50th ASEP Anniversary International Convention & Exposition, “Safer, Smarter & Greener”

Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

LNG SPILL CONTAINMENT PIT ITS STRUCTURAL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING CHALLENGES
Reynaldo Velasco, Reynaldo Santiago, Portia Anastacio, Susan Macaraeg

ABSTRACT: Environmental structure such as spill containment for liquefied natural gas (LNG)
possesses several unique issues in the areas of structural and environmental engineering
challenges. This humble structure, which is simply considered a trash pit of spillage material, if
not carefully studied and designed may threaten the lives of personnel and stability of the
structure around its vicinity. Containment of LNG under a spillage condition exposes the
structure into two types of hazards which are: (1) cryogenic freezing whose approximate
temperature is -162 ˚C and; (2) gas flammability whose temperature may reach up to 1,300 ˚C
or more. The hazards simply means that during the event of spillage, the structure will
suddenly be exposed to a cryogenic thermal shock, and after several minutes, if ignited directly
or indirectly, the structure will experience fire due to the vapor while exposed with the
atmosphere. When the flame starts to rise, it affects the surrounding environment due to the
intensity of the fire plume. The heat around the vicinity of the flame is dependent upon the
distance of an object or person from the flame. With this, the next issue is fire safety from the
burning pool of flame. To address this issue, engineers seek the guidelines of the fire safety
codes such as the National Fire protection Association (NFPA) which provides guidelines under
NFPA 59A standards, “Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural
Gas (LNG)”. Noting the complex issues involve, the paper aims to present the solutions to
these challenges in matters of containment sizing, structural engineering and sitting location of
the structure under the NFPA standard guidelines. Having a collaborative information and
knowledge on the subject, we can now be prepared to build a safer, smarter and greener
environment, by using a clean source of fuel for our energy needs.

KEYWORDS: containment, cryogenic, flammability, radiant heat, spillage, standards

1. INTRODUCTION

LNG is a natural gas that has been converted into a liquid to facilitate the ease and economy of
storage and transportation. LNG under cryogenic temperature (substances that are -100 ˚C or
less) is able to take up 1/600 of its volume under atmospheric condition. To remain under liquid
state, the gas needs to be stored in an insulated container keeping the cold temperature inside and
the heat outside. While LNG is on its liquid state, it is capable of freezing any tissue and
material that comes in contact with it. These can become brittle and loose its mechanical
strength properties. It is with this reason that the selection of the type of material that will be in
contact with LNG is highly important.

LNG is an odorless, colorless, non-toxic, non-corrosive and non-flammable gas. There are five
(5) important properties of LNG under its liquid and gas state. These are as follows:

Chemical Composition. LNG is a fossil type of fuel known as “hydrocarbons” which relates to
its chemical presence and combinations of hydrogen and carbon atoms. It has a mixture of
methane, ethane, propane, and butane with significant amount of heavier hydrocarbons and
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impurities. In general, methane is the major component of the natural gas. In many instances,
LNG is often confused with the LPG (liquid petroleum gas). LPG is a mixture of propane and
butane gases under liquid state at ambient temperature and moderate pressure of 1.5 MPa (200
psi).

Boiling Point. LNG when in contact with the environment usually begins to boil, since its
boiling point at liquid state is -162 degrees Celsius.

Density and Specific Gravity. The density of LNG falls between 430 kg/m3 and 470 kg/m3
which are less than half the density of water. Thus, when LNG at its liquid state, if spilled in
water will float. When LNG changes from liquid to gas vapor the reference for its specific
gravity will now become air. Under ambient condition and at boiling point of -162 ˚C within
atmospheric condition, LNG vapor has a relative density of 1.8. At this condition the vapor
cloud will be visible near the ground. However, as the vapor begins to warm and reaches -110
˚C the density of LNG vapor becomes less than 1.0 and will rise within the air.

Flammability. Natural gas is flammable but LNG (in liquid state) is not because of lack of
oxygen in the liquid. To introduce a fire, three elements are required, fuel, air and ignition
source. Fuel source needs to be within its flammable range limits before it can be burn. For
methane, the flammability limits is 5% (lower) to 15 %( upper) by volume of air. Outside this
range, the mixture of methane and air is considered not flammable.

