulse each have TBP larger than 100.)
TONE
First order spatial average of image brightness, often defined for a region of nominally constant average
reflectivity.
TRANSMISSION
Energy sent by the radar, normally in the form of a sequence of pulses, to illuminate a scene of interest.
TRIHEDRAL
Corner reflector formed from three mutually orthogonal surfaces.
VOLTAGE
Standard unit of magnitude of an electrical signal, named after Count A. Volta, inventor of the battery (about
1800).
VOLUME SCATTERING
Multiple scattering events occurring inside a medium, generally neither dense nor having a large loss tangent,
such as the canopy of a forest. The relative importance of volume scattering is governed by the dielectric
properties of the material.
WAVE
Propagating periodic displacement of an energy field. A surface wave on the water serves to visualize the key
properties of an electromagnetic wave. At any instant of time, a wave is described by its "height" (amplitude) and
its "length" (wavelength). Equally important is the phase of the wave, which is the number that describes the
position of the "crests" or "troughs" with respect to a given reference position. At any specific location in space,
propagation of the wave occurs and its frequency may be observed. A wave propagates within a given medium at
a speed given by the product of its wavelength and its frequency. In radar, waves are very well represented by
families of sinusoidal functions, so-called harmonic oscillation.
WAVEFRONT
Three dimensional surface in space for which the field radiated by an antenna has the same phase at all points.
At a distance R far from an antenna, the wavefront is a spherical surface with radius R over the angular window
established by the antenna pattern. For most geometries encountered in remote sensing, the wavefront may be
approximated by a plane tangent to the spherical surface, within a tolerance of much less than a wavelength over
a spatial scale of several resolution cells.
WAVELENGTH (λ)
Minimum distance between two events of a recurring feature in a periodic sequence, such as the crests in a
wave. (Units of length, such as metres).
WAVENUMBER (k)
By convention, the ratio 2π /λ where λ is the wavelength.
WIDTH, EQUIVALENT RECTANGLE
A standard definition to measure the effective width of a distribution. The width is that of a rectangular distribution
with the same amplitude as the maximum of the distribution, and having the same area in the rectangle as is in
the measured distribution.
WIDTH, 3dB
One representation of the impulse response width, which defines the spatial resolution of a radar system. The
term 3 dB refers to the width of a pulse at its half power level which is the power level 3 dB below the power at the
peak.
X-BAND
Microwave band with wavelength at or near 3 cm.
YAW
Rotation of a sensor platform in the horizontal plane, hence in a "nose right" direction.
ZERO-DOPPLER PLANE
Surface in space within which the relative velocity between the radar and the scene is zero. Note that in orbital
geometry, the zero-Doppler plane is orthogonal to the satellite’s ground track, and in general is not orthogonal to
the satellite’s velocity vector.
Acronyms Page 1 of 2
Acronyms
ADC Analog to Digital Converter

AGC Automatic Gain Control
ALE Absolute Location Error
ASL Above Sea Level
CCRS Canada Centre for Remote Sensing

CCT Computer Compatible Tape
CEOS Committee on Earth Observation System
CSA Canadian Space Agency
DEM Digital Elevation Model

dB Decibel
DN Digital Number
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EM Electromagnetic
ERS-1 European Remote Sensing Satellite
FFT Fast Fourier Transform
GCP Ground Control Point
HH Mode of Polarization: Horizontal Transmit - Horizontal Receive

HV Mode of Polarization: Horizontal Transmit - Vertical Receive
IHS Intensity, Hue and Saturation Colour Space

IRW Impulse Response Width
LUT Look Up Table
MDC Minimum Distance Classifier

MLC Maximum Likelihood Classifier
PC Parallelepiped Classifier
PRF Pulse Repetition Frequency
PSLR Peak Side Lobe Ratio
RGB Red, Green and Blue Colour Space

Acronyms Page 2 of 2
RMS Root Mean Square

RSI RADARSAT International Inc.
SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar

SCN ScanSAR Narrow
SCW ScanSAR Wide
SD Standard Deviation
SGF SAR Georeferenced Fine Resolution
SGX SAR Georeferenced Extra-Fine Resolution
SLC Single Look Complex
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SPG SAR Precision Geocoded
SSG SAR Systematically Geocoded
VIR Visible and Infrared (Portion of the EM Spectrum)

VV Mode of Polarization: Vertical Transmit - Vertical Receive
Acknowledgements Page 1 of 2
Acknowledgements
The development and production of this CD-ROM was made possible through funding and support
from the Canadian International Development Agency and the International Development
Research Centre, under the GlobeSAR 2 Program. This regional program focused on radar training
for natural resource management and environmental monitoring in Latin America.
The Canada Centre for Remote Sensing wishes to thank all those who have contributed to the
development of this radar remote sensing training package.
In particular, Dr. Brian Brisco of Noetix Research Inc. played a key role in the development of this
training package, and is gratefully acknowledged. The following individuals also made valuable
contributions: Dr. Ian Cumming (University of British Columbia), Dr. R. Keith Raney
(Johns Hopkins University), Mr. Scott Paterson (Dendron Resource Surveys Inc.) and M. Thierry
Fisette (MIR Télédétection Inc.).
The Canada Centre for Remote Sensing would also like to thank Dr. Francisco J. Ocampo-Torres
(Centro de Investigación Cientifica y de Educación Superior de Ensenada, Mexico) for reviewing the
Spanish version of the materials, Dr. Edson Sano (Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária,
Brazil) for reviewing the Portuguese version, and M. Robert Saint-Jean (MIR Télédétection) and
Mme. Caroline Forest (First Mark Technologies) for reviewing the French version.
RADARSAT images found in this material are copyright of the Canadian Space Agency. The images
were received at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing (CCRS) and processed by RADARSAT
International Inc (RSI). Image interpretation and analysis were performed at CCRS, except where
noted otherwise.
Acknowledgement is also given to the generous contributions and advice of Scientists and Multimedia
Specialists at the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. Our partners in the implementation of the
GlobeSAR-2 Program are also acknowledged: Radarsat International, PCI Geomatics,
Atlantis Scientific Inc., and the University of Sherbrooke.
CCRS specially thanks the many scientists and organizations who have kindly permitted us to
reproduce various illustrations, imagery and graphs in this CD-ROM. Every effort has been made to
correctly acknowledge these sources. Information that would allow us to rectify any errors or
omissions is welcome and would be incorporated in any subsequent releases.
Michael Henschel, Satlantic Inc.

Wolfhard Geile, Geomatics Consulting
H.M. Gansen, Intermap Technologies Inc.
John R. Jensen, University of South Carolina
John Molendyk, PCI Geomatics Inc.
Fawwaz T. Ulaby, University of Michigan
Marco van de Kooij, Atlantis Scientific Inc.
Yong Wang, East Carolina University
Educational resources for radar remote sensing were developed for a series of workshops in the
GlobeSAR-2 Latin American countries. The quality of the final materials is largely attributable to the
evaluations and feedback from the attendees of those workshops. For the organisation of the
workshops and national seminars in each country, a special thank you to all the GlobeSAR 2 co-
ordinating agencies.
Acknowledgements Page 2 of 2
Argentina CONAE Comisión Nacional de Actividades Espaciales

