Table of Contents

Abstract

Glossary

INTRODUCTION………………………………………….………………….5
CHAPTER I- The collocation as a type of multiword unit……….………...8
1.1.1. Idioms……………………………………………………………………………. .8
1.1.2. Phrasesiological units……………………………………………………………... 9
1.1.3. Compound words…………………………………………………………………. 14
1.1.4. Phrases……………………………………………………………………………..15
1.2. Defining the collocations……………………………………………………….. 17
1.2.1. Defying the collocations……………………………………………………… 17
1.2.2. The problem of collocations ……………………………………………………22
1.2.3. The use of collocations………………………………………………………… 24
1.2.4. Types of collocations……………………………………………………………27
1.2.5. The importance of collocations………………………………………………… 28
CHAPTER II - Structural classification of collocations………………… 31
2.1.1. - Structural classification based on their types…………………………………32
2.1.2. Structural classification based on number of elements……………………… 32
2.1.3. Structural classification based on parts of speech…………………………… 37
2.1.4. The translation techniques’ analyzation. ……………………………………40

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………65

Summary……………………………………………………………………..67

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………68
Appendices…………………………………………………………………...70
Abstract

The main purpose of this research paper is to distinguish the collocation from other word
groups’ like- phrases, idioms, compound words and phraseological units which make
difficulties in learning the collocation as a single word group. In addition, in this research are
made some analyses based on five types of collocations; these types of collocations will be
analyzed according to: number of elements, parts of speech and translation techniques in
order to have a better view of collocations.
Altogether, it is hoped that the result of this research has not only produced a usable on
line collocational aid, but also to demonstrate a simple and efficient way of understanding
better the collocations.
 Glossary
1. Adverb- a word like tomorrow, once, badly, there, also to say, for example, when,
where, or how something happens .There are many kinds: adverb participle – words
like up, out, off, used as part of phrasal verb –clean up, sold out, tell off.
2. Adjective – a word like green, hungry, impossible, which is used to describe people,
things, events, etc, adjectives are used in connection with nouns or pronouns –a green
apple, she is hungry.
3. Article – a, an, and the, are called articles, a, an, are called the infinitive article, the-
is called the definite article.
4. Attribute – adjective placed before nouns are in attributive position, a green shirt, and
my noisy sun.
5. Compound words – a noun, an adjective etc, composed of two or more words, or parts
of words, written as one or more words or joined by a hyphen – armchair, living-
room, afternoon.
6. Conjunction – a word like and, but, although, because, when, if, can be used to join
clauses, together, example I rang because I was worried about you.
7. Idioms – a) the language or a dialect of a group of people or a country. b) a phrase or
sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and
which must be learned as a whole unit ,e.g. give way, a change of heart.
8. Noun – a word like, oil, memory, arm, which can be used with an article, nouns are
most often names of people or things, personal names e.g. George, and place, e.g.
Moldova, are called proper nouns, they are usually used without articles.
9. Number – the way in which differences between singular and plural are shown
grammatically. The difference between nose and noses, house and houses, this and
these are differences of number.
10. Phrases – two or more words that function together as a group or more words that
function together as a group, e.g. dead tired, the silly old woman, in the country.
11. Phrasal verb – a verb that is made up of two parts; a base verb followed by an adverb
particle e.g. fill up, run over, take in, go on.
12. Phraseology – the choice or arrangement of words; the wording, e.g. tried hard, could
do better.
13. Preposition – a word like, off, of, on, in, into, to, at, normally followed by a noun or
pronoun.
14. Pronoun – a word like it, yourself, their, my, his, her, which is used instead of a more
precise noun or noun phrase (like the cat, Peter, the family).The word pronoun can
also be used for a determiner when this includes the meaning of a following noun
which has been left out, which bottle would you like, I will take both, (both stands for
both bottles, and we can say that it is used as pronoun).
15. Verb – a word like – ask, wake, play, be, can, draw, which can be used with a subject
o form the basis of clause; most verbs refer to actions or states.

Abbreviations used in this research

1. ADV.-Adverb
2. ADJ. – Adjective
3. N – Noun
4. V – Verb
5. PREP – Preposition
6. ART – Article
7. CONJ – Conjunction
8. PR – Pronoun
 Introduction

This research paper deals with:” The problem of collocations in English language”.
Although many people consider that to know a language the most important is to learn words,
there has recently been an increasing awareness that the way of combining the words is the
important key of speaking, writing and understanding a language.
Words are our tools of expressing our ideas, thoughts, feelings, and reactions.
Sometimes it is difficult even in our mother language to find words that are precise enough to
render our exact message across to others. When we use English we are faced with a
language that deals with a lot of word-groups which can be hard distinguished among them
and also hard to understand their meaning. It can be said that English is a language full of
traps which are easy to fall into, for example word groups like phrases, idioms,
phraseological units, compound words and collocations.
Although there is a growing recognition of collocation in language teaching, there
seems to be a lack of understanding of its true significance. Linguists and teachers have
concentrated their attention on the extreme ends of the spectrum: free combinations and
idioms, giving learners the impression that there are two distinct models of construction: the
unfettered application of generative rules to lexis in free combinations, on the one hand, and
complete frozenness in idioms, on the other.
Although the term collocation is increasingly used by writers in a number of
languages – related fields, it has perhaps not yet achieved wide recognition in applied
linguistics, nor are the implications of research within the field fully understood or made
available to language teachers. This is partly the result of interest in the phenomenon of word
combination being developed independently in variety of disciplines, and few linguists have
attempted an overview. It is not possible within a scope of a single article to give an account
of whole field, and the focus of this paper is restricted to those aspects of the subject that
have to define the collocations as a single word unit.
 That is why this research paper is based on the problem of collocations in order to
define and distinguish it as a single unit from other word groups mentioned above, to
analyze its classification structure and translation techniques.
This research paper “The problem of collocation in English language “, consists of two
chapters and subchapters. First chapter, “The collocation as a type of multiword unit”, is
focused on defining the other word groups: idioms, compound words, phraseological units
and phrases in order to understand better the collocation and not to have problems in
distinguishing it from these word groups because they have a lot of peculiarities which make
them to be wrong understood as a single unit. The second sub chapter is based on defying the
collocation and distinguishing it, after briefly presentation of the word groups which mix up
the understanding of collocation, here is presented largely the collocation as a single unit, its
importance and its use in English language. After defying the collocation and its importance
in learning a language, follows the second chapter: Structural classification of collocations
based on structural classification of collocations. The examples of collocations were taken
from Charlotte Bronte novels – Jane Eire-230 examples, and were analyzed according to five
types of collocations, adjective +noun, noun+verb, verb + noun, adverb + verb, adverb +
adjective. According to these types, there were made the structural analysis based on:
number of elements, (for example the collocation can be formed from two, three, four
elements); parts of speech, and the last one is based on translations techniques (literal
translation, enlargement, reduction, modulation, contextual synonym and word by word
translation).
For all types of classification were made up statistics and percentage in order to have a
better view of collocations’ structure and analysis.
The objectives of this research paper are:
- To define the collocation as a single unit.
- To distinguish it from other word groups.
- To classify the collocation.
- To translate 230 examples of collocations from English into Romanian
language
- To analyze the collocations according to:
-five types of collocations,
-number of its elements,
-parts of speech,
-translations techniques.
 - To make percentage for all the classifications.
The methods of investigation are:
- Investigation, based on 230 examples of collocations from Jane Eire novel.
- Analysis, based on five types of collocations, parts of speech, number of
elements and translation techniques.
- Comparison, based on translation of 230 examples from English into
Romanian language
This theme is an actual one and it is studied now by many linguists because it had been
neglected in the past. Now, the problem of collocations is studied by linguists in order to be
understood better, by translators in order to translate the words correctly, by teachers in order
to teach others about this language feature, and also by lexicographers in making dictionaries.
Studying the collocation it can be see its importance in learning English language in order to
understand it and speak fluently like a native one.
 Chapter I
The collocation as a type of Multiword Unit

Words put together make phrases or word groups. It will be recalled that lexicology deals
with words, word –forming and word groups’ it can be said that the word is the basic lexical
unit .The smallest two facet unit to be found the word is the morpheme. The largest two facet
lexical unit comprising more than one word is the word –group observed on the systematic
level of analysis ,E.g. in the analysis of various the words are joined together to inseparable
.such word groups are usually described as phrases ,idioms parasitological units ,compound
words and collocations which are traditionally regarded as the branch of lexicological
science .
The component members in other word groups e.g. a week ago, man of wisdom, take
place, take lessons kind to people, seem to posses greater semantic and structural
independence .Word groups of this type make up single self contained lexical units.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of words-groups may vary .Some word
groups, e g. at least, point of view, by means, take place, seem to be functionally and
semantically are defined as free word groups or phrases.
Here, however, it can proceed from the assumption that before on the problem of
collocation it is essential to briefly outline the features common and uncommon to various
word groups.
To get a better insight into the essentials of structure and meaning of word groups we must
begin with a brief survey of the main factors active in uniting words into word groups as-
phrases, idioms, phrasiological units compound words and our main pattern collocations. The
two main linguistic factors to be considered in this connection are the lexical and
grammatical valency of words.

§1.1.1 Idioms
 In order to have a better understanding of collocation firstly it will discussed its
common and uncommon features with idioms. The definition from oxford dictionary says
that an idiom is
1) “The Language or dialect of a group of people or a country, e.g.: have an ear
for Irish idiom”
2) “A phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its
individual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit, e.g. – give way, a change
of heart, be hard to put it.”
When used in a broad sense, the term idiom will not denote the “language peculiar to a
people, community or district”, as it is frequently done, because for this notion there is
another term which is appropriate: Dialect. The wealth of idioms of English is a reflection of
the many sources, cultural and linguistic that have fed into the mainstream of the language,
e.g.: Military (spike someone’s guns), Naval (know the ropes), Sporting (saved by the bell),
Musical (run the gamut) and many others technical vocabularies have all contributed vivid
forms of words to the rich mix. By idiom in a broad sense is a form of expression,
construction or phrase peculiar to a language and approved by the usage of that language and
it often has a signification other than its grammatical or logical one. In practical terms this
includes a wide range of expression that has become in a sense fossilized within the language
and is used in a fixed or semi-fixed way without any reference to the literal meaning of their
component word.
Idioms are those elements in a language that are often the most difficult to translation –
that’s way they cause most difficulty to foreign learners.
Idiom in the narrow sense consist of proverbs and sayings that reflect the thought patterns
of the English people and their folk wisdom, also idiom in a broad sense can also include
collocations, phrases, e.g.: airbus industry, a man of letters, be a delicate procedure, etc., as
these words also collocate, that is they can be put side by side.

§1.1.2. Phraseological units

For a better defying and understanding the collocations, Phraseological unit is the second
pattern analyzed in this research paper. The definition of phrasiological units says that-

There are different combinations of words. Some of them are free, e. g. to read books
(newspapers, a letter, etc.), others are fixed, limited in their combinative power, e. g. to go to
bed, to make a report. The combinations of words which are fixed (s e t -e x p r e s s i o n s)
are called phraseological units.
A free combination is a syntactical unit, which consists of notional and form words, and in
which notional words have the function of independent parts of the sentence. In a
phraseological unit words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither
words nor the order of words can be changed. Free combinations are created by the speaker.
Phraseological units are used by one speaker in a ready form, without any changes. The
whole phraseological unit has a-meaning which may be quite different form the meanings of
its components, and therefore the whole unit and not separate words, has the function of a
part of the sentence.
Phraseological units consist of separate words and therefore they are different from
words, even from compounds. Word's have several structural forms, but in phraseological
units only one of the components has all the forms of the paradigm of the part of speech it
belongs to, e. g. to go to bed, goes to bed, went to bed, gone to bed, going to bed etc., the
rest of the components do not change their form.
By the classification of V.Vinogradov some phraseological units are divided into
three units logically for the combination of particular words. It can be explained only
on the basis of tradition, e. g. to deliver a lecture (but not to read a lecture).
In phraseological combinations words retain their full semantic independence
although they are limited in their combinative, power, e. g. to wage war (but not to lead
war), to render assistance, to render services (but not to render pleasure).
Phraseological combination is the least idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units.
In other words, in phraseological combinations the meaning of the whole can be inferred
from the meaning of the components, e. g.
To draw a conclusion
To lend assistance
To make money
To pay attention to
In phraseological combinations one of the components (generally the component
which is used figuratively) can be combined with different words, e. g. to talk sports,
politics, business (but to speak about life), leading worker, leading article (but the main
problem), deadly enemy, deadly shot (but a mortal wound), keen interest, keen
curiosity, keen sense of humour (but great surprise).
 Words of wide meaning, as to make, to take, to do, to give, etc. Form many
phraseological units, e. g. to take an examination to take a trip, to take a chance, to
take interest, to make fun of, to make inquiries, to make a statement, to make friends.
Sometimes traditional combination are synonyms of words e. g. to make
inquiries=to inquire, to make haste=to hurry.
Some traditional combination is equivalents in propositions e. g. by means of, in
connection with.