Ignition Temperature. The ignition temperature is also known as the auto-ignition temperature,
which is the lowest temperature wherein a gas or vapor will start to ignite even without the
presence of flame or source of ignition. An air-fuel mixture of methane within 10%, an auto-
ignition at around 540 ˚C can be expected. Precise auto-ignition temperature varies with the
composition of the natural gas. At standard condition LNG auto-ignition can reach up to 599 ˚C.
Compared with gasoline with a range of 226-471˚C and for diesel oil of 260-371 ˚C, natural gas
provides considerable safety margin against auto-ignition.

Flame Temperature. LNG provides a better heat source compared to other fuels such as
gasoline. The methane in LNG provides a flame temperature of 1,330 ˚C, compared with
gasoline with a flame temperature of 1,027 ˚C. LNG burns at a rate of 12.5 m2/minute compared
with gasoline with a rate of 4 m2/minute. Since, LNG provides a very high heat source; concerns
regarding its radiant heat distance are among the safety concern among government regulations
and the public.

2. SPILL CONTAINMENT PIT VOLUME SIZING

2.1 Process Engineering Volume Sizing

The containment pit being sized for the spill are those coming from the LNG tanks and process
facilities. The guidelines of Table 5.3.3.7 of NFA 59A (Standard for the Production, Storage,
and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)) is used.

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Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

Containers with the largest discharge opening below their liquid level and such container are
without any provision for shut-off valves, the following formula is used until the time or volume
of the liquid height from the opening reaches zero.

q = (1.06/10,000) d2 (h) 1/2; [m3/min.] (1)

However, for containers with the same largest discharge opening below their liquid level, but
with an internal shut-off valves, the same equation is to be used but within a spillage time of 10
minutes.

For LNG process facility container with an over-the-top fill and has no penetration below the
liquid level, the largest flow from any single line being pumped into the impounding area with its
withdrawal pump(s) at full-rated capacity shall be considered. The volume of spill shall be based
on a 10 minutes spillage time, provided the capability to shut-down is acceptable to the
authorities and experts within its jurisdiction. However, if such shut-down capability is not
acceptable, the full volume of the container shall be considered.

For impounding areas serving only vaporization, process, or LNG transfer areas, flow from a
single accidental leakage source shall be considered. The volume of spill shall be based on 10
minutes of spillage time or less; provided such shut-down capability is acceptable to the
authorities and experts within its jurisdiction.

Note that the estimated volume given above does not include the down-stream pipes which may
add to the total process spillage volume. The process engineer may include the volume of pipe
contents on his estimates.

2.2 Civil Engineering Volume Sizing

Once, the process engineer was able to establish the spillage volume, the civil engineer and the
process engineer will have to work together for the final sizing and configuration of the spill
containment pit. The following will have to be considered:

Process volume. The estimated spill volume based on section 5.3.3.7 of NFA 59A guidelines.

Rain fall volume. Considering the spill containment pit to be in an open air, a 1-hour duration of
rainfall shall be considered from a 10-year frequency period or a 125 mm rainfall, whichever is
greater. This volume should include all open area, pit, and trenches that will use the spill
containment pit as a means of its repository during rainfall. This will be added to the required
process volume.

Fire sprinkler and monitor volume. Spill containment that will be open to the water discharge of
fire sprinklers and monitors should be able to hold such volume of discharge with their
corresponding losses for a period of 20 minutes. This will be added to the required process
volume.

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Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

Fire foam volume. Similar to fire sprinkler and monitors, foam volume required to regulate the
volume of fire shall be considered in addition to the required process volume. The vendor or
supplier of a particular foam system and equipment usually provide the required volume or
height. Common height used for defaults is 1000 mm.

Free board volume. Free board volume is normally expressed in terms of volume percentage of
the process volume. Such volume may range from 10 to 15 percent. Common free board height
may be taken from 150 mm to 300 mm.

The final volume of the spill containment pit may depend in one or more components being
considered. For practical purposes considering process volume plus one of the largest volume
among the rainfall, fire sprinkler and foam would be acceptable.

3. SPILL CONTAINMENT PIT GEOMETRY AND FEATURES

In general, the geometry of a spill containment pit is in the form of a cube. However, restriction
regarding area and depth are always present due to the limitation of area, space, and the presence
of ground water.