http://www.conae.gov.ar/caratula.html
Bolivia ABTEMA Asociación Boliviana de Teledetección para el Medio Ambiente
http://condesan.org/socios/abtema/a_uno.htm
Brazil INPE Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais
http://www.inpe.br/
Chile PUCC Pontifícia Universidad Católica de Chile, Facultad de Agronomía e
Ingeniería Forestal, Centro de Percepción Remota y Sistemas de
Información Geográficos
http://www.cprsig.puc.cl/
Colombia IGAC Instituto Geográphico Agustín Codazzi
http://www.igac.gov.co/
Costa Rica IGN Instituto Geográphico Nacional
http://www.casapres.go.cr/
Honduras AFE COHDEFOR Corporación Hondureña de Desarrollo Forestal, Administración
Forestal del Estado
http://rds.org.hn/docs/membresia/directorio/per-gob/afecoh.htm
Panama DGRM Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias, Dirección General de Recursos
Minerales
http://www.mici.gob.pa/consecmin.html
Peru CONIDA Comisión Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Aeroespacial
http://www.conida.gob.pe/
Uruguay CeCal Universidad de la República, Facultad de Ingeniería, Centro de
Calculo
http://www.fing.edu.uy/cecal/cecal.html
Venezuela CPDI Instituto de Ingeniería, Centro de Procesamiento Digital de Imágenes
http://www.fii.org/webfii/cpdi/cpdi.htm
Permission for Use
Educators are encouraged to use the material for their own teaching needs, but it must be clearly
indicated that the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing is the originator of this material and appropriate
credit must to given to the authors at all times. These documents may be reproduced in whole, for
training and educational purposes, but not for commercial exploitation. CCRS reserves the right of
distribution of this material. Requests for further copies may be directed to the Canada Centre for
Remote Sensing GlobeSAR Program.
GlobeSAR Program
Natural Resources Canada
588 Booth Street
Ottawa, Ontario
K1A 0Y7
CANADA
E-mail: globesar@ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca
WWW: http://www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/rd/programs/globsar/gsarmain_e.html

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Educational Resources for Radar Remote Sensing

Permission for Use

To run this product, you require the following minimum configuration:

z 486™ or Pentium® processor-based personal computer

RADAR Remote Sensing Course Curriculum Outline

Course 1 - RADAR Physics and Engineering

1.1) Wave Fundamentals

z Phase, Amplitude and Wavelength

1.3) Radar Principles and Synthetic Aperture Radar

z The Role of Time

 real aperture vs synthetic aperture radar

1.4) Signal, Noise, and Speckle

z Physical Noise Sources

1.5) SAR/Signal Processing

z Properties of SAR Phase History

1.6) Advanced Topics

Course 2 - Target Interaction and Image Processing

2.1) Overview of System and Target Parameters

z System and Target Parameter Descriptions

2.2) Dielectric Properties

z Real and Imaginary Parts of Complex Dielectric Constant (CDC)

2.3) Geometric Properties

z Terrain Effects on Radar Backscatter

{ smooth surface criteria

2.4) Radiometric Corrections to SAR Data

z Beta Naught, Gamma Naught, and Sigma Naught Descriptions

2.5) Geometric Correction and Exploitation of SAR Data

z SAR Platform - Target Geometry

 effects of geometry on image brightness

2.6) Information Extraction from SAR Data

z Overview of General Information Extraction Methods

2.7) Environmental Effects on SAR Data

{ rain and dew effects

Natural Resources Ressources naturelles

Radar is an acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging.

Radar provides its own energy source and, therefore, can

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by polarization,

Radar remote sensing uses the microwave portion of the

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

• The across-track dimension is referred to as “range”. Near range edge is closest to

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

First time SAR

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

A simple (i.e. real-aperture) radar has an azimuth

A synthetic aperture radar (SAR) uses signal

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Source: Raney, 1998

rR = range resolution rA = azimuth resolution

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Local Incident Angle

It is the local incident angle which in part determines the image

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

S-band: from 7.5 to 15 cm (4 to 2 GHz). Used in Almaz.

L-band: from 15 to 30 cm (2 to 1 GHz). Used on SEASAT and JERS-1.

P-band: from 30 to 100 cm (1 to 0.3 GHz). Used on NASA/JPL AIRSAR.

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, Natural Resources Canada

Radar system antennas can be configured to transmit and receive either

real aperture vs synthetic aperture radar

effects of geometry on image brightness