Some phraseological combinations have nearly become compounds, e. g. brown bread

Traditional combinations often have synonymous expressions, e. g. to make a report=to

deliver a report.
Phraseological combinations are not equivalents of words. Though the components of
phraseological combinations are limited in their combinative power, that is, they can be
combined only with certain words and cannot be combined with any other words, they
preserve not only their meaning but all their structural forms, e. g. nice distinction is
phraseological combination and it is possible to say nice distinctions, nicer distinction, etc.,
or to clench one's fist (clenched his fists, was clenching his fists, etc.).
In prof. A. Smirnitsky opinion traditional combinations are not phraseological units, as
he considered only those word combinations to be units which are equivalents of words.
In phraseological unities the meaning of the whole word combination is not the sum of
the meanings of its components, but it is based on them and the meaning of the whole can be
inferred from the image that underlies the whole expression, e. g. to get on one's nerves, to
cut somebody short, to show one's teeth, to be at daggers drawn.
Phraseological unities are often synonyms of words, e. g. to make a clean breast of=to
confess; to get on one's nerves—to-irritate.
Phraseological unities are equivalents of words as 1) only one of the components of a
phraseological unity has structural forms, e. g. to play (played, is playing, etc.) the first
fiddle (but not played the first fiddles); to turn (turned, will turn, etc.), a new leaf but not to
turn newer leaf, or new leaves); (2) the whole unity and not its components are parts of the
sentence in syntactical analysis, e. g. in the sentence He took the bull by the horns (attached
a problem boldly) there are only two parts: he—the subject, and took the bull by the horns
—the predicate.
In phraseological fusions the meaning of the whole word combination cannot be
derived from the meaning of its component’s, e. g. to pull one's leg (to deceive); at sixes
and sevens un confusion;; a mare's nest (a discovery which turns out to be false or
worthless); to show the white feather (to show cowardice); to rule the high horse (to put on
airs).
Phraseological fusions are the most idiomatic of all the kinds of phraseological units.
Phraseological fusions are equivalents of words: fusions as well as unities form a
syntactical whole in analysis.
Phraseological units have some important peculiarities-
The first feature is the incompleteness of the paradigm. In a phraseological unit al least
one of the components has an incomplete paradigm, e.g. to go to the dogs (to be ruined).
The verb to go may have different forms, but the noun dogs can be used only in this
form. (He has gone, is going, went, will go, etc., the dogs).
If the combination is considered a free combination, then all the words will acquire
complete paradigms (he went to the (a) dog).
1) The second distinctive as compared with free word combinations is that auxiliary
words cannot be changed in phraseological units, e.g. at a glance, on the dot, to fall in love.
In to go to the dogs only the definite article can be used. Generally in phraseological units
there is only one form of the article that can be used.
2) The last morphological feature of phraseological units as distinguished from free
combinations is archaic word forms no longer in actual use, e.g.
In olden days, in bouden duty, in bended knees.
Also phrasiological units have two semantic peculiarities-.
Phraseological units have non-motivated meaning as compared with free word combinations,
e.g. at sixes and sevens (in confusion).
1) In phraseological units there occur unique meanings, that is the meanings of elements
which they have only in a concrete given combination, e. g. the meaning of the word
salt in the phraseological unit an old salt has a unique meaning. A unique meaning
occurs only in one combination. It is a meaning which is not productive, i.e. no
derivates or compounds are created from the word in the unique meaning.

Free word combinations can never be polysynaptic, while there are polysemantic
phraseological units, e. g. to be on the go, to be busy and active, to be leaving, to be tipsy, to
be near one's end
Have done with make an end of, give up, reach the end of
Two types of synonymy are typical of phraseological units:
 1. Synonymy of phraseological units that do not contain any synonymous words and are
based on different images, e. g.
to leave no stone unturned=to move, heaven and earth
to haul down colors=to ground arms
In free word combinations synonymy is based on the synonymy of particular words (an
old man—an elderly man}.
2. Phraseological units have word synonym
to make up one's mind=to decide
to haul down colors—to surrender
There is a lot of dispute going on about the nature of such expressions as to take a look,
to have a look, to have a fall, to get a glance, etc. Such expressions may form an
intermediate group between phraseological units and free combinations.
Another difficult question to decide is whether such combinations as to give up, to give
in, to' take off, to come round are phraseological units or compound verbs. As there are two
words in the combinations and they lack the unity or the inseparability of form which is
characteristic of words, we prefer to regard them as a special group of phraseological units
which for the absence of a better name we may call v e r b-a d v e r b (or v e r b-p o s t-
position) combinations.
Sometimes a phraseological verb-adverb combination can be distinguished from a free
combination only by the context, e. g.
He put on his coat (ph.) and went out (free).
He put the book on the table (free).
The difference between a phraseological verb-adverb combination and free verb-adverb
combinations may be seen in the impossibility of inversion in phraseological units. It is
possible to say the boy ran in or in ran the boy, the prices went up or up went the prices, but
it is quite impossible to invert the order of words in the phraseological verb-adverb
combination / gave it up (up gave I it — is impossible).
Phraseological units are formed from free word combinations. Word combinations
become set expressions and come to be used with a figurative meaning. Their origin may
be different. Some phraseological units are connected with some historical events, e. g. to
burn one's boats (some commanders burned their ships after the landing of the troops, so that
there should be no possibility of retreat), to bury the hatchet (Indians in America buried a
hatchet when they made peace). Often phraseological units are expressions taken from some
literary work, e. g. much ado about nothing" (Shakespeare). .Many phraseological
units are professional expressions, e. g. to put the finishing touches (used by artists), to
feel one’s pulse (medical), to be in chancery (sport),to have all the trumps in one's hand
(gambling), to see rocks ahead (used by
sailors), to die in the last ditch (used by soldiers). Many phraseological units are
translated from foreign languages, e. g. the apple of discord -(from Greek).
Sometimes phraseological units are formed as a result of shortening proverbs, e.
g.
To catch at a straw (from a drowning man will catch at a straw);
To cry over spilt milk (from there is no use crying over' spilt milk).
P r o v e r b s is considered by some linguists to be a kind of phraseological units.
Proverbs are not equivalents of words, but of sentences, e. g.
All is not gold that glitters.
A friend in need is a friend indeed. .

§1.1.3. Compound words

.Another pattern studied here is compound word and its similarities and differences
toward the collocations .The definition of compound word says that - compound word
consist of two or even more units, as toothbrush ,upstairs .The most common compound
word are two nouns combined to create a meaning which differs from that of each of its
parts ,as in sleeping peel ,picture book ice cream ,etc. However, compounds can be quite
lengthy, e.g. absolute money- back guarantee. One would think that there must be some cut
off point where the length of the compound makes processing difficult. However, it is not
uncommon to find three, four or five part compounds, e.g. Garbage can collector, map
making geography class.
Some linguists have tackled the problem of defining a compound in English. One test
has been that if word stress falls on the first part of the compound, then it is truly a compound
word. This would make armchair and working paper compounds whereas chocolate cake
would be classified as phrases made up of nouns modified by adjectives. However, chocolate
cake, cherry pie the stress falls on the final noun are recognized as meaningful objects, so for
us , these will be considered compounds, too.
While we have noted that many compounds are made up of pairs of nouns, all types
of combination are possible eg. Kill joy- combines a verb and a noun, green house- combines
an adjective and a noun, windbreak -combines a noun and a verb, make believe- combines
two verbs downpour-combines a verb and an adverb, red hot-combines two adjectives.
It appears that almost any combination is possible to make compound words, but they
vary in ports of speech.
Somebody might wander why we need to create compounds words when it is
possible to say the some thing without the compound. We can say “I like cakes that are
chocolate” We don’t have to use “chocolate cake “to convey that information. Compounds
are useful ways of condensing information and they add variation to the way we refer to
concepts in discourse. Compounds provide us new ways to refer to the some information, as
well as condense the information. They are for that reason often used for different types of
writing

§ 1.1.4. Phrases

Other pattern which make us wrongly define and understanding the collocation are
phrases. Its definition says that -From the strictly grammatical point of view, a phrase is a
word combination standing for a part of speech those grammatical functions it discharges. It
must necessarily contain a noun, a verb a modifying adjective or adverb in its structure e.g.
One or more words of full lexical value, e.g. In the middle of (prepositional-phrase) to do
ones utmost (verbal phrase), in the distance (adverbial phrase), no matter how (conjunctional
phrase) etc.
In lexicology there is no such category as “complex words” and the term “phrase” has
another meaning than it has in grammar, including all the word combinations that are not
compounds, which they, however, resemble in that they imply a more or less marked unity of
meaning. Complex verbs are sometimes referred to us “compound words” and sometimes as
phrases; though it seems more adequate to call compounds only complex verbs formed with
the help of adverbial particles.
Consequently a lexical phrase may be expressed even by a whole sentence, provided
the latter is a phraseological unit enjoying structural stability, as are proverbs, conversational
formulas, etc. e.g. No news is good news, how do you do? Etc.
Phrases may be classified as stable (or fixed) and unstable.
They are said to be stable when no change of the component elements is possible. Thus,
in the proverb quoted above “no news is good news”, not one word can be changed in point
of form e.g. (of case, tense,) or replaced by a synonym.
 On the contrary, an unstable phrase is liable to change of form or partial replacement.
Thus, the verb in to play a trick on somebody can be used in various tenses (I played a trick
on him, he thought he would play a trick on us ), The order of words can be changed (to play
somebody a trick); at the some time to put and to serve are apt to be used as connotatational
synonyms for to pay (to put a trick on somebody, to serve somebody a trick) in as toll as a
maypole, only the replacement of maypole is possible, (as toll as a steeple).
In to have all the time in the world, it is only the verb that is apt to change (in point of
tense). (I have or had etc. all the time in the world).
The interpretation of the term phrase in various works by English authors is far from
unitary, e.g. An idiomatic expression, small group of words usually without predicate,
especially preposition with the word it governs, equivalent a finite verb forming part of a
sentence.
Phrases have some important classification-
Semantically, phrases may be roughly divided into two:
A) those which are used in a direct meaning;
B) Those which, partly or whole express figurative meanings.
The phrase “to have a rare fun time” belongs to type:
a) For all the verbs of which it is made up are used in a direct meaning: to have rare, fun
time-with the connotation (of good excellent, merry etc.)
As to the meaning of the phrase as a whole, it is the sum of the meanings of the component
elements. Other examples: to set at liberty, in other words, to be of good cheer, safe and
sound, to come in to view, silence gives consent.
As to the meaning of the phrase as a whole, it is the sum of the meanings of the component
elements. Other examples: to set at liberty, in other words, to be of good cheer, safe and
sound to come into view, silence give consent.
Phrases of the:
b) Type is, partly or wholly, based on figures of speech chiefly on metaphors, whose role
in the semantic development of a language is very active. In to give somebody a
lesson all the words are used in the direct meaning, but the whole, meaning of the
phrase is metaphorical. The same may be said about to carry coals to Newcastle, the
cat in the gloves catches no mice, to put a spoke in somebody’s wheel, make hay while
the sun shines and strike the iron while it is hot, to give somebody the needle.
On the other hand, in to break the silence as a result of its association with silence, to
break assumes a figurative metaphorical meaning, though, owing to the frequent use of
 the phrase, the metaphor is of the fading or degraded, not of the live type. Other examples
of metaphoric words in phrases: to pay in to pay one’s addresses to, to lose one’s temper,
depth in the depth of the forest, to cut in to cut one’s teeth stress in under the stress of
circumstances.
Many phrases are built on similes:
Ex: - As red as a rose, to run like a deer, on hyperboles
- A thousand thanks, to be o shadow on of one’s former self.
Sometimes it is difficult enough to establish whether this or that word in a phrase has
a direct or a figurative meaning. Language is permanently on the run and what was new
yesterday may be trite and today. The problem is all the more complicated as even big
sized dictionaries do not clearly discriminate between direct and figurative meanings of
words, to say nothing of words in phrases.
There are phrases connected with trades -
-To bring grist to the mill,
- To have too many irons in the fire,
-Between hammer and anvil in,
- Full blast a chip of the old block,
-One nail drives another.
Also there are phrases connected with medicine-
-To swallow the pill,
-To take the temperature,
-A dose of one’s own medicine,
-A fly in the ointment.
Also there are phrases connected with rivers, etc
-To shiver on the drink,
-To go at the deep end,
-To make a splash,
-On thin ice,

Phrases are also monosemantic and polysemantic. In full blast is a monsemantic phrase,
but to be in abeyance is polysemantic for it has more meaning than one.