A square area is always the preferred pit opening which provides an equal radiant heat
distribution on all four sides. The depth of the spill containment pit when below the existing
ground water table are more costly since it requires prevention against floatation and the need for
waterproofing the structure. The structure is expected to be dry inside at all times and rain and
fire water is not allowed to stay for a long time. The inside of the pit is provided with a sump pit
either for manual or automatic pump operation.

Containment pit are reinforced concrete structure with inside lining of either concrete sacrificial
screed or fireproofing material. The fireproofing linings are expected to hold the temperature of
the fire during a LNG fire pool condition. The structural walls and slabs are expected to
withstand the design fire rating condition of the concrete.

Other safety features of a spill containment pit are the presence of handrails within its perimeter
pit opening. These handrails are expected to be replaced after the occurrence of a pool fire.

4. SPILL CONTAINMENT PIT SITING AND RADIANT HEAT FLUX

Sitting or locating a containment pit is governed by the condition when the pit is on fire or being
used as a pool fire. Under this condition the pool fire is required to comply with the maximum
permissible heat flux radiation in relation with its corresponding pool fire distances. The
following are the expected damage characteristics of a thermal radiation or heat flux.

Thermal radiation on human skin without feeling pain 1.0 kW/m2

Thermal radiation on human skin with pain after 1 min. 2.1 kW/m2
Thermal radiation on human skin with 2nd degree blister in 30 seconds 5.0 kW/m2
Thermal radiation on wooden structure and vapors may be ignited 12.6 kW/m2
Thermal radiation on structural steel may lose mechanical strength 23.0 kW/m2

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Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

Thermal radiation or radiant heat flux are calculated in a complex manner. However, due to a
large number of variables, results also vary differently with the use of several formulas by
different authors and agencies. A common approach in determining thermal radiation around a
fire is the use of a “solid flame radiation model”.

Under the approach of a solid flame model, the visible volume of flame emits the thermal
radiation. The flame is assumed to be a cylinder with a diameter equal to the base diameter of
the flame and an axial length equal to the visible height of the fire. For a simplified approach,
the main author introduces a combinations of some general basic equations needed for the basic
understanding of this subject.

The flame surface emissive power is given by the equation below in kW/m2,

SEP = Єσ [Tf4– Ta4] (2)

The net heat release is given by,

Q = SEP x A (3)

And the radiative heat flux is given by,

Q” = τ XR Q (4)

Heat flux distance is given by the equation of Hajek and Ludwig (1960) as modified in API,
1990 as shown below,

S = [ Q”/4π q” ] 1/2 (5)

Where: Tf – open flame temperature of a fuel in degree Kelvin (˚K).

Ta – ambient temperature of the atmosphere in degree Kelvin (˚K).
Є - flame emissivity from 0.90 to 1.00.
σ - Stefan-Boltzmann Constant, 5.67 x 10-11 kW/[m2·K4]
A – approximate surface area of the flame by Leahey and Davies (1984)
A= πD[D2 + 4H2]1/2 ·[1/4] ;(m2)
D - equivalent pool diameter ; (m.)
H - estimated flame height based on the report of Thomas (1965),
H= 55[m/ρa (gD)1/2]2/3 [U*] -0.21 D ; (m.)
m – mass burning rate of fuel; (kg/m2·s)
ρa - ambient air density, (kg/m3)
g – gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m./s2
U* - dimensionless wind speed equal to, [Uwind]/[mgD/ρa ]1/3
Uwind – wind speed, (m./s)
τ - transmissivity constant from 0.50 to 1.00.
XR – estimated fraction of heat radiated by McGrattan,et al (2000) data.
XR = 0.35 e – (D/20) ; limiting values ranges from 0.16 to 0.30.

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q” – thermal radiation at heat flux distance S, (kW/m2)

5. STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR LNG SPILL CONTAINMENT PIT

There are two concepts that may be explored when designing LNG impounding basins:

 To design it to withstand possible LNG leaks for the entire design life of the facilities.
 To design it as a sacrificial structure, to withstand only a single leak incident and a new
structure will be constructed.

Also, there are two ways of disposal of spilled LNG collected at the impounding basins; either
by burning or controlled evaporation of LNG through high expansion foam.

