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Introduction
Many beginning teachers find that catering for the particular characteristics and
learning needs of students from diverse backgrounds, including Indigenous students
(that is, those from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander backgrounds), to be a real
challenge. An understanding of these students’ contexts and experience of school is
critical to providing effective teaching and achieving positive educational outcomes
for these students. This essay will focus mainly on the learning experiences of
Indigenous students, making links with key development and learning theories,
however students from other diverse backgrounds are also touched upon.
handed down orally, and where there may be relatively little parent-child reading in
the home.” (Rose, 2015) Thus the impact of Indigenous students’ microsystem
(family and home environment) closely relates to their development of literacy skills,
with literacy rates of Indigenous students consistently found to be lower than their
non-Indigenous peers (Closing the Gap, 2017).
Many other aspects of Indigenous students’ cultural contexts similarly impact upon
their learning and development. For example, Duchesne & McMaugh (2013) note
that within Indigenous cultures, children are given a far greater amount of
independence, and may therefore respond better to a more egalitarian teaching
style whereby students and teachers are treated as equals. This may also mean
parents are less inclined to enforce school attendance upon their children, one
possible reason (among many) for lower levels of school attendance among
Indigenous students.
Teachers should also take into consideration the impact of the Stolen Generation
upon students from Indigenous communities. This major chapter of Australian
history is a significant part Indigenous students’ chronosystem as discussed in
Bioecological Systems Theory, whereby sociohistorical events influence an
individual’s development. Indigenous students may have family members who were
part of the Stolen Generation themselves and thus grow up in families dealing with
“intergenerational trauma” (Korff, 2017), but even those without direct links may
experience its impact on Indigenous cultural identity and shared history.
Classroom Implications
There are many strategies teachers can employ to address the needs of Indigenous
students and those from other cultural backgrounds, drawing on both Bioecological
Systems and Social-Cultural theories of learning.
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Taking into account the various social and cultural contexts as described by
Bronfrenbrenner allows teachers to gain a better understanding of students’ needs
and strengths, allowing them to contextualise learning and bridge the divide
between home culture and school (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
The ‘8-ways’ pedagogical framework provides examples of how this may be done,
incorporating Indigenous culture and ways of learning through techniques such as
using Indigenous symbols and images, making links to land and emphasising sharing
of stories (8ways, 2017).
Teachers should also focus on building strong relationships with students from
diverse cultural backgrounds, as well as a strong sense of school and class
community. This may include getting to know students outside of the classroom,
connecting with families, and setting class goals to be achieved as a group. This
emphasis on social connections, closely linked with social-cognitive theory, can
encourage group accountability and raise student motivation.
Conclusion
All students are impacted by the contexts in which they develop. Key to recognising
and addressing particular challenges and needs of students is an understanding of
their cultural background and the ways in which this impacts upon their learning.
References
Closing the Gap. (2017). Education | Closing the Gap. Retrieved 1 May 2017, from
http://closingthegap.pmc.gov.au/education
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.
Introduction
Motivation may be intrinsic, arising from a student’s internal sources; their own
desire to explore, learn and be challenged. Alternatively motivation may be
extrinsic, based on external sources of feedback such as words of praise or
tangible rewards (Woodfolk, 2004).
Whilst there are students who may regularly show high levels of motivation in
learning, others present as unmotivated and unwilling to engage in learning.
Students may feel as though they are ‘hopeless’ in a particular subject area, that
there is no use in trying, or that the content being learnt has little or no relevance
to their lives.
If a student feels as though they are not strong in a subject area or particular skill
set, they will define themselves as ‘hopeless’, believing they are incapable of
success and thus lose any motivation to engage in learning (Woodfolk, 2004).
This may also lead to anxiety and stress within the classroom, lowering their
ability to take in new information and thus further hampering their learning.
Conversely, if a student has high self-efficacy, believing they are capable and
experiencing success in learning, they will be much more receptive to new
information and keen to build on their knowledge and skills (Middleton & Perks,
2016).
Motivation and self-efficacy can also be closely linked with Vygotsky’s Zone of
Proximal Development; the distance between what is already known by students
and what can be achieved with support (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013). If students
are stretched too far and unable to experience any learning success, their self-
efficacy will be lowered and motivation decreased. Thus learning occurring
within the Zone of Proximal Development, which challenges them to think in
new ways and take in new information but does so with support and operates
within their comfort level, will lead to higher self-efficacy, higher motivation and
better learning outcomes (Woodfolk, 2004).
Classroom Implications
There are many ways in which student motivation can be increased, according to
the above behaviourist and socio-cognitive theories.
success builds their self-efficacy; students begin to see that they are capable of
learning, they will be less concerned about failure and feel safe to be challenged
in their understanding (Kamil, et al., 2008).
Conclusion
References
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.
Kamil, M. L., Borman, G. D., Dole, J., Kral, C. C., Salinger, T., and Torgesen, J. (2008).