1.2. Defining the collocation

§1.2.1. Defying the collocations
The word collocation appeared from the verb “collocate» which means –place side by side ,e.g.
beautiful girl ,handsome boy, (concise dictionary of English Etymology.)
The “oxford dictionary” gives the following definition for the verb “collocate”-to be used regularly
together in a language, to combine e.g. weak collocates with tea,-weak tea
The following definitions of collocation will make understand better the term of Collocation:
1 A combination of words in a language that happens very often and more frequently than would
happen by change: e.g. of collocation: crying shame, resounding success.(from oxford dictionaries)
2 A term introduced in linguistic (though in much earlier use us a general word) by J.K. Firth, to refer
to the habitual co-occurrence of individual words .Thus tweedledum goes with tweedledee and spike
with span. (The new followers, Modern English usage, R.W Burchfield.)
3 A relation within a syntactic unit between individual lexical elements ,e.g. computers collocates
with hate ‘my computers hates me’
Used especially where words specifically collocate with other, e.g. blond collocates with hair ‘the
hair is blond’, drunk collocate with lord as ‘Drunk as a lord ‘, Run with riot-Run riot ‘(Concise
Dictionary of linguistic, Ph, A. Matthews.)
4 Collocations may be a set of expressions, they can not be divided, also its elements can not be
replaced by others elements without changing the meaning of the remaining elements.(Oxford
dictionary of English collocations )
5 The phenomenon whereby certain words co-occur with other words in natural ,in statistically
significant ways .Collocations do not always occur as immediately adjacent ,e.g. He kept his money in
his pocket.(Haria Hulban –Syntheses in English lexicology and semantic)
6 Collocations –the actions of collocating regular combination of words ,e.g. strong collocates with
wind ,’strong wind ‘,’heavy rain.(Concise dictionary of English linguistic)
7 Learning a new language students often learns lists of new words , but it is also important to learn
words that go together ,For e.g. when you learn a word like ‘effort ‘ it is useful to know that the verb
that goes with it is ‘make ‘and not ‘do’,’ make an effort ‘. Words that go together are called
collocations, e.g. By the way.(English language ,Life and culture, Anne Fraemal, Richard Haill.)
Most of the researchers who defined the collocation agree that it is a lexical unit consisting of a
cluster of two or more words formed from different parts of speech.
Most of the definitions are perhaps based on Firth’s definition that collocations are ‘ words in
habitual company ‘.For the purpose of this study the collocations can be defined as- two words that
combining with each other and its elements cannot be replaced because the meaning of other
elements can change and also their elements cannot be divided . It must be learned as a single unit,
also the collocation is the way of combine the words in a language in order to sound more natural.
It is an indisputable fact that words are connected according to the collocation hey share .Words are
used in certain lexical contexts, e.g. in combination with other words .The noun question is often
combined with such adjectives- vital ,pressing ,urgent, disputable, delicate, etc. This noun is a
component of a number of other word groups, e.g. question at issue, to raise a question, a question of
great importance, a question on the agenda of the day, and many others.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or
collocability.
The range of the lexical valency is linguistically delimited by the inner structure of the English
word stock .This can be easily observed in the choice of synonyms found in different word groups
.Though the verbs lift and rise ,e.g. are usually treated as synonyms ,it is only the latter that is
collocated with the noun question .The verb take may be synonymically interpreted as- grasp, seize ,
catch, lay, hold of,etc.,but it is only take that is found in collocation with nouns examination
,measures, precautions, etc., only catch in catch somebody napping and grasp in grasp the truth.
There is a certain norm of lexical valency of each word and any departure from this norm is left
as a literary or rather stylistic device. Such word group as for example bitter and sweet, shove
question and the like are illustrative of the point under discussion. It is because we recognize that
bitter and sweet are not normally collocable that the junction of them can be effective.
Words habitually collocated in speech tend to constitute a cliché .It can be observed ,for
example ,that the verb put forward and the noun question are habitually collocated and when we hear
the verb put forward or see it written on paper it is natural that we should anticipate the word
question. So we may conclude that put forward a question constitutes a habitual word-group, a kind of
cliché. This is also true of a number of other word-groups, e.g. to win (or gain) a victory, keen sight
(or hearing), etc. Some linguists hold tat most of the English in ordinary use is thoroughly saturated
with clichés.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only
natural since the inner structure of the language. Both the English word flower and its Russian
counterparts –floare, for example, may be combined with a number of other words all of which
denote the place where the flowers are grown, e.g. garden flowers, hot-house flowers, etc. The
English word, however, cannot enter into combination with the word room to denote flowers
growing in the rooms (e.g. pot flowers-flori de cameră)
 One more point of importance should be discussed in connection with the problem of lexical
valency-the interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy as found in word-groups.
Firstly, the restriction of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the choice of the
lexical meaning of the polysemantic members of word-groups. The adjective heavy, e.g., is combined
with words food, meals, supper, etc. in the meaning rich and difficult to digest. But not all the words
with more or less the same denominator of meaning can be combined with this adjective. One cannot
say, for instance, heavy cheese or heavy sausage implying that cheese or sausage is difficult to digest.
Secondly, it is observed that different meanings of a word may be described through the possible
types of lexical context, through the lexical valency of the word, for example the different meanings
of the adjective heavy may be described through the word-groups heavy, weight (book, table), heavy
snow (storm, rain, etc.) heavy drinker (eater, etc.).
Collocation is basic to language, its subtleties must be learned, and failure to get the collocation
of English right is a major indicator of foreignness: e.g. toll king about ‘rotten ‘rather than ‘rancid
butter’. The British linguist J.R.Firth encouraged the use of the term as one of a constructive pair:
collocations for semantic association, collation for syntactic association.
In current usage, however, collocation generally covers both types of association. Cohesiveness in
semantics and syntax is a matter of degree. Idioms are usually fixed in form and used without
recourse to the meaning of their elements: ‘it can rain cats and dogs, but never dogs and cats or cats
and cows .Even with idioms
, however, there can be some free way: for example, at least the three verbs banging, hitting, and
knocking can occupy the slot in the idiomatic sentence, ‘it’s like ---- your head against a (brick) wall.’
Collocations are more loosely associated than idioms, contiguously (as with ‘tortoise’ and ‘shel’in
‘tortoiseshell’ or proximately (as with’ cats and ‘purr’ in ‘
the cat was purring ‘ ).When the elements of compound word collocate they form new lexical items:’
house and ‘boat ‘, coming together in both ‘houseboat’ and ‘boat house ‘, each with a distctinct
meaning and use. An item that collocates with another is its ‘collocations’.
Collocations have some important types, reading the type of collocations and, there are open
collocations and restricted which can be identified three basic types of restrictions .In open
collocation the words can combine with a wide range of other words e.g. keep the promise ,speak
softly ,great pain ,heavy book.
Restrictions of use can be opposed to the process of synonymy; there are three types of
restrictions:
1) Systematic collocational restrictions that is restrictions which are typical for certain criterion, e.g.
a non human subject in the case of the phrase an apple pie order, or a human subject in the case of
the phrase bitter tongue.
2).semi systematic collocation restriction, that is restrictions are topical for certain words, e.g.
wages are paid for manual or mechanic work, while fees are paid either for professional men or for
school, colleges and public bodies.
3) Idiosyncratic collocational restrictions which are imposed only by idiom, e.g. a hand some man
but a pretty woman. These are the restrictions of collocations.
Attempts have been made to approach the problem of collocations in different ways
.Up till now; however, there is certain divergence of opinion as to the essential features of
collocations as distinguished from other word groups and the nature of nature of phrases that
can be properly termed “phraseological units”. The habitual terms “phrases, idioms,
compound words, and phraseological units “, are even treated differently by different
linguists.
The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact that the
borderline between word groups and collocations is not clearly defined. This word groups are
relatively free as collocability of member words is fundamentally delimited by their lexical
and grammatical valency which makes at least some of them very close to set – phrases.
Collocations are but comparatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the
extremes of complete motivation and variability of member words and lack of motivation
combined with complete stability of lexical components and grammatical structure there are
innumerable borderline cases.
However, the existing terms, e.g. phraseological units, idioms, phrases, compound
words, phrases, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which
centre in the divergent vies concerning the nature and essential features of collocations as
distinguished from the so called free word groups. The term phrase implies that the basic
criterion of differention is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of
word groups. The term idiom generally implies that the essential feature of the linguistic units
under consideration is idiomaticity which defies word by word translation. The term
compound words implies a certain combination with certain words, they have an aptness to
function in speech as a single word. The term phraseological unit implies that it can not be
freely made up in speech.
Thus difference in terminology reflects certain differences in the main criteria used to
distinguish between these word groups and collocations.
 Collocations are habitually defined as non-motivated word groups that can not be freely
made up in speech but are produced as ready made units. This definition proceeds from the
assumption that the essential features of collocations are stability of the lexical components.
It is consequently assumed that unlike components of free word groups which may vary
according to the needs of communication, member words of collocation are always
reproduced as single unchangeable combinations.
For example, bear a grudge may be changed into bear malice, but not into bar a fancy or
liking. We can say take a liking (fancy) but not take hatred (disgust). These habitual
collocations tend to become kind of where the meaning of member word is to some extent
dominated by the meaning of the whole group. Due to this, it can be said that collocations are
felt as possessing a certain degree of semantic inseparability.
The current definition of collocation is that it can not be freely made up in speech, but has
to be reproduced as ready made units and also to be learned as wholes.

§1.2.2. The problem of collocations

Collocation is an expression consisting of two or more words that correspond to some
conventional way of saying things. Or in the words of Firth: “Collocations of a given word
are statements of the habitual or customary places of that word.” Collocations include noun
phrases like strong tea and weapons of mass destruction, phrasal verbs like to make up, and
other stock phrases like the rich and powerful. Particularly interesting are the subtle and not-
easily-explainable patterns of word usage that native speakers all know: why they say a stiff
breeze but not a stiff wind (while either a strong breeze or a strong wind is okay), or why they
speak of broad daylight (but not bright daylight or Narrow darkness).
Collocations are characterized by limited compositionality. It can be called a natural
language expression compositional if the meaning of the expression can be predicted from
the meaning of the parts. Collocations are not fully compositional in that there is usually an
element of meaning added to the combination. In the case of tea strong, strong has acquired
the meaning rich in some active agent who is closely related, but slightly different from the
basic sense having great physical strength. Idioms are the most extreme examples of non-
compositionality. Idioms like to kick the bucket or to hear it through the grapevine only have
an indirect historical relationship to the meanings of the parts of the expression. There are not
talking about buckets or grapevines literally when it is used these idioms. Most collocations
exhibit milder forms of non-compositionality, it is very nearly a systematic composition of its
parts, but still has an element of added meaning. It usually refers to administrative efficiency
and would, for example, not be used to describe a cooking technique although that meaning
would be compatible with its literal meaning.
There is much interest in collocations partly because this is an area that has been neglected
in structural linguistic traditions that follow Saussure and Chomsky. There is, however, a
tradition in British linguistics, associated with the names of Firth, Holliday, and Sinclair,
which pays close attention to phenomena like collocations. Structural linguistics concentrates
on general abstractions about the properties of phrases and sentences. In contrast, Firth’s
Contextual Theory of Meaning emphasizes the importance of context: the context of the
social setting (as opposed to the idealized speaker), the context of spoken and textual
discourse (as opposed to the isolated sentence), and, important for collocations, the context of
surrounding words. These contextual features easily get lost in the abstract treatment that is
typical of structural linguistics.
A good example of the type of problem that is seen as important in this contextual view of
language is Holliday’s example of strong vs. powerful tea it is a convention in English to talk
about strong tea, not powerful tea, although any speaker of English would also understand the
latter unconventional expression. Arguably, there are no interesting structural properties of
English that can be gleaned from this contrast. However, the contrast may tell us something
interesting about attitudes towards different types of substances in English culture (why do
they use powerful for drugs like heroin, but not for cigarettes, tea and coffee?) and it is
obviously important to teach this contrast to students who want to learn idiomatically correct
English.
Frequency-based search works well for fixed phrases. But many collocations consist of
two words that stand in a more flexible relationship to one another. Consider the verb knock
and one of its most frequent arguments, door. Here are some examples of knocking on or at a
door:
a. she knocked on his door
b. they knocked at the door
c. 100 women knocked on Donaldson’s door
d. a man knocked on the metal front door
The words that appear between knocked and door vary and the distance between the two
words is not constant so a fixed phrase approach would not work here. But there is enough
regularity in the patterns to allow us to determine that knock is the right verb to use in
English for this situation, not hit, beat or rap.
 A short note is in order here on collocations that occur as a fixed phrase versus those that
are more variable.
Verbs with little semantic content like make, take and do are called light verbs in
collocations like make a decision or do a favour. There is hardly anything about the meaning
of make, take or do that would explain why it have to say make a decision instead of take a
decision and do a favour instead of make a favour, but for many linguists purposes the correct
light verb for combination with a particular noun must be determined.
Verb particle constructions or phrasal verbs are an especially important part of the lexicon
of English. Many verbs in English like to tell off and to go down consist of a combination of
a main verb and a particle. These verbs often correspond to a single lexeme in other
languages (reprimanded, descended in France. for two approaches that use this type of
information for finding phrases and collocations.
Proper nouns (also called proper names) are usually included in the category of
collocations although they are quite different from lexical collocations. They are most
amenable to approaches that look for fixed phrases that reappear in exactly the same form
throughout a text.
Collocation is applied to; let us point to the many different degrees of invariability that a
collocation can show. At one extreme of the spectrum we have usage notes in dictionaries that
describe subtle differences in usage between near synonyms like answer and reply
(diplomatic answer vs. stinging reply). This type of collocation is important for generating
text that sounds natural, but getting a collocation wrong here is less likely to lead to a fatal
error. The other extreme are completely frozen expressions like proper names and idioms.
Here there is just one way of saying things and any deviation will completely change the
meaning of what is said.
An important area that we haven’t been able to cover is the discovery of proper nouns,
which can be regarded as a kind of collocation. Proper nouns cannot be exhaustively covered
in dictionaries since new people, places, and other entities come into existence and are named
all the time.
Yet another approach to discovering collocations is to search for points in the word stream
with either low or high uncertainty as to what the next (or previous) word will be. Points with
high uncertainty are likely to be phrase boundaries, which in turn are candidates for points
where a collocation may start or end, whereas points with low uncertainty are likely to be
located within a collocation.
§1.2.3. The use of collocations
The meaning of the verb to collocate is to put aside. Collocations are thus combinations f
words. In:
He kept his money in his pocket.
The meaning of the verb is» to preserve for future use, » have in ones possession, but in
He kept in his neighbors
The meaning is entirely different from the former, being “to remain on good terms
with” in such collocation it is difficult or impossible to identify the meaning of the parts of
collocation. The order of the elements is also extremely important, being a fixed
order. One can say:
He On can climbed on to the window seat
to window seat he an climbed
Climbed he can on to the window seat
There are linguists who consider this type of collocation as being equally – word like,
and phrase like, considering phrasal verbs semi-compounds.
Collocations may be set expressions and three combinations. Set expressions are
successions of words that must be learned as if they were a single word. They can not be
divided in to their constituent elements destroying their meaning. Between the parts of a set
expression there is on intrinsic connection- its elements can not be replaced by other elements
without changing the meaning of the remaining elements. The meaning of the collocation is
usually expressed by a single word. From a grammatical point of view, collocations are
complex parts of speech.
The largest group of collocations is formed by complex verbs. Some linguists also call
them phrasal verbs. They are made of a verb, usually of Germanic origin, and belonging to
the basic word stock, such as – to get, to give, to take, to bring, to carry, to hold, to keep, to
sit, to drive, to fly , to turned. And an adverbial particle which functions as an adverb and
modifies the verb with which it is associated .the most commonly used adverbial particles in
such combinations are about ,above ,across ,after ,along, around, away ,back, backward ,
before, behind , between ,beyond, by ,down ,forth ,in, inside, off, on, out ,outside, over, round.
as can be noticed, most of the originate prepositions.
Examples of both set expressions and free combinations may be offered by the verb –to
get, In combination with various adverbial particles, it may form set expressions, as ‘to get in
to get up- meaning , to be elected”, “to get through- to pass an examination “,to arrange , to
prepare”, “to be friendly- agree with “.
In these expressions the meaning is not easily understood from the meaning of the
component words. These constructions have an evident idiomatic character.
Other collocations, built on the same patter, have a meaning which can be easily derived
from that of the components, having the character of free combinations. In such cases, the
complex verb acquires are subsidiary meaning of the verb which stands as base, as in “to get
ahead- to advance”, “to get away- to escape”, “ to get back – to return”, “to get by- to
pass”. In such examples as-, to fall down climb up, to blow up etc, the meaning of the verb is
intensified.
It is important to notice that some verbs and particles have a high combinatory potential,
being often used together, while others are un likely to occur together. Knowing in advance
the combinatory possibilities offered by both elements contributes to the correct decoding of
the text in which they are used.
The constituent structure of collocations may be represented by diagrams called “tree
diagrams “. The tree diagrams is made of branches and a node (where all branches meet) The
set expression “to climb up” may be represented by the following tree diagram in which VP
is the label for the verb phrase, V for the verb Part for particle.

Diagramme
V.P.