For concrete structure, the primary consideration of the structure is its use as a secondary
containment and a pool fire. The concrete structure needs to be design for fire and such
guidelines can be found in BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 (Euro code 2: Design of concrete structures-
Part 1-2: General rules-Structural fire design). In general, ordinary design of concrete structure
works within -20 °C to 100 °C temperature.

When concrete is exposed to sub-zero temperature its tendency is to harden and stiffened.
Thermal shock loading at very high cooling rates are known to decrease the strength of concrete
provided it is saturated and/or high water-cement ratio is used above 0.28. Relative Humidity
(RH) below 86% shows also no loss of strength for a water-cement ratio of 0.29. When concrete
is at high moisture content (MC), there is also an increase in compressive strength under
cryogenic condition. However, as mentioned before, saturated concrete exposed to sudden
cooling are expected to loss strength. We may say that this maybe among the reason, why
containment pits are required by NFA guidelines to be free of standing water with available
sumps for pumping. In addition, concrete in direct contact with LNG is used only as secondary
containment. For LNG primary containment, metal linings are among the material of choice
which can be in direct contact with the cryogenic liquid.

While at higher temperature concrete starts to weaken when exposed to temperatures above 100
°C and is expected to loss its total strength at 1200 °C. It is therefore important that during high
temperature particularly during fire, the strength reduction of concrete are accounted for during
the design of the structure. Moisture content on concrete provides a critical factor that can
induce explosive spalling during open-fire temperature. It is therefore important that MC can be
kept below 3% during the service condition of the structure to mitigate spalling during fire.

For concrete reinforcement exposed to high temperature, hot rolled re-bars which are under
tension and strain greater than 2%, reduction on its strength starts above 400 °C and for cold
worked re-bars which are also under the same condition, strength reduction starts above 300 °C.
However for tension and compression re-bars whose strain is less than 2%, strength reduction
starts above 100 °C.

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For Euro-code guidelines against fire, the guideline provides an open-fire temperature from 100
°C to 1200 °C. This also includes fire ratings which are based on the duration of fire from 30,
60, 90, 120, 180, and 240 minutes. Concrete design method commonly applies the simplified
method section 4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 which allows a reduced cross-section of a structure
or reduced strength of the concrete under a design fire-rating exposure. However, containment
pit which are intended to be used after a fire, should rather provide insulation which can be
replaced after the fire, keeping the whole containment pit at its original strength. This can be
achieved by providing an additional replaceable covering to the surface of concrete exposed to
fire by either a fireproofing insulation (e.g. foam-glass) or A sacrificial concrete screed cover
with re-bar or wire mesh attached to the exposed concrete wall or slab.

For LNG spill containment pit, it is important to relate the volume of spillage and the amount of
time to burn it. On this basis, consideration regarding the selection of the type of fireproofing
insulation or sacrificial concrete screed thickness as protective layer can be properly studied.

To determine the duration of fire, the following equations and variables are to be used.

Regression rate of the fuel is given by the equation,

ν= m/ρ (6)

and the amount of time to burn the fuel is given by,

Tb = V/Aν (7)

Where: ν – regression rate of fuel, (m/s)

m – mass burning rate of fuel may range from 0.078 to 0.099 for LNG, (kg/m2 s)
ρ – density of fuel may range from 415 to 585 for LNG, (kg/m3)
V – volume of fuel to be burn, (m3)
A – equivalent circular pool area, πD2/4, (m2)
D – equivalent pool diameter, (m)
Tb – amount of time to burn the fuel, (s)

Once the amount of time has been calculated, the fire rating of the structure can be established
based on the equivalent number of minutes of “Tb”.

However, proper and sufficient safety measures should always be provided at impoundment
basins. If the spilled LNG is ignited, dry chemical skids, which are usually installed at safe
distance from the pit will be used to extinguish the fire and within two minutes, the high
expansion foam should cover the surface area of the pit.

6. CONCLUSION

Today, the search for highly efficient, safe and clean fuels is among the important consideration
in dealing with our new environmental challenges. LNG is among the choice for clean energy
that can be transported and used efficiently as a fuel source for power plants. Since the 1970s

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Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

LNG are being transported and used around the world at a significant amount. Huge interest has
been generated over the recent years in the development, design and construction of LNG
facilities which includes LNG infrastructures for ports, buildings, tanks and spill containment
facilities.