Improving adolescent literacy: Effective classroom and intervention practices: A
Practice Guide. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and
Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of
Education. Retrieved from http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc
Middleton, M., & Perks, K. (2016). Motivation to learn (1st ed.). Thousand Oaks,
California: Corwin.
Introduction
In New South Wales alone, 395,000 students across more than 2,185 public schools
are currently identified as coming from “low socio-economic backgrounds” (NSW
Education, 2017). It is therefore critical for pre-service teachers to understand the
learning challenges that may be faced by these students and develop strategies for
engaging students in meaningful learning.
It has been well documented that students from low socio-economic status (SES)
backgrounds generally experience lower levels of educational outcomes than
students from high SES families (Woodfolk, 2004, pp. 158), though as with any
generalisation there will always be outliers from this trend. The reasons for this
disparity are manifold, including availability of resources, health factors, parental
support, and expectations from teachers, peers and students themselves.
The challenges faced by low SES students and subsequent impacts upon learning can
be understood through various theoretical lenses. This essay will focus on both
Humanist and Bioecological Systems Theories of development and the teaching
implications and strategies following from each.
Students within low SES families and communities may struggle to meet the most
basic of human needs: physiological wellbeing. These students may have limited
access to sufficient nutrition and therefore cannot engage in learning to their fullest
potential (Woodfolk, 2004). Poor or inadequate nutrition has a significant impact
upon cognitive development, including limited brain and physical growth, protection
against disease, levels of motivation and ability to focus attention Likewise, low SES
students may lack access to adequate healthcare, leading to physiological limitations
or extended periods away from school due to illness (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Feeling safe is another basic need outlined by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The
Australian Bureau of Statistics notes that although domestic violence occurs at all
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Self-esteem is another critical aspect of Humanist Theory and fulfilling this need an
important part of the development process. Low SES students may experience low
self-esteem and self-efficacy, identifying themselves as low-achieving or part of a
group incapable of high educational outcomes Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013. As
Woodfolk (2014) notes, this may even be reinforced by teachers by not calling on
them in the classroom for fear of causing embarrassment or unwanted attention.
The very categorisation of students by socioeconomic status links closely with their
parents’ level or type of employment, an element of their exosystem. Parents may
work multiple jobs, meaning they are unable to assist students with homework, and
students in single-parent households may have to care for younger siblings, reducing
the time they are able to dedicate to study (Woodfolk, 2004).
Microsystems of low SES students also play a critical role in their process of learning,
often in detrimental ways. Families identified as low SES are, by definition, lacking in
financial resources and therefore have a reduced ability to provide resources to
assist student learning. For example, students from families with a low level of
income may not have access to a home computer, reducing their ability to engage
with online learning, build ICT skills outside of school and explore the Internet for
research tasks. Similarly, families may not be able to afford high quality preschool
education during students’ early developmental years.
Woodfolk (2014) suggests that students from low SES communities can be impacted
by their mesosystem by creating or becoming part of ‘resistance cultures’; social
networks in which doing well in school is looked down upon and seen as ‘selling out’.
In order to maintain their identity and status within the group, students learn to
reject behaviours that would make them successful learners, such as studying,
building relationships with teachers and attending school regularly.
Laura McGilvray: Analysis and application of learning and development theories
Classroom Implications
The above theories of learning and analyses of the challenges faced by low SES
students point a range of classroom implications and strategies to boost student
engagement in learning.
According to Humanistic Theory, the first step to facilitate effective learning for low
SES students is to ensure their basic needs are met. Physical needs may be
addressed by establishing a breakfast program for students to ensure they begin the
day with a nutritious meal. In this case it would also be important to ensure the meal
is open to all students, reducing the potential for stigmatisation of students in
particular need.
The need for safety may be addressed by ensuring students have access to a
qualified school counsellor, that a robust, school-wide anti-bullying policy is in place
and the school provides safe spaces for students to utilise after school hours.
Likewise students’ sense of belonging can be built by creating a strong sense of
community within the school and classroom, where expectations are established,
successes celebrated and collaboration fostered.
Strategies for building student self-esteem and self-efficacy may include setting
realistic and achievable goals, providing scaffolding for difficult tasks and providing
positive reinforcement (Duchesne & McMaugh, 2013).
Conclusion
Students from low SES backgrounds are by no means fated to low educational
outcomes. However, these students do face certain challenges as a result of their
socioeconomic circumstances. Humanist and Bioeclogical Systems Theories can
assist teachers in understanding these challenges and create classrooms in which
students’ needs are met at a holistic level and personal circumstances taken into
account.
References
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). 4529.0 - Defining the Data Challenge for
Family, Domestic and Sexual Violence, 2013. Abs.gov.au. Retrieved 4 May 2017,
from
http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4529.0main+features10001
2013
Duchesne, D., & McMaugh, D. (2013). Educational Psychology for Learning and
Teaching (4th ed., Ch 10). Melbourne: Cengage Learning Australia.