PART V PART

To climb up

Though most phrasal verbs may be replaced by one word synonyms , e.g. to get out-meaning
to leave , to give up – to surrender, to ring up – to telephone. Not all of them have an
adequate substitute. They are not always interchangeable with a synonym: e.g. to put out – to
begin a voyage, to put up – provide lodgings. This is to a great extent a matter of idiomatic
usage.
If compound words can not be separated, complex verbs often can. Of course, only a pan
of them is separable. Phrasal verbs may be both transitive and intransitive.
 E.g. take in the wash
Take the wash in
In such cases, the pattern is verb + particle + noun or verb + noun + particle.
One may say that in the former pattern the emphasis falls on the noun, while in the latter the
emphases is put on the action. When personal pronouns are introduced in the pattern, they are
usually placed between the verb and the adverbial particle, according to the pattern verb +
pronoun + adverbial particle.
E.g. put it on
To blow up
Collocations may be met in other parts of speech too.
Examples of complex adverbs are all alone – not in the company of others, all along – for
the whole length of.
Examples of complex conjunctions are as if, as for, as to, so as to.
Such collocation constitutes lexical and grammatical clichés provided by language. Though
their use is not a proof of originality in speech, they are extremely important in
communication. They have an important part in language structure.
Their idiomatic character makes sometimes life difficult for translators, who must find other
language equivalents which have sometimes nothing to do with the words of the translated, or
have very little in common with it.
In e.g. Jane has been often asked out during this summer holiday.
The Romanian translation is not “a fost adesea invitata sa iasa afara “, but “a fost adesea
invitata in oras “.
One can also talk about collocation range, which implies certain restrictions concerning the
verbs which are used and the particles respectively. Thus we can expect verbs of movement
to be used approximately with the same set of particles, though sometimes the equivalence is
not perfect. for example “to go ,to come ,to walk ,to run ,to get “, are usually followed by the
adverbial particles, ‘ahead ,along, away, back , in ,off, out, up, round’, but we would not
expect some other verbs to be accompanied by the some adverbial particles , e.g.” to beat to
die ,to laugh ,etc.

§1.2.4. Types of collocation

A collocation is an expression consisting of two or more words that correspond to some
conventional way of saying things. Collocations can be defined in numerous ways but the
 most common are those of two or more clusters which occur with a more than chance
regularity through spoken and written English. Bellow there are shown the most easily
distinguishable types of collocations which contains the following elements (parts of speech).
Verb +noun:
Throw a party, accept responsibility, drew the curtains, rushed the door,
break
Code, lift a blockade.
Verb + noun :
Cold winter, somber clouds, strong tea, best wishes, square meal, grim
determination, huge profit.
Noun+verb:
Water freezing, clock ticks, blood running down, arms waving, legs
Kicking, rain beating, light moving.
Verb+adverb:
Affect deeply, appreciate sincerely, resisting wildly, looking kindly, live
Dangerously, hold tightly, scream loudly, speak softly, and speak heavily
Adverb + adjective:
Completely hidden, nervously entered, deeply absorbed, closely related,
Completely related, completely soaked, totally unacceptable behavior.
These are the most used and practical types of collocations, also there are others types of
collocations but for this analyze will be studied only these types of collocations.
Acquisition and correct production of such word combination is mark of an advanced of
proficiency in a language, as Lewis (1997 pg 15) puts it that its fluency is based on the
acquisition of a large state or fixed or semi fixed prefabricated items, Sonya (1988) goes ever
further to say that lexical errors are more serious because affective communication depends
on the choice of words, also James (1998pg 152) agrees that the correct usage of collocation
contributes greatly to ones ieomatcity and native likeness . .

§1.2.5. The importance of collocations

Collocations run through the whole of the English language. No piece of natural spoken or
written English is totally free of collocations. For the student choosing the right collocation will
make his speech and writing sound much more natural, more native speaker like, even when
basic intelligibility does not seem to be at issue. A student who talks about ‘strong rain’ may
make himself understood, but possibly not without provoking smile or correction, which may
or not matter. He will certainly be marked down for it an exam.
But perhaps even more importantly than this, language that is collocation is also more
precise. This is because most single words in the English language especially the more
common words embrace a whole range of meanings, some quite distinct, and some that shade
into each other by degrees. The precise meaning in any context is determined by that context:
by the word that surround and combine with the best collocation. A student who choose the
best collocation will express himself much more clearly and to be able to convey not just
general meaning, but something quite precise. Compare, for example, the following two
sentences:
‘This is a good book and contains a lot of interesting details’,
‘This is a fascinated book, and contains a wealth of historical detail’.
Both sentences are perfectly correct in terms of grammar and the vocabulary, but which
communicates more (both spoke about the book under discussion and the person discussing it)
Students with good ideas often lose marks because they don’t know the four or five most
important collocations of a key word that is central to what they are writing about. As a result,
they create longer, wordier ways of defining or discussing the issue, increasing the chance of
further errors, examples: ‘His disability will continue until he dies’, rather than ‘He has a
permanent disability’.
There is no magic formula for correcting these mistakes. Collocations have to be acquired
both through direct study and large amount of quality impute. The very concept of collocations
is often not easy for learners. The essentially simple idea that word choice is seriously limited
by what comes before and after it perhaps the single most elusive aspect of the lexical system
and the hardest, therefore, for learners to acquire.
Learning collocations apart from increasing the mental , leads to an increase in written and
spoken fluency ( the brain has more time to focus on its message, if many of the nuts and bolts are
already in place ). In the form of collocations of varying length as Lewis says: “Fluency is based on
the acquisition of a large store of fixed or semi fixed prefabricated items, which are available as the
foundation for any linguistic novelty or creativity’. Moreover, stress and intonation also improve if
language is met, learnt and acquired in chunks, quality input should lead to quality output.

References:
1
Bauer Laurie, English word formation ,Cambridge 1984 ,pg 115-120.
2
Levitchi Leon, Limba engleza contemporan, Lexicology, 1970, pg 25-37
3
Olga Achmanava, Linguistic terminology , Moscow university press ,1977,pg 161-165.
4
Galina Salapina, Limba engleza contemporana, Lexicologie, editia II-a, Timisoara, pg 14-21.
5.Olga Achmanova, The chair of English ,Lexicology, Theory and Method, edited by Moscow state
university,1972, pg 76-85.
6.English for advanced students ,with a special chapter in English lexicology, Institutul Europei
,Iasi,1993, pg 190-195.
7.R.S.Girbuz,A course in modern English lexicology, Higher School Published House, Moscow
1996,pg 86-105.
8.Seminars in Modern English Lexicology, Part II, Chisinau ,Moldova State University,2000, pg
161-163 .
9. N .Raevska, English lexicology, second edition revised, edited by Радянска Школа, 1961, pg 25-
37.
10. N.M.Raenska, English lexicology, Kiev, 1971, pg 86-90.
11.Peter Roach, Third Edition, English Phonetics and Phonology, A practical course, Cambridge,
University Press,1999, pg 63-65.
12. James. R. Natting, S. Dacerio, Oxford Applied Linguistic, Lexical Phrases and Language
Technique, Oxford University Press,1992, pg 23-53.
13.A.P Cowie, Oxford Linguistic Phraseology, Theory and Analyses, 1998, pg 21-23, 145-153.
14.Oxford Collocations Dictionary For Students, Oxford University Press.
15.Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary.
16.Johnatan Orauther,Catherym Cavanaugh, Oxford Guide to British and American Culture, Oxford
University Press,1999, pg 58-73.
 Chapter II
Structural classification of collocations
§ 2.1. 2. Structural classification of collocation based on their types.
There are more criteria of classifying the collocations but for this research paper the
classification will be done according to collocations’ structure.
For the purpose of the investigation, this chapter is focused on five types of collocation:

Verb +noun e.g. accept responsibility, to follow the instructions,

Adjective +noun e.g. sad place, strong chest, narrow corridors,
Noun +verb e.g. to took the opportunity, fall asleep, blood running down,.
Verb +adverb e.g. looking kindly, scream loudly, speak softly, and hold tightly.
Adverb+ adjective e.g. deeply absorbed, nervously entered, completely hidden.
The examples of collocations analyzed in this research paper were taken from Charlotte
Bronte novels-Jane Eire. There are 230 examples of collocations taken from this book. On the
background these examples will be made the statistics and percentage on basis of the: number
of elements, structural analysis of parts of speech.
Also in this chapter will be translated 60 collocations from English into Romanian
language, and will be analyzed the problem of translating the collocation and the techniques
used in translating this collocations.
According to the 230 examples of collocations analyzed here, it can be said that –
adjective +noun types has 121 examples from all 230 e.g. good child, large building, charity
school, angry word, long story, dirty habits, soft smile, wide schoolrooms, empty stomachs,
large school, long way, simple clothes, good health, plain food. The second type which has
the smallest number of collocations is –verb +adverb which has 49 examples e.g. behave
better thought bitterly, look around, resisting wildly, shouted wildly, moved slowly, speak
hardly, go silently, swear furiously, look carefully, whispered kindly, answered quickly,
listened carefully. Verb+noun types is the following type of collocation analyzed according
to the number of its elements -35 examples of collocations, e.g. keep the promise, broke of a
conversation, put out the flames, calmly mending the curtains, obey the orders, to post a
letter, improve the character, smacking the face, lie down, make no mistakes, left without a
word, trembling of fear, starve to death, follow the instructions. The noun+verb type has 21
examples of collocations e.g. light moving, rin pouring down, blood running down, body
trembled, heart beating fast, bell rang, sun shone, fog lying, people kept coming, coach rolled
off, anger boiled up, rain beating, the sun go down. The last type adverb +adjective has the
smallest number of collocations 4 e.g. completely hidden, deeply absorbed closely related,
totally unacceptable, nervously entered.

Table 1
N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE
1 Adjective + noun 121 52.6%
2 Verb + adverb 49 21.3%
3 Verb + noun 35 15.2%
4 Noun + verb 21 9.3%
5 Adverb + adjective 4 1.7%

As can be observed the first type –adjective +noun has the big number of collocations
-52.6% from all the collocations studied in this research. The second type verb +adverb has
21.3% this means that it do not constitute even a half of the first type. Verb +noun type has
15.2% from all the collocations. The noun +verb type has 9.3 %collocations, and the less
number has adverb +adjective type 1.7%, this can be understood that adverb +adjective
collocations are not so used like other types.
Analyzing all the types of collocations it can be concluded that adjective +noun type
constitute the largest number of collocations and the adverb +adjective type constitute the
smallest number of collocations used in a language and in communication.

§1.2.2. Structural classification based on number of elements

Another principle on the basis of which collocations are analyzed is the classification
according to number of elements (parts of speech) which form the collocations. The
collocations can be formed from two, three or even more elements, at the end of this analyze
it could be observed the frequent number of collocations. For this cause the classification is
made according to the first classification- adjective +noun sad place ,verb + adverb looking
kindly, verb + noun rushed the door ,noun +verb light moving, adverb + adjective nervously
entered. The number of elements con be classified in:
 Collocations formed from two elements, e.g. long walks, great pain, naughty girl, angry

Voice, dirty habits, stern look.

Collocations formed from three elements, e.g. cold winter wind, wicked cruel boy, hard
Ice
Cold fingers,
Collocations formed from four or more elements, e.g. beautiful long curly hair.
The numbers of collocations under analyses are 230 but they are shared according to their
type analyzed before.
The collocations formed from two elements are the most frequent having 131 examples,
those with three have 67 examples and those with four elements have 32 examples, the
smallest number.
N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUBER PERCENTAGE
230 100%
1 TWO ELEMENTS 131 56.9%
2 THREE ELEMENTS 67 29.1%.
3 FOUR ELEMENTS 32 13.4%

Analyzing the whole label it can be observed that the big number of percentage has
collocations with two elements - 56.9%, and the smallest number has those with for elements
- 13.4%.
For a better view of this analyze the structure will be according to all types of collocations.

The first type analyzed is adjective + noun, the total number of its elements is 121 from
230.
The collocations created from two elements constitute 81 examples of collocations
e.g. chilly afternoons, delicate health, young master, death bed, terrible experience, beautiful
house, hard work, angry voice, strange idea, wicked heart, narrow corridors, dirty habits,
wide shoulders, exciting life, evil influence, kind word, heavy sleeper, right path, wrong way,
ordinary child.
The collocations produced from three elements have 23 examples of collocations e.g.
cold winter wind, sad lonely existence, freezing cold rooms, pretty cheerful child, narrow
front door, strange inhuman sound, pure young thing, small piece of biscuit, strange ghostly
laugh, hard physical conditions .
 The collocations formed from four or more elements have 4 examples e.g. dark hair and
eyes, ice cold fingers and toes, beautiful long curly hair, fair master to his servants.
Table 1

N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE

ADJECTIVE + NOUN 121 100%
1 Two elements 81 66.9%
2 Three elements 23 19.%
3 Four elements 4 3.3%

As can be observed the large numbers of collocations are those with two elements
consisting 66.9% from the total percentage, the type of three elements has 29%, and the last
type with four elements constitute the smallest percentage 3.3%.
Analyzing the obtained results it can be said that, adjective +noun collocations formed from
two elements constitute the largest number of this type and the smallest number are those
with four elements.

The second type analyzed is –verb +adverb

The collocations formed from two elements have 31 examples, e.g. behave better
thought bitterly, looking kindly, listened carefully, swear furiously, looked carefully, shouted
desperately, examine carefully, go silently, cry bitterly, speak heavily. The collocations
formed from three elements have 9 examples, e.g. all complained bitterly, speak hardly
English, hold tightly on hands. And the collocations formed from four elements have 10
examples e.g. held tightly to her, all went quietly upstairs, felt brave enough to speak.
The table 2

N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE

VERB +ADVERB 49. 100%
1 Two elements 31 63%
2 Three elements 9 18.35%
3 Four elements 10 20.4%

The first type has the largest number of collocations, this means that collocations formed
from two elements constitutes 63.3% from all number of collocations, the type of three
elements have 18.35, and the last one has 20.4%. As can be observed the type with four
elements has one more element than those with three and also a big number than collocations
from adjective +noun type of four elements. Analyzing the obtained results it can be said that
collocations formed from two elements have the largest number of examples, this means that
it is more used group than others.

The third type analyzed is verb +noun.