As discussed, the use of reinforced concrete material is fully suited for LNG containment needs.
As a primary holding containment, metal linings should be provided with their corresponding
insulation together with the concrete structure. And as secondary spill containment, concrete can
hold LNG directly at temporary conditions. For LNG spillage pit and fire pools containment,
reinforced concrete is again fully suited with the proper consideration of insulation. Sitting
location of the pit should consider heat radiation during fire with the surrounding environment.

With the above discussion, civil and structural engineers should be able to arm themselves with
the basic knowledge of LNG and handle the design of the infrastructure needed to hold and
control this material from the two extremes stages of material state from cryogenic liquids to hot
fuel gases.

REFERENCES

BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 (2004). Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures – Part 1-2: General rules-
Structural fire design. The European Standard, 9 February 2005.

GIIGNL (2009). Information Paper No. 1 – Basic Properties of LNG. The International Group of
Liquefied Natural Gas Importers, GIIGNL 22 rue Marius Aufan, 92300 Levallois (France),
<http://www.giignl.org>.

Guigard, S.E.; Kindzierski, W.B. and Harper N. (2000). Heat Radiation from Flares. Alberta
Environment, Environmental Sciences Division, 9820-106 Street Edmonton, Alberta T5K 2J6 USA.

Krstulovic-Opara, N. (2007). Liquefied Natural Gas Storage: Material Behavior of Concrete at

Cryogenic Temperatures. ACI Materials Journal, FindArticles.com. 11July 2011.
<http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5360/is_200705/ai_n21288439/>.

NFPA 59A (2009). Standard for the Production, Storage, and Handling of Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG). Natural Fire Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA 02169-7471 USA,
<http://www.nfpa.org>.

Raj P.K. (2005). Large LNG Fire Thermal Radiation – Modeling Issues & Hazard Criteria
Revisited. Published in the Process Safety Progress, v24, n3, p 192-202, September 2005.

Sam N. and Lees F.P. (2005). Lees’ Loss Prevention in the Process Industries: Hazard
Identification, Assessment and Control, Volume 1. Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, 200 Wheeler
Road, Burlington, MA 01803, USA.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Reynaldo Velasco is a Civil/Structural Engineer of Fluor Corporation. He can be contacted at his office
email address at reynaldo.velasco@fluor.com

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Reynaldo Santiago is a Structural Engineer of Fluor Corporation. He can be contacted at his office email
address at reynaldo.santiago@fluor.com.

Portia Anastacio is a Structural Engineer of Fluor Corporations. She can be contacted at his office email
address at portia.anastacio @fluor.com.

Susan Macaraeg is a Civil Engineer of Fluor Corporations. She can be contacted at his office email
address at susan .macaraeg@fluor.com.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to give special thanks to Fluor Corporation - Philippines through the following persons,
Eric Tanjutco-Engineering Manager, Rolly Lawas-Operations Manager and Dan Spinks-General
Manager. They have provided the invaluable assistance, and support which made this paper possible.

Extraordinary thanks to our Professional Publication and Presentation Program (P4), through our Global
Advisory Committee composed of the following members: Dwayne Wilson, Keith Stephens, Karen Vari,
Kirk Grimes and Mervyn Sambles. Also with gratitude to Ashish Shah our Global P4 Leader and David
Seaton our Executive Sponsor. Their program has encouraged us to contribute and share our knowledge
within and outside our technical community around the globe.

The main author also would like to thank his wife, Ellen and his children, Mary Neil, Paul John and
James Benedict; whose loving support helped in the completion of this manuscript

And lastly, our sincere thanks to our Almighty God, who is the true source of our strength, wisdom and
knowledge.

APPENDIX A

Sample Problem No. 1

Problem No. 1: Shown in Figure 1, determine the required size of an LNG spill containment pit for a
process area whose send out pipe has a 600 m3/hr discharge from a tank. The send-out pump is equipped
with an automatic shut-off valve. The ground water at the site is 3.00 m. below the finish grade. LNG
spill will be burned at the containment pit and rain water shall be removed by submersible pump.

3
600 m /hr send-out pipe discharge
12 m. x 12 m. Spill Containment Area

0.4 m. wide x 0.40 m. depth x 28 m. length

Trench with 1% slope
Spill Containment Pit
LNG Tank

Figure 1. Spill containment area and pit layout 202

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Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

The process facility is provided with an automatic shutdown system. Therefore, the volume that is
needed to be contained is base on the largest volume of discharge within 10 minutes. For this problem,
pipe volume is neglected.

Volume of LNG spill = Q x t = 600(10/60) = 100 m3

Determine the possible depth with the consideration of avoiding the ground water table.
Depth of trench considering the invert elevation at the pit, Hi = 0.40 m. + 0.01(28) = o.68 m
Initial trial depth of screed and footing slab, Hf = 0.15 m (screed) + 0.40 m. (footing) = 0.55 m
Limiting depth, H-limit = 3.00 m – 0.68 m. – 0.55 m. = 1.77 m.
Use square pit opening and approximate rainfall by adding 10% to 50% more. For this problem, 30%
shall be used.

Area = [(LNG spill volume)(1.30)]/[H-limit] = 130/1.77 = 73.45 m2

D = (73.45) 1/2 = 8.57 m. say use 9.00 m.

Although there was no mention about rainfall, for this problem we shall consider a 125 mm rainfall
within 1- hour period.
Volume of 125 mm rainfall = (12x12)(0.125) + (0.40 x 28)(0.125) + (9 x 9)(0.125) = 29.52 m3
Check the required depth below trench invert = Vol. considered/Area = (100 + 29.52)/(9 x 9) = 1.60 m.
Check total depth, if still above ground water,

HTOTAL = 1.60 m (required) + 0.68 m.(trench invert) + 0.55 m.(screed + footing) = 2.83 m. < 3.00 m.

Therefore, the trial depth is above the ground water table.

Therefore, use 9.00 m x 9.00 m. x 2.30 m. volume opening for the LNG spill and rainfall. `

Trench invert level

Concrete screed
Spill containment wall
FGL

Volume of LNG spill and rain water

GWT

Slab footing Pump sump pit

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Figure 2. Schematic section of LNG spill containment pit volume

 50th ASEP Anniversary International Convention & Exposition, “Safer, Smarter & Greener”
Technical Proceedings ISSN 1656-7757, September 28-30, 2011 Makati City, Philippines

APPENDIX B

Sample Problem No. 2

Problem No. 2: Considering the structure to be useful even after the event of fire, determine the required
fire rating of problem no. 1 and the required thickness of the sacrificial concrete screed in accordance
with BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 guidelines, mass burning rate of LNG at 0.09 kg/m2 s and density of 450
kg/m3.

Calculate regression rate,

ν= m/ρ = 0.09/450 = 0.0002 m/s

Calculate the equivalent pool area, using D =9.00 m.

A = πD2/4 = 3.14159(9.00)2(1/4) = 63.62 m2

Calculate period of time to burn the volume of spillage,

Tb = V/Aν = 100/(63.62)(0.0002) = 7,859 secs

Tb = 131 minutes, use 120 minutes

Use a fire rating R = 120 and get the required thickness for a 200 °C inside contour temperature from
Figure A.2 of BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 [Temperature profiles for slabs (height h=200) for R60 – R240].

From the stated figure, R120 has a surface temperature of 1,000 °C. For a 200 °C inside temperature the
thickness is 85 mm. Therefore, using a 100 mm concrete screed is acceptable. For an inside contour
temperature of 100 °C, it can be projected the required thickness is around 130 mm. Therefore, a 150 mm
thickness is acceptable for such condition. Note that this is for sacrificial concrete screed that needs
replacement after a pool fire. Minimum reinforcement for this concrete structure and screed is 0.5 % as a
guide.

APPENDIX C

Sample Problem No. 3

Problem No. 3: Estimate the heat flux generated by the spill containment pit of problem no. 1. Using the
following data.

Equivalent pool diameter is 9.00 m.

LNG mass burning rate of LNG at 0.09 kg/m2 s.
LNG density of 450 kg/m3.
Design wind velocity during fire is 3 m/s.
LNG open flame temperature at 1,200 °C.
Ambient temperature at site is 27 °C

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Ambient atmospheric air density is 1.10

Use a flame emissivity of 0.90
Transmissivity constant of 0.50

Plot the radiant heat results for the 2 kW, 5 kW and 9 kW distances on figure 1.

Results:

2 kW
5 kW
9 kW
LNG Tank

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Figure 4. Radiant heat contour of spill containment pit sitting of Figure 1