It is has 35 examples of collocations, the collocations with two elements has 3 examples e.g.
feel wicked, flowing streams, the collocations with three elements have 16examples e.g. drew
the curtains, cutting the head, make no mistakes, rushed the door, keep the promise, improve
the character, post a letter, obey the orders follow the instructions, the collocation formed
from four elements have 13 examples e.g. lack the door carefully, fetch the supper trays,
calmly mending the curtains, bringing down its rider, tidy the drawer immediately, broke off
a conversation, enjoy the beautiful summer weather .
The table 3
The total number analyzed is 35
The percentage is a function from the total number 35
N= TYPE OF PATERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE
VERB + NOUN 35 100%
1 Two elements 3 8.57%
2 Three elements 16 45.7%
3 Four elements 13 37.1%

As can be observed the second type has the largest number of collocations - 45.7%from
all the number, the third type has 37.1 % of collocations and the first type has the smallest
number of collocations 8.57%. Analyzing this table it can be said that here the big number of
collocations has the type with four elements although before in others tables it has the
smallest number of collocation. It can be said that in verb +noun type the most frequent
collocations are those with three elements and the smallest number used are those with two
elements.

The forth type analyzed is- noun + verb

It has 21 examples of collocations, the collocation with two elements has 5 examples e.g.
arms waving, legs kicking, light moving, bell rang, spring approached, the collocation with
three elements have 7 examples e.g. rain pouring down, blood running down, pain gave
strength, eyes wide open, heart beating fast, and the collocations formed from four elements
have 9 examples, e.g. rain beating on the window, hair must be arranged, shame and anger
boiled up, sun shone on the flowers.

The table 4

N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE

21 100%
1 Two elements 5 14.2%
2 Three elements 7 33.3%
3 Four elements 9 42.8%

As can be observed the big number of collocations have the third type of collocations -
42.8%, the second type have 33.3%, and the first type have 23%. Analyzing this table it can
be said that more useful collocations from this type are those with four elements and less used
are those with two elements.

The fifth type under analyses is adverb +adjective

It has the smallest number of collocations -4 examples, the collocations with two elements
has 3 examples, e.g. completely hidden, nervously entered, slightly open, and those with
three elements has only one example, e.g. hardly spoke English.

The table 5
N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE
ADVERB + ADJECTIVE 4 100%
1 Two elements 3 75%
2 Three elements 4 25%

It can be observed that the first type has 75% this means that it is more used than the second
who has only one example.
Analyzing the whole types it can be said that the most used collocations are those with two
and three elements but also depends on the type of collocation for example the adjective
+noun type has more examples with two elements but verb +noun type has more examples
with three elements, this means that the structure of collocation depends on its type.

§2.2.3. Structural classification based on parts of speech

For a better view of collocations and its structure were studied the structural combination
based on parts of speech for example the collocation formed from adjective +noun in death
bed the first part of speech can be also noun but was conversed in adjective, that is why must
be analyzed its structural combination. Also it can be observed not only the outside structure
but also it’s inside structure. This analyze will be made also according to five types of
collocations.
The first type studied will be adjective + noun -121 examples, e.g. strange idea, somber
clouds, poor child, naughty tricks. The result of analyze is following: adjective + noun + noun
-7 examples, e.g. cold winter wind, kind ladies and gentleman, dark hair and eyes, adjective +
noun+ noun -15 examples, e.g. strange inhuman sound, noisy rushing water, secret hiding
place, large pale forehead, little old lady, noun +adjective + noun -3 ex., several small doors,
noun + noun -10 ex., e.g. death bed, boarding school, worm fire, candle light, number +
adjective +noun -3 ex., first full day, past participle + noun -5 ex., e.g. wicked boy, wicked
heart, adjective + noun -78 ex., terrible fear, heavy book, young master.

Table 1.
N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTGE
121 100%
1 Adjective +noun 78 64.4%
2 Noun + noun 10 8.26%
3 Adjective + adjective + noun 15 12.3%
4 Noun +adjective + noun 3 2.4%
5 Adjective + noun + noun 7 5.7%
6 Past part. + noun 5 4.13%
7 Number + adjective + noun 2 2.4%

Analyzing the whole chart it can be observed that adjective can change in other parts of
speech, and vice versa, other parts of speech can change in adjectives, for example in
collocation-window seat the first part of speech is noun but was conversed into adjective.
Also it can be observed that most examples remain unchangeable.
The second type studied is: verb + adverb - 49 e.g.
The verb + adverb type has the following structure: verb + adverb -36 ex., looked straight,
speak heavily, scream loudly, and cry bitterly, verb + adverb + prep. + noun -3 ex., hold
tightly on hands, verb + adverb + adverb -3 ex., lay fast asleep, verb + adverb + noun -2 ex.,
speak hardly English, pronoun + verb + adverb -2 ex., I feel asleep, verb + prep + verb +
adverb -2 ex., laugh and speak freely,
Table 2

N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE

49 100%
1 Verb + adverb 36 73.4%
2 Verb + adverb + prep + noun. 3 6.1%
3 Verb + adverb + adverb. 3 6.1%
4 Verb + adverb +noun 3 6.1%
5 Verb + prep + verb + adverb 2 4.0%

Looking carefully at this table it can be observed that there are not big changes like the first
table

The third type analyzed is: verb + noun -35 ex.

The verb + noun type has the following structure verb + article +noun -15 ex., drew the
curtains cutting the head, and rushed the door, verb + prep. + noun – 5 ex., bringing down its
rider, catch my look, verb + pronoun + adjective -3 ex., knocked it down, verb + artic. + adj.+
noun + noun -2 ex., floating along a quiet river, verb +adverb + prep + pronoun -2 ex., lie
down with me, verb + prep. + art. + noun -4 ex., left without a word, verb + art. + Noun +
prep + art + noun -1 ex., to play a tune on the piano.

Table 3

N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PERCENTAGE

35 100%
1 Verb + article + noun 15 42.8%
2 Verb + prep + noun 5 14.25
3 Verb + prep + art + noun 4 11.4%
4 Verb + pronoun + adjective 3 8.57%
5 Verb + art + adj. + noun + noun 2 5.75
6 Verb + adverb + prep + pronoun 2 5.7%
7 Verb +art. + noun + 1 2.855
Studying this label it can be observed that collocations of this type are formed from more
parts of speech.

The forth type analyzed is: noun + verb -21 ex.

This type has the following structure: noun + verb + adverb -9 ex., blood pouring down, sun
go down, noun + verb -3 ex., bell rang, legs kicking, noun + past simple -3 ex., coach rolled
off, adj + noun +verb -2 ex., sweet madness seized, noun + verb+ prep + art + noun -2 ex.,
sun shone on the flowers, art + noun +verb + adverb -2 ex., the sun go down, noun + verb +
prep + verb +pron -1 ex., people kept coming to visit him.

Table 4.
N= TYPE OF PATTERN NUMBER PRCENTAGE
NOUN + VERB 21 100%
1 Noun + verb + advreb 9 42.8%
2 Noun + verb 3 14.25
3 Noun + past simple 3 14.2%
4 Adj. + noun + verb 2 9.52%
5 Noun + verb + prep + art. + noun 2 9.52%
6 Art. + noun + verb + adverb 2 9.52%
7 Noun + verb + prep. + verb + pron. 1 4.76%

Analyzing this label it can be observed that noun + verb type is formed from more parts of
speech.

The last type analyzed is adverb + adjective, this type has no changes at all, its
structure remains the same: adverb + adjective, e.g. completely hidden, closely related.

§2.2.1. The analyze of translating techniques

In favor of a better understanding of collocations we decided to include in this research paper

their translating form from English into Romanian according to those 230 examples, which
we worked in previous chapter.
Translating the collocations from English into Romanian language, it was impossible to
translate them without any changes, that ‘why we were obligated to use translation
techniques. The translation techniques used here are:
Transposition – change of grammatical level, the category of parts of speech, e.g. in death
bed, the first part of speech is noun but in this example it is conversed in adjective.
Enlargement –it is linked to quantity of words, e.g. speak softly- spuse pe un ton rugator, in
translating this collocation were enlarged the parts of speech.
Reduction –it is linked also to quantity of words, e.g. boarding school – orfelinat
,translating this collocation were reduced one word.
Modulation – finding the equivalent which respect the norms of the target language, a
change of form, but not of the concept, e.g. poor vicar – pastor sarac, translating this
collocation were hanged the form but not the concept.
Contextual synonym – translating through synonyms, e.g. keep her promise – a se tine de
cuvint.
Word by word translation –translating word by word, e.g. long walks-plimbari lungi, this
example was translated word by word.
Literal translation – terrible fear – spaima grozava.

Translating all the collocations according to translations techniques it can be observed that
the most collocations are translated according to literal translation – 77 examples,
enlargement – 38examples,contextual synonym -36 examples, modulation -22 examples,
reduction -13
examples, word for word -12 examples, the smallest number has transposition -10
examples.
Table 1
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUES NUMBER PERCENTAGE
230 100%
1 Literal translation 77 33.4%
2 Enlargement 38 16.5%
3 Contextual synonym 36 15.6%
4 Modulation 22 9.5%
5 Reduction 13 5.6%
6 Word for word 12 5.2%
7 Transposition 10 4.3%

Analyzing the whole label it can be noticed that literal translation has -33.4%, enlargement –
16.5%, contextual synonym -15.6%, modulation – 9.5%, reduction – 5.65, word for word
-5.2% and transposition – 4.3
For a better view of translation process of collocation, they were translated according to their
number of elements. For this purpose the investigation will be based on five types of
collocations, adjective + noun, adverb + verb, verb +noun, noun +verb and adverb + adjective
and their number elements: two elements, three elements and four elements
The first type analyzed is adjective + noun type. The large numbers of collocations here
were translated according to literal translation, for a good observation the example is
analyzed together with its sentence, for example:

e.g. What a strange feeling to be leaving Ggatehead, my home for the whole of my
childhood.

The collocation under analyses is – strange feeling- simtamint straniu it has two parts of
speech -adjective + noun.In Romanian it also has two parts of speech – noun + adjective.
Here the noun is placed before the adjective and the adjective after the noun.

e.g. Sometimes he hit me, sometimes, he just threatened me, and I lived in terrible
fear of him.
In this sentence the collocation under analysis is –terrible fear – spaima grozava .
This collocation is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is formed also from noun + adjective, here is used the conversion, the
noun was changed with the adjective and vice versa, the adjective was changed with the verb.

e.g. I really sow him as a wicked murderer.

The collocation under analysis is –wicked murderer – tiran ucigas.
This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech –noun + adjective, here is used
the changed of the word order. the noun was changed with the adjective and the adjective
with the noun.

e.g. He’s your young master

The collocation under analysis is – young master. – tinarul domnisor.
This collocation is formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun.
In Romanian it also has two parts of speech –noun + adjective. Here was used a
conversion, the adjective in initial form was conversed in noun and vice versa.
 e.g. Strange ideas come to me.
In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –strange idea– gind ciudat.
This collocation is formed from two parts of speech –adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from two parts –noun+ adjective
In this translation was changed the word order, the noun in place of adjective and vice versa,
the adjective in place of noun.

e.g. Lost in the world of imagination, I forgot my sad lonely existence, for a
while, and was happy.
The collocation under analysis is–sad lonely existence –trairea trista si singuratica .
This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech- adjective + adjective +
noun .In Romanian it has the same structure but the parts of speech are changed – noun +
adjective + adjective.

e.g. What a strange feeling to be leaving gateshead , my home for the whole of
my childhood.
The collocation under analyses is – strange feeling- simtamint straniu.
It has two parts of speech -adjective + noun.
In Romanian it also has two parts of speech – noun + adjective. Here the noun is placed
before the adjective and the adjective after the noun.

e.g. Well I hope you will be a good child at school, she said toughing my cheeks
gently with her fingers.
The collocations are:
Good child
Toughing my cheeks gently
The first example – good child- fetita cuminte .
It has two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two parts of speech
noun + adjective; here are the same changes as in the example before.
The second example is – toughing my cheeks gently – m-a netezit blind pe obraji.
It has four parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun + adverb.
In Romanian it has five parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb +preposition +noun.
 Transposition technique, examples:

e.g. I was good to be back to my familiar bedroom, with a warm fire and
a candle light.
In this sentence there are three collocations
Familiar bedroom
Warm fire
Candle light
The first example of collocations is familiar bed room - odaia copiilor . It is formed from two
parts of speech- noun + noun, but the first noun suffered a conversion changing into an
adjective. And now it is adjective + noun
In Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech- noun + noun, but here the noun
remains unchanged.
The second collocation from this sentence is warm fire- foc din simeneu
It is formed from two parts of speech- noun + noun, where the noun suffered a conversion
like the example before.
In Romanian it has three parts of speech- noun + preposition + noun.
The third example of collocations is –candle light-luminare aprinsa.
It is formed from two parts of speech –noun + noun where the one noun suffered a
conversion like the examples before.
In Romanian it has also two parts of speech- noun + adjective. Here is used transposition
technique, because the noun was changed in adjectives, in order to give the appropriate
meaning of the context into Romanian.

e.g. I wanted to join the family circle, but Mrs. Reed, my out, refused.

The collocation under analysis is- family circle-.cerc familial.

This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – adjective +noun-but here
was used a conversion the noun “family” was changed in adjective and formed this example
of collocation –adjective +noun. In Romanian it has two parts of speech and they also were
changed by conversion, the noun “familie” was changed in adjective “familial”.

e.g. On his death bed he had made his wife , aunt reed promise to look
after me like her own children.
 In this sentence the collocation analyzed is – death bed – cu limba de moarte.
This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – noun + noun, but the
noun was changed in an adjective and now the collocation is formed from adjective + noun.
In Romanian it has four parts of speech –preposition + noun + preposition + noun.

Contextual synonym technique

e.g. They pulled us a part and I heard the say, what a wicked girl.
The collocation under analysis is -wicked girl- fiinta disperata.
This example of collocation is formed two parts of speech –adjective + noun.
In Romanian it also is formed from two parts of speech- noun + adjective and has the
same structure like the example before.

e.g. Wicked cruel You boy I cried

In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –wicked cruel boy-uriciosule baiat indracit-.
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – adjective + adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from three parts of speech- adjective + noun + adjective.

e.g. They pulled us a part and I heard the say, what a wicked girl.
The collocation under analysis is -wicked girl- fiinta disperata.
This example of collocation is formed two parts of speech –adjective + noun.
In Romanian it also is formed from two parts of speech- noun + adjective and has the
same structure like the example before.

e.g. It was also a great relief to recognize Dr Lloyd, who Mrs. Reed called in
for her servants (she always called a specialist for her self and the children).
In this sentence the collocation analyzed is –great relief- usurare neinchipuita .
This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In
Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech – noun + adjective, but here the noun
stands before the noun,

e.g. What is all this? Demanded an angry voice.

The collocation under analysis is – angry voice-voce autoritara.
This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech –noun + adjective.
 In Romanian it also has two parts of speech –noun + adjective. The difference from
these examples is that in English the noun stands before the adjective, but in Romanian the
adjectives stands before noun.

e.g. Mr. Brocklepurst, interrupted Mrs. Reed, I mentioned to you in my

letter that this little girl has in fact a very bad character.
In this sentence the collocation under analyses is- a very bad character- trasaturi de
character rele.
This collocation is formed from four parts of speech- article + adverb + adjective +
noun. In Romanian it has noun + preposition+noun +adjective. As can be observed the
number of parts of speech is the same but their grammatical structure is not the same

Reduction technique

e.g. The red room was a cold, silent room, hardly ever used, although it was
one of the largest bedroom in the house.
The collocation under analysis is – cold silent room- camera nelocuita.
This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech- adjective + adjective +
noun.
In Romanian it has two parts of speech –noun + adjective. Translating this collocation
was reduced one part of speech – one adjective.

e.g. He should have been at boarding school, but his mother, who loved him very
much had ought hibrom home for a month or two, because she though his health was
delicate.
In these sentences the collocation is: Boarding school -orfelinat
The first example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun, but
in Romanian language it is formed from one part of speech – noun, here was used again
the reduction technique and this collocation was translated –orfelinat, because in Romanian
one word is used to name this object.

Modulation technique
 The collocation under analyses is –poor vicar –pastor sarac .It is formed from two parts
of speech –adjective +noun. In Romanian it also has the some structure, but the noun is
placed before the adjective .and the adjective after the noun –noun +adjective.
In translation of this collocation it can be observed that between “vicar “ and “astor “it
has no any link ,”vicar means –priest», while “pastor means shepherd “.this means that in
translation was used the modulation technique –the word vicar was translated in pastor . Was
used this translation technique in order to respect the norms of the target language.

e.g. He lifted the heavy book and threw it hard at me.

The collocation analyzed is – heavy book –carte groasa. It is formed from two parts of
speech –adjective + noun .In Romanian it is formed also from same parts of speech – noun
+ adjective, but translating it into Romanian was used the modulation technique because in
Romania it is not saing “carte grea” that’s why was used the modulation technique in order to
sound more natural in Romanian language

E.g. Each child could have a drink of water out of the shared cup and
could take a small piece of biscuit.
The collocations from this sentence are:
Shared cup
Small piece of biscuit
The first example of collocation is –shared cup –cana ce servea tuturor .It is formed from
tow parts of speech-verb +noun ,but here is an conversion the verb “ shere” was changed in
adjective “shared “and now it is –adjective +noun. In Romanian it has four parts of
speech=noun +preposition +verb +adverb.
In this collocation was used the explanation technique because the ‘shared cup was explained
as –cana ce servea tuturor .
The second example is –small piece of biscuit-o bucata de prajitura .
It is formed from four parts of speech –adjective +noun +pre position +noun.
In Romanian it has also four parts of speech –article +noun + preposition +noun.

e.g. But the only y food served to us was porridge, which was burnt ,it
was so disgusting that we could not eat it so we left the dining room with empty stomachs .
The collocation under analyses is –empty stomachs –flaminde de moarte . It is formed from
two parts of speech –adjective + noun. In Romanian it has three parts of speech –adjective +
preposition +noun. Although it was translated with this technique the equivalent respect the
norms of the Romanian language, it was changed the form but the concept re main the same.

Word for word technique

e.g. I never liked long walks, especially in winter.

The collocation under analysis is Long walks– plimbari lungi-
This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech –adjective +noun, in
Romanian it has this structure: noun +adjective here was used conversion. The parts of
speech were changed, adjective in place of noun and vice versa.

e.g. We believe in hard work, plain food, simple clothes and no luxury
of any kind.
The collocations in these sentences are:
Hard work
Plain food
Simple clothes
The first collocation from this sentences –hard work – munca grea
It is formed from two parts of speech - adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from tow parts of speech – noun + adjective, but here the noun
is placed before the adjective, and the adjective in place of noun, because in Romanian
language the adjective stands after the noun. That’s why there is need the change of place of
the parts of speech.
The second example of collocation – plain food- translated cumpatata.
It is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun.
In Romanian it is also formed from two parts of speech – noun+ adjective. Here is the same
change as in the example before.
The third example is –simple clothes- imbracaminte modesta.
It is formed from two parts of speech – adjective + noun.
In Romanian it also has two parts of speech –noun + adjective. Here is the same change as in
the examples before..
e.g. I was put in the bottom class.
The collocation under analyses is-the bottom class-capatul sirului .
It is formed from three parts of speech – article +noun +noun, here was used a conversion
the noun “bottom “was changed in adjective and now is adjective + noun.
In Romanian it has two parts of speech –noun +noun ,where the noun “capatul “was changed
in adjective .as can be observed here this example was the same structure
Enlargement technique

e.g. He was a tall, thin man dressed all in black, with a cold stony face
at the top of the column.
The collocations from these sentences are
Tall, thin man
Cold stony face.
The first example of collocation from this sentence – tall, thin man – cu o infatisare de
adevarata prajina uscativa
It is formed from threee parts of speech- adjective + adjective + noun.
In Romanian it has a large number of parts of speech, seven – preposition + article + noun +
preposition + adjective + noun + adjective.
In translation this collocation in Romanian it was used more words, in order to give an
original meaning to the Romanian context. Although it has more parts of speech the meaning
remain the same..
The second example of collocation from this sentence – with a cold stony face – chipul
lui aducea a masca taiata din piatra
This collocation is formed from five parts of speech – preposition + article + adjective +
adjective + noun.
In Romanian it has more parts of speech – noun + pronoun + verb + noun + verb +
preposition + noun.
As can be observed in Romanian translation there are more words because was used the
enlargement technique, in order to give an appropriate translation of Romanian language
.Although there was used more words in translation the meaning was kept

e.g. Well I hope you will be a good child at school, she said toughing my
cheeks gently with her fingers.
The collocations are:
Good child
Toughing my cheeks gently
The first example – good child- fetita cuminte .
It has two parts of speech – adjective + noun. In Romanian it also has two parts of speech
noun + adjective; here are the same changes as in the example before.
The second example is – toughing my cheeks gently – m-a netezit blind pe obraji.
It has four parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun + adverb.
In Romanian it has five parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb +preposition +noun.

Analyzing all the collocation of this type it can be observed that: literal translation technique
has the large number of collocations -30 examples, contextual synonym -24 examples,
enlargement –20examples, reduction -10examples, transposition -10examples, modulation
-9examples and word for word -18 examples.

Table 2
N= TYPE OF PATTER NUMBER PERCENTAGE
121 100
1 Literal translation 30 24.7%
2 Contextual synonym 24 19.8%
3 Enlargement 20 16.5%
4 Word for word 18 14.8%
5 Reduction 10 8.2%
6 Transposition 10 8.2%
7 Modulation 9 7.4%

As can be observed the literal translation has 24.7%, contextual synonym has 19.8%,
enlargement has 16.5%,Word for word 14.8%,Reduction 8.2%,Transposition 8.2%
Modulation 7.4%.
For being able to have a complete view of translation analyze it is better to have also a label
with translation technique according to the number of elements.

Table 3
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUE TWO THREE FOUR
ADJECTIVE + NOUN ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS
1 Literal translation 15 -18.5% 4 -17.3% 2 -50%
2 Contextual synonym 13 -16.4% 7 -33.3% 1 -25%
3 Enlargement 14 -17.2% 5 -21.7% 1 -25%
4 Word for word 18 -22.5%
5 Reduction 6 -7.4% 4 -17.3%
6 Transposition 10 -12.3%
7 Modulation 6 -7.4% 2 -8.6%

The most frequent translation techniques in collocations with two elements is literal
translation having 18.5%, and for three elements is contextual synonym -33.3%, the less used
technique is modulation and reduction for both. Word for word and transposition technique
are missing from collocations with three elements, the collocations with four elements were
translated only through literal, context syn., and enlargement.

The next type analyzed is adverb +verb, also like adjective + noun type, the large number
of collocations were translated through literal translation, for example:

Literal translation

e.g. Bessie kissed me for the last time as I held tightly to her.
The collocation under analyses is – I held tightly to her- am cuprins-o strins.
It is formed from five parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb + preposition + pronoun.
In Romanian it has three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb As can be observed the
two parts of speech was reduced. Although was reduced two elements the meaning remain
unchanged.
e.g. She screamed so loudly ma’am said Bessie softly .
The collocation under analysis is – screamed so loudly – racnea foarte tare .
This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech –verb + conjunction +
adverb.
In Romanian it has also the some structure of three parts of speech – verb + adverb +
adverb. There is no need of any changes only the English conjunction was translated in
Romanian – as adverb .

Enlargement technique

e.g. speak softly– spuse pe un ton rugator-

This collocation is formed from two parts of speech – verb + adverb.
In Romanian the same collocation has five parts of speech – verb + preposition + article
noun + adjective. Here it can be observed that is a big difference in the grammatical
structure, because in the translation was used the enlargement technique in order to emphases
the filings of the reader and to give an appropriate meaning in Romanian language .

e.g. Until I hear from Bessie, or see for myself, that you are a really trying to
behave better, you can not be treated as a good, happy child, like my children.
The collocation under analysis is - traing to behave better stradania de a fi mai prietenoasa
si mai blinda .
This example of collocation is formed from four parts of speech- verb +preposition
+verb+ adverb. But in Romanian translation the same pattern has nine parts of speech,
which are –noun +preposition+ verb + adjective +noun + conjunction+ adjective + noun.
The difference in translation is that the same pattern in English needs few words but
translating in Romanian it needs more words, in order to give the same meaning. The
techniques used here are enlargement and contextual synonyms translation.

Reduction technique

e.g. Goodbye to Goteshead, I shouted wildly as we walked together

out of the front door to wait for the coach in the road.
The collocation under analyses is – I shouted wildly- am exclamat eu.
It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb.
In Romanian it has two parts of speech- verb + pronoun. Although here was used a
reduction the meaning remain the same.

e.g .In fact she was so kind to me that I become brave enough to ask a
question.
The collocation under analyses is –become brave enough –a capata curaj .
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – verb + adverb +adverb .In
Romanian it has two parts of speech –verb + adverb. In Romanian one adverb was reduced
in order to give the originality and importance of the Romanian equivalent translation.

Word for word technique

e.g. I had to share Miss Miller ‘s ,but I was so tired that I fell asleep
Immediately .
 The collocation under analyses is –I fell asleep immediately –am adormit imediat .
It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun +verb +adverb.
In Romanian it is formed from three parts of speech –pronoun +verb +adverb .as can be
observed this collocation has the same parts of speech – pronoun +verb +adverb, which
mean that there are no changes.

e.g. I sow a light and I thought it was a ghost, I cried holding tightly on to
Bessie hand.
The collocation under analysis is – holding tightly on hand – a tine strins de mina.
This collocation is formed from four parts of speech – verb + adverb +preposition
+noun.
In Romanian it has also four parts of speech- verb + adverb + preposition + noun. As
can be observed this collocation has the same grammatical structure.

e.g. The collocation under analysis is – stared fascinated- admira incintata.

This example of collocation is formed from two parts of speech – verb + adverb. In
Romanian it has two parts of speech also –verb + adverb. Here in translation is not any
changes the technique used here is word by word translation, because the meaning needn’t
any changes.

Modulation technique

e.g. Then we all went quietly upstairs to the long crowded bedroom, where
two children shared every bed.
The collocation under analyses is –all went quietly upstairs –in perecche ne urcam sus .
It is formed from four parts of speech – adverb +verb +adverb +noun.
In Romanian it has five parts of speech - preposition + noun +pronoun +verb +adverb.
As can be observed there is no link in their grammatical structure because the technique used
here is modulation, it was used an equivalent in order to translate this collocation, an
equivalent which respect the norms of the target language.

Contextual synonym technique

 e.g. As I wondered ,I sow a girl near me reading a book ,I felt brave
enough to speak to her ,since I liked reading too.
The collocation under the analyses is-I felt brave enough to speak – am avut indrazneala sa
vorbesc .
It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun +verb +adverb +adverb +preposition
+verb.
In Romanian it has –five parts of speech –verb +adverb + verb. Between their grammatical
structures is no link at all but the meaning is kept. It was translated so because using the
synonyms the meaning is more related to the context.

Studding the translation according to their techniques, it can be observed that from the total
number of collocations, the majority were translated through literal translation -21 examples,
contextual synonym -5 examples, enlargement 8 examples, modulation -7 examples, word for
word -3 examples, reduction -1 example, and through transposition technique nothing were
translated. It can be understand batter through next two labels, the first represents the whole
type translation and the second show translations according to their number of elements.

Table 4
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUE NUMBER PERCENTAGE
ADVERB+ VERB 49 100%
1 Literal translation 21 42.8%
2 Contextual synonym 5 10.2%
3 Enlargement 7 14.2%
4 Word for word 3 6.12%
5 Reduction 1 2.0%
6 Transposition
7 Modulation 7 14.2%

As has been pointed out literal translation is the most frequent technique having -42.8%, and
the less used here is reduction -2.0%. In translating this type the transposition wasn’t used at
all.
The second label is according to their number of elements:

Table 5
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUE TWO THREE FOUR
ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS
1 Literal translation 16 -51.6% 6 -66.6% 5 -83.3%
2 Contextual synonym 3 -9.6% 1 -22.0%
3 Enlargement 5 -10.2% 1 -22.0% 1 -16.6%
4 Word for word 3 -9.6%
5 Reduction 1 -2.0%
6 Transposition
7 Modulation

Analyzing the techniques it can be observed that literal and enlargement are more frequent in
this type 16.51%, 66.6% for literal and 10.2%, 22.0% for enlargement, in the collocation with
two elements the transposition and modulation, and in collocation with three elements the
word for word, reduction, transposition and modulation techniques were not used at all, in
translating the collocation with four elements only literal and enlargement techniques were
used.

The third type analyzed is verb + noun here the large number also was translated through
literal translation, for example:

e.g. I climbed on to the window seat and drew the curtains, so that
I was completely hidden.
The collocations under analysis are:
Climbed on to the window seat,
Drew the curtains,
The first example of collocation from this sentence- climbed on to the window seat- cocotat
pe prichiciul lat .This collocation is formed from six parts of speech-verb +preposition
+preposition + article + noun +noun . In Romanian it has only four parts of speech –verb +
preposition +noun + adjective.
The second example of collocation from this sentence is –drew the curtains,–tragind
draperiile. This collocation is formed from three parts of speech –verb+article +noun , in
Romanian it has two parts of speech –verb +noun.

e.g. put away the lesson –book and fetch the super –trays ,called Miss Miller .
In this sentence the collocation under analyses is –fetch the super trays –a cara tava cu
mincare.
This example is formed from four parts of speech –verb +article +noun +noun.
In Romanian it has also four parts of speech – verb +noun +preposition +noun.
 e.g. will madam, I hope she will be grateful for this opportunity to improve
her character.
The collocation under nalyses is– a-– improve her character erfectiona caracterul .
It is formed from three parts of speech – verb + pronoun + noun.
In Romanian it has also three and the same parts of speech – pronoun + verb + noun, but the
word order is not the same.

Contextual synonym technique

e.g.It hit me and I fell, cutting my head on the door.

The collocation under analysis is cutting my head– a-mi sparge capul.
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech- verb + pronoun + noun.
In Romanian it also has three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + noun, their word order is
changed in order to emphases the filings of the reader and to sound more natural in Romanian
language..
.
e.g.The rain was still beating on the windows, and I could hear the
wind in the street.
The collocation under analysis is – the rain was still beating on the window–ploaia rapaia
in fereastra .
The collocation is formed from eight parts of speech – article + noun +verb +
conjunction + verb + preposition + article + noun.
In Romanian it has four parts of speech – noun + verb + preposition + noun.
Translating this collocation was reduced four parts of speech. The Romanian word
“rapaia” with an old connotation was used here in order to give an appropriate meaning of the
context and also to correspond with the vocabulary of that time.

e.g.I began to fear that his ghost ,light come back to punish his wife for not
keeping the promise .
The collocation under analysis is – keep her promise– a se tine de cuvint.
This example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech- verb + pronoun +
noun.
 In Romanian it is also formed from three parts of speech – verb + preposition + noun.
Here was used the contextual synonym translation technique in order to emphases the filings
of the reader and to give a more natural meaning in Romanian language

Enlargement

e.g. I treed to make no mistake but they colled naughty every moment of the
day.
The collocation under analyisis is – make no mistake– a face fata tuturor indatoririlor.
The collocation is formed from three parts of speech – verb + conjunction + noun.
In Romanian it is formed from four parts of speech – verb + noun + adverb + noun. In
this translation of collocation was used the enlargement and, in order to remain the same
meaning of the context.

E.g. Mrs Reed smacked my face and left me without a word.

The collocation under analyses is –smacked my face –a trage palme pe fata.
This example of collocation has three parts of speech –verb +pronoun + noun.
In Romanian the some example has four parts of speech – verb +noun +preposition +noun.
Translating this collocation it can be observed that one word was added in Romanian
translation–“palme “.this means that the technique used here is enlargement because was
added parts of speech ,in order to give more understandable meaning of the collocations .

Word for word translation

e.g. Screaming wildly, I rushed to the door and shook it.

In this sentence the collocatins under analysis is –rushed to the door- a se repezi la usa .
In this example of collocations is formed from four parts of speech – verb + preposition +
article + noun.
In Romanian it has three parts of speech – verb + preposition + noun. As can be observed
that here is the same grammatical structure without any changes.

Analyzing this type and its translations techniques it can be observed that literal translation
is more used having 20 examples form the total number – 35, and the less used modulation,
word for word, reduction all having 2 examples.
Reduction technique

e.g.The rain was still beating on the windows, and I could hear the wind in the
street.
The collocation under analysis is – the rain was still beating on the window–ploaia rapaia
in fereastra .
The collocation is formed from eight parts of speech – article + noun +verb +
conjunction + verb + preposition + article + noun.
In Romanian it has four parts of speech – noun + verb + preposition + noun.
Translating this collocation was reduced four parts of speech. The Romanian word
“rapaia” with an old connotation was used here, in order to give an appropriate meaning of
the context and also to correspond with the vocabulary of that time.

e.g. Sometimes I looked out of the window at the grey November

afternoon, and sow the rain pouring down on the leafless garden.
In this sentence the collocation under analysis is rain pouring down–– ploaie cadea incet.
In this example of collocation there are four parts of speech – article + noun +verb +
adverb. In Romanian translation is formed from three parts of speech – noun+ verb+
adverb. As it can be observed there are the some construction but without the article. In this
example the translation technique is reduction, it was reduced the word “down”, In order to
give a more meaningful connotation to the context.

Table 6
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUE NUMBER PERCENTAGE
VERB +NOUN 35 100%
1 Literal translation 20 57.1%
2 Contextual synonym 5 14.2%
3 Enlargement 4 11/4%
4 Word for word 2 5.7%
5 Reduction 2 5.7%
6 Transposition
7 Modulation 2 5.7%
The big percentage has literal translation -57.1%, contextual synonym -14.2%, enlargement
-11.4% and word for word, modulation, reduction all has 5.7%

The next label is according to their umber of elements:

Analyzing this label according to number of elements, it is also observed that literal
translation is more used in all three types.

Table 7
N= TYPEOF TWOELEMENTS THREE FOUR
TRANSLATION ELEMENTS ELEMENTS
1 Literal translation 1 -33.3% 12 -75% 5 -38.4%
2 Contextual synonym 1 -6.2% 2 -15.3%
3 Enlargement 1 -6.2% 4-25.5%
4 Word for word 2-13.2% 2 15.3%
5 Reduction 2 -66.6%
6 Transposition
7 Modulation 2 -13.3% 2 -15.3%

As can be observed in translating the collocation with two elements only the literal translation
and reduction were used. In collocation with three and four elements the reduction and
transposition were not used. It means that in translation the collocation different techniques
are used.

The next type analyzed is noun + verb, in spite of those types which the large number
were literal translation, in this type enlargement technique constitute the large number,7
examples, literal translation 5 examples, modulation 3 examples word for word 1example,
contextual synonym 3 examples.
Examples of translations of collocations and their analysis:

Modulation technique

e.g. My whole body trembled when he come near.

The collocation analyzed is - body trembled-ingheta single in vine.
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – adjective + noun + verb.
In Romanian it is formed from four parts of speech – verb + noun + preposition + noun.
 technique in order to emphases the filings of the reader and also to give an appropriate
meaning of the English context.

e.g. And so I was carried upstairs, arms waving and legs kicking .
The collocation under analysis is – arms waving and legs kicking – m-am impotrivit din
rasputeri.
This collocation is formed from five parts of speech- noun + verb + conjunction + noun
+ verb.
In Romanian it has four parts of speech – pronoun + verb + preposition + noun. Here
was used the modulation technique because in Romanian it has no the direct equivalent of
such collocation,

e.g. The door was closed and the coach rolled off.
The collocation under analyses is – the coach rolled off- diligenta se urni greoi din loc.
It has five parts of speech article + noun + verb + preposition.
In Romanian it has five parts of speech – noun + verb + adverb + preposition + noun.
Although it has the same number of parts of speech they has no the same in grammatical
structure. In this example there is a phrase- rolled off – a se urni .

Contextual synonym technique

e.g. My head was hot, my heart beat fast.

The collocations under analysis are – my heart beat fast – inima-mi zvicnea spasmodic.
This example of collocations is formed from four parts of speech –pronoun + noun +verb
+ adverb. In Romanian is also four parts of speech, but here is a small change in grammatical
structure – noun + pronoun + verb + adverb.
The word “fast”was translated in Romanian as “spasmodic”, because the old vocabulary
of that time was used.

e.g. Is your book interesting, I asked, Here, have a look at it, I glanced
quickly at it but find difficult to understand ,so I gave it back.
The collocation under analyses is-I glanced quickly at it- am rasfoit cartea .
It is formed from five parts of speech –pronoun +verb +adverb +preposition + pronoun.
In Romanian it has three parts speech – pronoun + verb +noun
Enlargement technique

e.g. When he left, I felt very lonely again

The collocation under analyses is –felt very lonely again, - gera amaraciune aizbito.
This example of collocation is formed from four parts of speech –verb +adverb + adverb
+adverb. In the Romanian it is formed from five parts of speech – adjective + noun +
article + verb + pronoun. As it can be observed there is a big difference between the English
and Romanian patterns in their grammatical structure. In Romanian translation appeared one
more part of speech, in order to give the most appropriate translation of the context.

Word for word technique

e.g. So two servants slept in my room, while I lay awake all night
trembling with fear and eyes wide open in horror imaging ghosts in every corner.
The collocations from this sentence are
–trembling with fear
-eyes wide open.
The first collocation –trembled with fear –tremurind de frica .
This collocation is formed from three parts of speech – verb +preposition + noun. In
Romanian also it has three parts of speech – verb+ preposition + noun .AS it can be
observed this example has the some structure –verb+ preposition + noun, which means that
here was used the word by word translation technique.
The second example of collocation is formed from three parts of speech – noun+
adjective + verb. In Romanian it also has three parts of speech and also has the some
structure –noun +adjective + verb.

Literal translation technique

e.g. Goodbye to Goteshead, I shouted wildly as we walked together out of

the front door to wait for the coach in the road.
The collocation under analyses is – I shouted wildly- am exclamat eu.
It is formed from three parts of speech – pronoun + verb + adverb.
In Romanian it has one less word, two parts of speech- verb + pronoun.
 e.g. put away the lesson –book and fetch the super –trays ,called Miss Miller .
In this sentence the collocation under analyses is –fetch the super trays –a cara tava cu
mincare.
This example is formed from four parts of speech –verb +article +noun +noun.
In Romanian it has also four parts of speech – verb +noun +preposition +noun.
In this example the English article “the» was translated with preposition “cu” in Romanian
.although the number of parts of speech is the same the grammatical structure is different

According to this type the more frequent technique is enlargement 7 ex, literal translation 5
examples, contextual synonym 3 examples, word for word only one example.
Reduction and transposition was not used at all.

Table 8
N= TYPES OF TECHNIQUE NUMBER PERCENTAGE
NOUN +VERB 21 100%
1 Literal translation 5 23.8%
2 Contextual synonym 3 14.2%
3 Enlargement 7 33.3%
4 Word for word 1 4.7%
5 Reduction
6 Transposition

Label according to number of elements.

In spite of all labels which the most frequent translation was literal, here the most used
technique is enlargement and the less is reduction and transposition.

Table 9
N= TYPE OF TOW THREE FOUR FIVE
TRANSLATION ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS ELEMENTS
1 Literal translation 1 -20% 2 -28.5% 2 -50%
2 Contextual synonym 1 -20% 2 -28.5%
3 Enlargement 1 -20% 1 -4.28% 4 - 1OO% 1 -25%
4 Word for word 1 -20%
5 Reduction
6 Transposition
7 Modulation 2 -28.5% 1 -25%

As have been pointed out the most used technique is enlargement for all types, having the big
percentage 33.3%, the reduction, transposition, modulation in translation of
collocation with two and three elements were not used and the collocation formed
from four elements was translated only through enlargement technique,

The last type analyzed is adverb + adjective translation. This type has the less number of
collocations -4 and are translated though contextual syn.-1-25% and literal translation 3
-75%.

Table 10
N= TYPE OF TECHNIQUE TWO ELEMENTS
ADVERB + ADJECTIVE
1 Contextual synonym 1 -25%
2 Literal translation 3 75%

Translating this collocation were used only contextual synonym and literal translation
techniques

Examine the whole translations it can be said that, literal translation is more used in all types
of collocations and the less used are reduction, modulation, and word for word translation.
The transposition technique was used only in adjective + noun type.
 Conclusion

This research paper “The problem of collocations in English language” adds to the few
studies so far conducted in the area of defying and understanding it as a single unit.
Investigating this topic it can be concluded that collocations constitute an area of
difficulty in learning English because it is misunderstood with other word groups, which have
in common some peculiarities. That is why in the first chapter we tired to distinguish the
collocations from word groups like: phrases, idioms, compound words and phraseologic
units. Firstly we defined these word groups in order to understand and defining better the
collocations and their importance in learning how to speak, write, and think like a native
speaker of English language.
 The second chapter is based only on the practice of analyses of collocations according to
their five types:
Adjective + noun, verb + noun, adverb + verb, noun + verb, and adverb + adjective. On
the basis of these types was made analysis and statistics according to: types of collocations,
number of elements, parts of speech. Studying this language feature it can be said that the
most frequent type of collocations is adjective + noun and the smallest number of
collocations are adverb + adjective type, this means that the most used collocations are those
formed from adjective + noun type. The same can be said bout the number of elements but
here are some differences according to the type of collocations, for example in adjective
+noun type the collocation with two elements constitute the biggest number and with four
elements constitutes the smallest number, but in verb + adverb type the collocations with
three elements constitute the biggest number and those with two elements constitutes the
smallest number of collocations. In noun +verb type the biggest number constitutes
collocations with four elements and the smallest number constitutes collocations with two
elements this means that collocations are not the same for the all types or have not the same
structure for all types.
Studying these language elements based on parts of speech it can be said that their
structure based on parts of speech is not the same, for example in adjective + noun type
almost all collocations are formed from adjective + noun, but in verb + noun type almost all
collocations are formed from verb + article (prepositions) + noun, as it is observed this type
needs one more part of speech.
An important aspect from this paper is the translation of collocations from English into
Romanian language, using 230 examples from Charlotte Bronte novels –Jane Eyre.
In translating these collocations were used some translation techniques like: word for
word, literal translation, enlargement, reduction, modulation, transposition and contextual
synonym.
Analyzing the translations it can be said that the most used technique is literal
translation and the less used technique is transposition. This can be said that in all types of
collocations the literal translation is the most used, this being followed by the contextual
synonym and enlargement then word for word, reduction, modulation and transposition.
Although there was used a great number of techniques, the meaning and the context was kept.
Analyzing and studying the whole research paper it can be observed that collocations can
be learnt, understood and spoken without any problems and difficulties if we will keep their
basic features.
 This is an actual theme and it is studied by linguists, lexicographers in making
dictionaries, in translation problems, and terminology. To finish on a more cheerful note, it
can be said that collocations are the way in which the words are combined and spoken by us
in every day life. In order to understand, speak, think and write as a native English person, we
must study the collocations.

Summary

This research paper, “The problem of collocations in English language “,

is focused on defining the other word groups: idioms, compound words, phraseological units
and phrases in order to understand better the collocation and not to have problems in
distinguishing it from these word groups because they have a lot of peculiarities which make
them to be wrong understood as a single unit.
Distinguishing it from these word groups the following aspect of this research is to
define the collocations and their importance in learning how to think, speak and write in
English as a native one using collocations as the base of learning .
 Another important aspect in this article is the analyze of collocation structure based on
five types of collocations: adjective +noun, noun + verb ,verb +noun, adverb + verb, adverb +
adjective. These types of collocations were analyzed according to: number of elements,
parts of speech and translation techniques. Translation techniques used in this research paper
are: literal translation, contextual synonym, word by word, enlargement, transposition,
reduction and modulation.
For these analyze, examples were taken from Charlotte Bronte novels-Jane Ere, the
numbers of investigated collocations are 230, and for the translation investigation also these
collocations were analyzed. On these analyze were made statistics and percentage according
to each type of investigation in order to have a better view of collocations and their structure.
Understanding the collocations and their importance in English language will make the
language easier to speak and understand.

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Appendices

ANEXE 1- ADJECTIVE + NOUN TYPE

N= ADJECTIVE + NOUN, EXA- TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE
MPLES, TWO ELEMENTS

1 Somber clouds Nouri sumbri Word for word

2 Long walks plimbari lungi Word for word
3 Leafless shrubbery cararuile gradinii scuturate enlargement
4 Family circle Cerc familial transpozition
5 Window seat Prichici lat transpoziton
6 Boarding school internat transpozition
7 Delicate health Sanatate subreda Literal translation
8 Terrible fear Spaima grozava Literal translation
9 Heavy book Carte groasa Context synonym
10 Greait pain Durere infioratoare Context synonym
11 Wicked murder tiran reduction
12 Angry voice Voce autoritara Context synonym
13 Strange idea Gind ciudat Context synonym
14 Young master Tinarul domnisor Context synonym
15 Painful reminders Amintiri dureroase Literal translation
16 Wicked heart Inima slaba Context synonym
17 Red room Camera rosie Word for word
18 Large bedroom Odaie samptuasa modulation
19 Naughty girl Fata neascultatoare Literal translation
20 Stony face Masca taiata din piatra enlargement
21 Long hours Mai multe ore enlargement
22 Familiar bedroom Odaia copiilor Transposition
23 Worm fire Foc din simeneu Transposition
24 Candle light Luminare aprinsa Transposition
25 Great relief Usurare nainchipuita enlargement
26 Poor child Sarmana fetita Context synonym
27 Terrible experience Experienta grea Context synonym
28 Beautiful house Cada atit de frumoasa enlargement
29 Delicate child prostuta reduction
30 Poor vicar Pastor sarac modulation
31 Ungrateful child Fata nerecunoscatoare modulation
32 Death bed Cu limba de moarte Transposition
33 Good health sanatoasa reduction
34 Bad character Character rau Word for word
35 Hard work Munca grea Word for word
36 Plain food Miacare cumpatata Context synonym
37 Simple clothes Imbracaminte modesta Context synonym
38 Long way Cale lunga Word for word
39 Young child copilta enlargement
40 Strange feeling Simtamint straniu Context synonym
41 Large building Cladire lunga Context synonym
42 Good child Fetita cuminte Literal translation
43 Silent corridors Aripa de casa unde stapinea o enlargement
liniste adinca
44 Large school Cladire imensa Context synonym
45 Empty stomachs Flaminde de moarte Context synonym
46 Uneatable breakfast Mincare oribila Context synonym
47 Charity school Azil de caritate enlargement
48 Charity children Copii orfani modulation
49 Financial matters administratie reduction
50 Wide schoolrooms Sala cu dimensiuni uluitoare enlargement
51 Afternoon lessons Lectii de dupa masa enlargement
52 Next morning Yiua urmatoare Literal translation
53 Dirty habits Obiceiuri rele Context synonym
54 Soft smile Zimbet placut Word for word
55 Long story povestire reduction
56 Angry word Cuvint minios Literal translation
57 Careless girl Fata nepasatoare Literal translation
58 Ordinary child Copil ca toti ceilalti Literal translation
59 Surrounding countryside Imprejurimi pitoresti Literal translation
60 Healthy place Loc sigur Context synonym
61 Few questions Citeva intrebari Literal translation
62 Narrow corridors Coridoare inguste si intunecate Literal translation
63 Wide shoulders Lat in pete Literal translation
64 Strong chest Piept puternic Word for word
65 Lonely road Drum pustiu Word for word
66 Beating heart Inima batu cu graba si un val de Enlargement
singe ma navali
67 Exciting life Viata agitata Literal translation
68 Cheerful atmosphere Atmosfera placuta Literal translation
69 Stern look Privire aspra Literal translation
70 Sad place mohorit reduction
71 Wrong way Cale gresita Word for word
72 Right path Calea cea dreapta Enlargement
73 Evil influence Influenta rea Word for word
74 Kind word Cuvint bun Word for word
75 Heavy sleeper Doarme adinc Context synonym
76 Slight noice Bolborosi straiu si sinistru Enlargement
77 Great rocks Tancuri de stinca Context synonym
78 Disturbed emotions Suflet ravasit modulation
79 Foolish dream Vis prostesc Word for word
80 Good idea Buna ideie Literal translation
81 Powerful voice Voce puternica Literal translation
N= THREE ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Cold winter wind Vintul vrajmas al iernii Context synonym

2 Long heavy rain
3 Sad lonely existence
4 Secret hiding place
5 Wicked cruel boy
6 Whole long afternoon
O ploaie atit de naprasnica Context synonym
Trairea trista si singuratica Literal translation
Ascunzisul secret reduction
Baiat indracit reduction
Toata dupa amiaza Literal translation
7 Dark hair and eyes Ochi caprui si par negru Enlargement
8 Large pale forehead Frunnte inalta alba Literal translation
9 Small piece of biscuit O bucata de prajitura Context synonym
10 Piece of brown bread O felioara de pine integrala Context synonym
11 Freezing cold rooms Vint rece suera prin crapaturile en largement
ferestrelor din camera
12 Hard physical conditions Indatoriri grele reduction
13 Some little luxory putin reduction
14 Pretty, cheerful child O copilita gingasa si palida Context synonym
15 Strange ghostly laugh Ris hohotitor,ciudat Context synonym
16 Middle aged woman Femeie intr 30-40 modulation
17 Angry looking eyes Ochii sclipeau de o apriga en largement
incapatinare
18 Pure young thing Fiinta inocenta reduction
19 Noisy rushing water Valuri ce clocotesc Context synonym
20 Strange inhuman sound Hohot de ris diabolesc modulation
21 Narrow front door Usa ingusta de la intrare enlargement
22 Extremely hard work Lucru tare greu Literal translation
23 Dark stormy night Noapte intunecata din cauza enlargement
furtunii
N= FOUR ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Ice cold fingers and toes Degetele de la mini si picioare enlargement

intepenite de o raceala ca
gheata
2 Beautiful long curly hair Un par frumos lung si cret Literal translation
3 Several small block doors O multime de usi micute Literal translation

ANEXE 2- VERB + ADVREB TYPE

N= VERB + ADVERB, TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE
TWO ELEMENTS

1 Glanced sharply Uitindu-se patrunzator Literal translation

2 Stared fascinated Admiram incintata Literal translation
3 Worked hard Lucram din greu Literal translation
4 Turn against Intors impotriva Iteral tranlation
5 Look around A privi Word for word
6 Scream loudly Racnea foarte tare enlargement
7 Speak softly Spuse pe un ton rugator enlargement
8 Resisting wildly A impinge cu violenta Contextual syn.
9 Lisfting carefully A se apleca ingrijrat Contextual syn.
10 Looking thoughtfully Privea nedumerit Literal translation
11 Looking kindly Privind blind Literal translation
12 Feel wicked A se simti neputincios Literal translation
13 Bell rang Clopotul suna Word for word
14 Speak heavily Voce grava de bas enlargemant
15 Shouted wildly A exclama reduction
16 Feel asleep A adormi Literal translation
17 Felt hungry As fi mincat de doua ori pe enlargement
atit
18 Answered quickly A raspuns calm Literal translation
19 Sing switly Cinta dragut Literal translation
20 Listened carefully Asculta uluita Literal translation
21 Whispered kindly Sopti incurajator contextual syn.
22 Cry bitterly a plinge sfisietor Literal translation
23 Answered firmly A raspuns hotarit Literal translation
24 Feel asleep A adormi Literal translation
25 Go silently A merge incetifor contextual syn.
26 Swear furiously Injurind furios Word for word
27 Look puzzled Aprivi incurcat, nedumerit enlargement
28 Look carefully Aprivi atant Literal translation
29 Speak slowly A vorbi incet Literal translation
30 Examine carefully A examina atent, grijuliu enlargement
31 Shouted desperately A striga dissperat Literal translation
N= THREE ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Became brave enough A capata curaj Literal translation

2 All complained bitterly
3 I kept expecting
4 Watch her carefully
5 Speak hardly English
6 Went quietly upstairs
7 Both stayed silent
8 Lay fast asleep
Toate s-au plins de acea Enlargement
mincare
Ma asteptam Literal translation
Pazitio bine Literal translation
Vorbeste mai greu engleza Literal translation
In pereche urcau sus contextual syn.
Stateam in liniste Literal translation
A adormi imediat Literal translation
9 Felt strong or calm
N= FOUR ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Hold tightly on hands O tinea strins de miini Literal translation

2 Held tightly to her
3 Glanced quickly at it
4 Felt brave enough to speak
5 Laugh and speak freely
6 Lay down with me
Am cuprins-o strins Literal translation
Am rasfoit puti cartea Literal translation
Am avut indrazneala sa Literal translation
vorbesc
Vorbea sir idea in toata inima enlargement
Culcate cu mine Literal translation

ANEXE 3- VERB + NOUN TYPE

N= VERB + NOUN, TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

TWO ELEMENTS

1 Feel wicked neputincios reduction

2 Flowing streams Riuri curgatoare Literal translation
3 Lie down Culca-te reduction
N= THREE ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Drew the curtains Tragind draperiile Literal translation

2 Cutting the head A sparge capul Literal translation
3 Make no mistake A face fata tuturor modulation
indatoririlor
4 Starve to death A muri de foame Literal translation
5 Keep the promise A se tine de cuvint contextual syn.
6 Rushed the door
7 Trembling of fear
8 Fetch another servant
9 Smacking the face
10 Knocked it down
11 Left without a word
12 Improve the character
13 To pass a letter
14 To obey the orders
15 Put out the flames
16 Follow the instruction
N= FOUR ELEMENTS
1 Lack the door careffully
2 Fetch the supper trays
3 Tidy the drawer immediately
stinjeni lucrul
4 Enjoyed the beautiful summer Ne bucuram din plin de enlargement
weather
5 I took the opportunity
6 To enjoy the fresh air
7 Bringing down its rider
8 He jumped on horse back
8 Staring up at the moon
10 Play a tune on the piano
11 Suddenly he catch my look
12 Floating a long a river
13 Broke off a conversation
A se repezi la usa Literal translation
Tremurind de frica Literal translation
A chema alta sluga Literal translation
A trage palme peste fata modulation
A trinti jos Literal translation
Fara sa scoata o vorba Literal translation
A perfectiona caracterul Literal translation
A trimite o scrisoare Literal translation
A se supune ordinelor Literal translation
A stinge focul Literal translation
Indicatiile vor fi indeplinite
TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE
Inchide usa bine Literal translation
A cara tava cu bucate Literal translation
Aranjeaza sertarul sin u enlargement
frumusetea imprejurimilor si
a primaverii stralucitoare
Am avut ocazia Literal translation
Ma bucuram de prospetimea enlargement
aerului curat
Isi prabusira calaretul la modulation
pamint
Sari pe saua de pe spatele contextual syn.
calului
Admirind luna Literal translation
A cinta o strofa la clavii modulation
Neasteptat imi prinse enlargement
cautatura scurtatoare pironita
asupra lui
Plutesti de/a lungul unei ape contextual syn.
A intrerupe conversatia Literal translation
ANEXE 4- NOUN + VERB TYPE

N= NOUN + VERB TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

TWO ELEMENTS
1 Arms waving m-am imprtrivit din rasputeri enlargement
2 Legs kicking m-am imprtrivit din rasputeri enlargement
3 Light moving Lumina searbada contextual syn.
4 Bell rang Clopotul suna Word for word
5 Spring approached Primavera se apropie Literal translation
N= THREE ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Rain pouring down Ploaia cadea incet Literal translation

2 Whole body trembled Ingheta single in vine modulation
3 Blood running down Picaturi de singe se enlargement
prelingeau
4 Pain gave strength Durere groaznica modulation
5 Heart beating fast Inima zvicnea spasmodic contextual syn.
6 Eyes wide open Ochii larg deschisi Literal translation
7 Coach rolled off Diligenta se porni greoi din contextual syn.
loc
N= FOUR ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 Rain beating on the window Ploaia rapaia in fereastra contextual syn.

2 Shame and anger boiled up Minia si rusinea clocotea in enlargement
mine
3 The sun go down Soarele rosu aprins scapata in enlargement
vale
4 Sweet madness seized me Nebunia dulce ma stapinea enlargement
N= FIVE ELEMENTS TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

1 The hair must be arranged Parul trebuia aranjat modest Literal translation
modestly and plainly si lins
2 Fog lying constantly in the Leaganul acelor neguri rele modulation
valley
3 The sun shone on the flowers Razele soarelui dulce se enlargement
revarsau asupra pamintului

4 People kept coming to visit Oamenii il vizitau necontenit Literal translation

him

ANEXE 5- ADVERB + ADJECTIVE TYPE

N= ADVERB + ADJECTIVE TRANSLATION TECHNIQUE

TWO ELEMENTS
1 Completely hidden Complet izolata contextual syn.
2 Nervously entered Nervos intrara Literal translation
3 Slightly obeyed Se supunea nevrind Literal translation
4 Quietly answered raspuns blind Literal translation
ANEXE 6 - TYPES OF COLLOCATIONS
-Adj – adjective
-Ad –adverb
-V –verb
-N –noun
ANEXE 7 –NUMBER OF ELEMENTS
ANEXE 8 – TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES