f!

Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Wastes

Refining Depadment

FiRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
Petroleum
Institute
 .

Nothing contained in any API publication is to be construed as granting any right,

by implication or otherwise, for thc manufacture, sale, or use in connection with any
method, apparatus, or product covered by letters patent, nor as insuring anyone
against liability for infringement of letters patent.
API publications may be used by anyone desiring to do so, and every effort has
been made by the Institute to assure the accuracy and reliability of the data con-
tained in them. However, the Institute makes no representation, warranty, or
guarantee in connection with API publications and hereby expressly discfaims any
liability or responsibility for loss or damage resulting from their use; for any viola-
tion of any federal, state, or municipal regulation with which an API publication
may conflict; or for the infringement of any patent resulting from the use of an API
publication.

Copyright O 1980 American Petroleum Institute

 FOREWORD
The API Committee on Refinery Environmental Control has with this volume
completed the updating of the Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes.
The manual in three volumes is organized as follows:

Liquid W a s t e d o m p l e t e d in 1975.
Atmospheric Emissions-Completed in 1977.
Solid W a s t e d o m p l e t e d in 1980.
The chapters comprising each volume are individual units to allow for their easy
removal from the binder and to facilitate their use.
It is the Institute’s belief that this format enhances the value of the information
and enables API to revise and update information as it becomes available. Refiners
are urged to contribute to the success of this manual by submitting information on
waste disposal practices to the director of the Refining Department, American
Petroleum Institute, 2101 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037.

iii
 CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION ............................. . . . 1-1
1.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.3 Hazardous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
1.4 Nonhazardous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2
1.5 Imminent Hazard Situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 1-2
' 1.6 Subtitle C Impacts on a Refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
1.7 Subtitle D Impacts on a Refinery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.8 Onsite vs . Offsite Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
1.9 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3

CHAPTER 2 4 E N E R A L ADMINISTRATION
AND CONTROL OF SOLID WASTE . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
CHAPTER 3-SOURCES, SEGREGATION,
QUANTITIES, AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF SOLID WASTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.1 Sources and Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2 Segregation of Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.1 Oily Process Sludges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.2 Nonoily Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.3 Biological Sludges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.4 Miscellaneous Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
3.2.5 Sanitary Wastes ............................................ 3-1
3.3 Typical Quantities and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

CHAPTER &SOURCE REDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

4.1 Tank Cleaning .......................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2 Biosludge From Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . ......................... 4-1
4.2.1 Sludge Age ...................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2.2 Aerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......................... 4-1
4.2.3 Hydrolysis ....................... ......................... J-1
4.2.4 Air Flotation Float Recycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J-1
4.2.5 Beneficial Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
4.2.6 Shutdown Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

CHAPTER 5-RESOURCE RECOVERY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5-1

.

5.1 Oil Reclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

5.2 Catalyst Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.3 Acids. and Caustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.4 Biological Sludges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :5-1
5.5 Filter Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.5 Chromate Inhibitor Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1

CHAPTER &TREATMENT PRIOR TO

ULTIMATE DISPOSAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
6.1 The Importance of Waste Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

V
 6.2 Sludge Concentration by Gravity Diffirential Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-1
6.2.1 Gravity Thickening or Settling ............................... 6-1
6.2.2 Air Flotation Units ..............................
6.2.3 Chemical Flocculation ...........................
6.3 Sludge Concentration by Mechanical Dewatering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.3.1 Centrifugation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
6.3.2 Filtration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6-6
6.4 Sludge Concentration by Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7
6.4.1 Burner-Type Incinerators ................................... 6-7
6.4.2 Fluid Bed Incinerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
6.4.3 Multiple Hearth Incinerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.4.4 Monoheanh Incinerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.4.5 Grate-Type Incinerators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.4.6 Rotary Kilns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6.4.7 Incinerator Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10
6.4.8 Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-10

CHAPTER 7-ULTIMATE DISPOSAL ......................... 7-1

7.1 Landfill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.1.1 General ................................................... 7-1
.7.1.2 Sand-Lime Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.1.3 Chemical Fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2 Landfarming of Oily Sludge ....................................... 7-1
.7. 1.2 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
7.2.1 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
7.2.3 Site Selecticn and Development ............................. 7-2
. 7.2.4 Oil Loading and Nutrient Addition .......................... 7-2
7.2.5 Sludge Distribution and Tilling Frequency .................... 7-2
7.3 . Landfarming of Biological Sludge .................................. 7-3
. .7.3.1 General ................................................... 7-3
7.3.2 Landfarming Procedure ..................................... 7-3

LIST O F ILLUSTRATIONS
Tables
3-1-Sources and Characteristics of Refinery Solid Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2
3 - 2 4 o m p a r i s o n of API and Jacobs Results ............................ 3.3
3-3--Comparison of API and Jacobs Survey ............................ 3.4
6-1-Sludge Source versus Solids Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
6-2--Ranges of Solids Removal for the Dissolved Air Flotation Process . . . 6.2
6-%Typical Dissolved Air Flotation Process Design Parameters . . . . . . . . . . 6.2
6-4-Gravity Differential Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3
Figures
6-l-centrifugal Separator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-2-Disc Centrifuge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
6-3-Scroll Centrifuge ........................ .............
6-&Imperforate Basket Centrifuge . . . . . .................... 6-5
6-%-Rotary Drum Vacuum Filter . . . . . . . ........................ 6-6
6 - W r a v i t y Belt Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-7-Fluid Bed Incinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6-$--Typical Multiple Hearth hcinerator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
6 - e R o t a r - y Kiln Including Afterburning System
6-10-Infrared Incineration System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7- 1-Graph for Estimating Oil Loading an

vi
Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Wastes

Chapter 1-Introduction

FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
Petroleum
lnstihrte
c
Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER l--INTROOUCTION
1.1 Scope
The manual is intended as a primer for a petroleum
refinery engineer just starting to consider solid waste
treatment and disposal. It provides a general descrip-
tion of a possible refinery organization, waste charac-
teristics, and techniques used for waste treatment and
disposal. The manual does not provide all of the de-
tailed information that is needed for design and opera-
tion of a refinery solid waste system. However, it does
contain comments and cautions which are specific to
treatment of refinery wastes which are generally not
found in other sources.
1.2 The Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act
The treatment and disposal of refinery wastes are
becoming inneasingiy important because of the added
cost and legal liabilities which maybe incurred. This is
largely a result of the Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act (RCRA). It will be useful at the outset to
briefly review the statute. The objectives are (1) to
protect human health and the environment and (2) to
encourage resource recovery.
Certain key words are defined in the act. The follow-
ing definitions from the act will be used throughout this
manual.
Solid waste is any garbage, refuse, or sludge from a
waste treatment plant, water supply treatment plant. or
air pollution control facility, or other discarded ma-
terial, inciuding solids, liquids, semisolids, or contained
gaseous material resulting from industrial, commercial.
mining, and agricultural operations and from commu-
nity activities. Under the act, solid waste does not in-
clude solid or dissolved material in domestic sewage,
solid or dissolved materials in imgation return flows. or
industrial discharges which are point sources subject to
permits under Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollu-
tion Control Act. In addition, solid waste does not in-
clude source, special nuclear, or byproduct material as
defined by the Atomic Energy Act.
Discarded material is used or spent material which is
r Section 3003 mandates standards for transporters of
not reused in any way and that is committed to final
disposition. Used materials which, although of no
further utility to the generator, are recycled, regen-
1-1
erated, or reused by others are not discarded and.
therefore, are not subject to rcgulation under the act.
Hazardous wasre is solid waste which poses specified
health and environmental hazards.
Disposal is the discharge, deposit, injection, dump-
ing, spilling, leaking, or placing of any solid waste or
hazardous waste into or on any land or water so that
such solid waste or hazardous waste or any constituent
thereof may enter the environment, be emitted into thl:
air, or be discharged into any waters, including ground
waters. Therefore, waste deposited in a landfill. land-
farmed wastewater discharged to a basin or surface im-
poundment, or stormwater runoff diverted to a percola-
tion or settling pond is disposal. Incineration is con-
sidered treatment under RCRA.
An open dump is a facility that does not meet the
criteria for a sanitary landfill and is not a facility for
disposal of hazardous waste.
Confamindon is the introduction into the ground-
water of any substance which would cause the concen-
tration of that substance in the groundwater to exceed
the maximum contaminant levels under the National
Interim Drinking Water Standards (40CFR 141).
1.3 Hazardous Wastes
The Subtitle C or hazardous waste program under
RCRA will be accomplished by a series of nine regula-
tions.
Section 3001 regulations identify the characteristics
of hazardous waste and, using the characteristics, lists
some specific waste streams. The hazardous charac-
teristics proposed include toxicity. corrosivity, reac-
tivity, and ignitability.
Section 3002 mandates standards for generators of
hazardous waste. The requirements include record-
keeping, reporting, labeling, proper containerization.
and initiation of a manifest system to track a hazardous
waste from its generation to its ultimate disposal. or
“cradle to grave” as the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) puts it. Note that the manifest require-
ment is not applicable to hazardous waste that a genera-
tor treats, stores, or disposes of onsite.
hazardous wastes. These requirements include record-
keeping, delivery only to a permitted facility, reports. I
 1-2 DRW MANUM-SOLIO WASTES
and compliance with the manifest system.
Section 3004 mandates standards for treatment, stor-
age, and disposal facilities. These standards include
requirements for recordkeeping; reporting, monitor-
ing, inspection and compliance with the manifest sys-
tem; facility operating methods; site selection and
design criteria; contingency plans; maintenance of op-
erations and requirements as to ownership. continuity
of operations, and personnel training; financial respon-
sibility; and compliance with the permit requirements.
Section 3005 requires each facility treating, storing,
or disposing of waste to obtain a permit. A facility in
existence when the final regulations under 3001 and
3004 are promulgated is entitled to interim status and
may continue to conduct hazardous waste activities
pending final action on its permit application if it makes
proper notification in accordance with Section 3010 and
applies for a permit. Any facility not in existence must
obtain a permit before commencing construction. It ap-
pears that “in existence” will be interpreted narrowly.
It will include a facility in operation, under construc-
tion, or one which has obtained all necessary permit
approvals and has made a commitment that cannot be
rescinded or modified without a substantial financial
penalty.
Section 3006 provides for state administration of the
hazardous waste program in lieu of EPA. A state which
wishes to administer its own program must develop a
plan that is equivalent to the federal program, that is
. consistent with the federal and state programs applica-
ble in other states, and that provides for adequate en-
forcement.
Section 3007 authorizes EPA and state officials
(where the state has an authorized program) to enter
any facilities where hazardous wastes are generated.
stored, treated, or transported from or disposed of and
to inspect and obtain samples of any wastes.
Section 3008 authorizes the issuance of compliance
orders for violation of any requirements under Subtitle
C.provides for public hearings, and establishes civil and
criminal penalties for violations. Civil penalties are set
at 525,OOO for each day of continued noncompliance
after the date specified in a compliance order issued by
EPA. Criminal penalties of S25,OOO for each day of
violation and up to 1 year imprisonment, or both, are
set for conviction of knowingly (1) transporting a hazar-
dous waste to a nonpermitted facility, (2)treating, stor-
ing, or disposing of a hazardous waste without a permit,
or (3) making false statements in any application, label,
manifest, permit, report, or other document main-
tained under Subtitle C. Second offenses are punishable
by a 550.000 a day fine and up to 2 years imprisonment,
or both.
Section 3010 requires any person generating or trans- I
porting hazardous waste or any person using or oper-
ating a facility for the treatment, storage. or disposal of
hazardous waste to notify EPA or the authorized state
of such activities, stating the location and general
description of the activity and the identified or listed
hazardous wastes handled by such person. This is a one
time notification to be given within 90 days after final
regulations are promulgated under 3001. No hazardous
waste may be transported, treated. stored, or disposed
of unless such notification is given.
1.4 Nonhazardous Waste
The Subtitle D scheme for nonhazardous waste is less
pervasive but more circuitous than that of Subtitle C. If
a state wishes to avail itself of the federal technical and
financial assistance provided by Subtitle D, it must de-
velop a state solid waste plan that meets certain mini-
mum requirements. The state plan must provide for the
upgrading or dosing of all existing open dumps (see
1.2). One year after promulgation of the criteria for a
sanitary landfill, EPA must publish an inventory of all
facilities which are open dumps within the meaning of
the act. In accordance with any applicable state Subtitle
D program, open dumps must be retrofitted to comply i
with the sanitary landfill criteria or close within 5 years
from the publication date of the inventory.
It must be noted, however, that states are not re-
quired to adopt Subtitle D solid waste programs at all,
and EPA is not authorized to devefop a state program
if the state fails to do so or fails to receive approval for
its program. The state simply will not be entitled to
receive federal financial and technical assistance. There
is no federal enforcement of Subtitle D requirements.
1.5 Imminent Hazard Situations
In addition to other authority and remedies provided
under the RCRA, EPA may bring suit to immediately
restrain any person from conducting a waste handling
activity which is presenting an imminent and substantial
danger to health or the environment and to take such
other action as may be appropriate.
1.6 Subtitle C Impacts on a Refinery
The proposed 43001 regulations list the following
specific refinery wastes as hazardous:
1. Leaded tank bottoms.
2. Neutralization hydrofluoric alkylation sludge.
3. Disolved air flotation unit sludge.
4. Kerosine filter cake.
5 . Lube oil filtration clays.
 INTF4owcTIoN
. i 6 . Slop oil emulsion solids.
7. Exchanger bundle cleaning solvent.
8. API separator sludge.
A refinery may, by performing a specified series of
tests, demonstrate to EPA that a listed waste from a
particular refinery is not hazardous.
In addition to listed wastes, any other wastes which
meet the hazardous criteria must be handled in accord-
ance with Subtitle C, for example, pipeline cleaning
residues and adsorbents used for spill cleanup. On the
other hand, recycied or regenerated wastes, such as
spent catalyst sent to a manufacturer for regeneration
and metal recovery or used automotive oil sent to a
re-refiner, do not fall within the scope of RCRA be-
cause they are not discarded.
As a generator of hazardous waste, a refinery must
comply with the applicable 93002 standards. Further,
some refiners will also be subject to the § 3 W standards
for treatment, storage, and disposal facilities and will
require a RCRA permit. Even if a refinery sends most
of its listed wastes to an offsite disposer, it may need a
RCRA permit for its National Pollution Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) facility. Wastewater
treatment systems receive wastewater streams which
may fall within the 93001 criteria. Although the NPDES
! effluent is specifically excluded from .RCRAcoverage,
a basin or surface impoundment associated with such a
facility is subject to RCRA if the waste stream entering
such basin or impoundment is hazardous according to
. the 93001 criteria.
If the refinery is also a treatment, storage, or disposal
facility, it will have to meet the $3004 standards, in-
cluding proposed stringent financial responsibility re-
quirements for the liability arising out of operation of
such a facility. For example, if a refinery’s wastewater
treatment system is considered a RCRA facility, the
refinery would have to provide evidence of financial
responsibility of $5 million per occurrence for claims
arising out of injury to persons or property from the
sudden and accidental release of hazardous waste into
the environment. Additionally, the refinery would have
to maintain financial responsibility of $5 million per
occurrence for claims arising from nonsudden releases,
such as the gradual pollution of groundwater by seepage
or leaking. These specified levels of financial responsi-
bility do not mean, however, that the refinery’s liability
would be limited. The refinery would remain liable for
the full amount of damages it may cause.
The statute and the regulations do not cover financial
responsibility or liability for sudden and nonsudden re-
leases following closure. The proposed regulations pro-
!
vide for post-closure monitoring and maintenance for
up to 20 years after closure. The money for post-closure
1-3
care would accumulate over the life of the waste facility
by annual contributions to a trust fund.
1.7 Subtitle D Impacts on a Refinery
If a refinery can demonstrate that its waste is non-
hazardous and if the state in which the refinery is lo-
cated adopts a Subtitle D program, the refinery’s onsite
disposal sites must meet the criteria for a sanitary land-
fill. If they do not, they must be upgraded to comply or
must be shut down. The criteria for a landfill have been
promulgated (4.0 CFR 257, 44 Fed. Reg. 53438, Sep-
tember 13, 1979) and prohibit contamination (see 1.2)
of underground drinking water beyond the solid waste
boundary. Where the level of a substance identified in
the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Stand-
ards is already exceeded in the groundwater, no dis-
charge to the groundwater is permitted.
1.8 Onsite vs. Offsite Disposal
As previously discussed, a refinery may need a
RCRA permit for its NPDES facility. The decision as to
whether to handle the remaining wastes onsite or offsite
is a complex one and involves a review of existing law
as well as consideration of proposed changes in that
law.
A permit for any pollutant discharge-whether it be
an NPDES permit, an air permit, an underground injec-
tion control permit, or a R C M pennit-does not make
the refinery immune from nuisance and damage ac-
tions, and there are no limits to this liability. A claimant
must, however, show that the refinery discharged or
released the pollutant and that the claimant was
damaged in some way by that release. For example,
actions have been brought against aluminum smelters
for fluoride damage to surrounding vegetation even
though the emissions were not in violation of applicable
air regulations. Therefore, although a refinery may dis-
pose of wastes in a landfill which meets all the require-
ments of its RCRA permit, if there is a release from that
landfill (for example, contamination of groundwater),
the refinery could still be held liable for the full extent
of the proven damages.
1.9 General Considerations
1. Review relationships with independent off5ire wave
managers. Contracts should provide that the waste
management firm agrees to comply with all environ-
mental laws, federal and state, relating to its opera-
tions.
On a longer term basis, it would also be advisable to
determine if the sites presently used could be upgraded
 1-4 DRW MWAL-SCUD
to meet the new RCR4 standards. If they cannot, every
effort should be made to seek other means of handling
the waste.
2. Consider onsire treatment, storage, or disposal. Some
existing sites, which cannot or will not be retrofitted to
meet the stringent requirements, will be required to
close. This will further exacerbate the existing shortfall
of available hazardous waste management facilities.
Permits for new sites will be extremely difficult to ob-
tain. If land is available on refinery property, it seems
advisable to determine whether the waste can be man-
aged on site.
3. Determine if there are alternatives ro disposal. Energy
conservation has increased dramatically in the past
several years. As energy costs rapidly escalate, it be-
comes clear that one of the best rates of return can be
realized on funds expended for energy efficiency. Sim-
ilar economics will shortly create the same climate in
the area of hazardous waste management. When regu-
lation was minimal and hazards were unknown, waste
disposal was cheap. As new hazards are recognized,
WASTES
~ ~-
stringent regulations are developed, and the shortage of
sites increases, the cost of waste management will be-
. come increasingly more expensive. Thus, recycling, re-
generation, resource recovery, or incineration, which
may have been economically unattractive under pre-
vious regulatory regimes, may become cost-effective. It
is advisable to complete this review now before there is
an extraordinary demand for incinerators, recyclers,
regenerators, and so forth, which will drive up the cost
of such services. In addition, the opportunities offered
by waste exchanges should be explored. Remember,
used materials which are recyded. regenerated, or re-
used are not subject to Subtitle C requirements even if
they are hazardous.
4. Consider the economics of segregating wastes. The
simple segregation of waste, hazardous and non-
hazardous, may result in significant savings even though
the economics would not have been considered cost-
justified in the past. In addition, future legislation may
impose a waste fee of $10 per ton or more to provide
funds for emergency containment or clean-up.
Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Wastes

Chapter 2-General Administration and Control
of Solid Waste

FlRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

Institute
 Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER 2 4 E N E R A L ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL OF SOLID WASTE
In recent years refinery solid waste management
technology has become more complex and the conse-
quences of improper techniques more severe. Invest-
ment and operating costs have increased for complex
equipment such as centrifuges, filters, and incinerators.
Along with this, the need for skills in such areas as
mechanics, chemistry, biology, heat transfer, and ma-
terials engineering has increased. To achieve compli-
ance with environmental regulations at a reasonable
cost, it is incumbent upon refinery management to train
process engineers in the techniques of developing and
operating solid wastes programs. To achieve this goal it
is especially important that refinery waste control have
active management support.
An effective program requires that plant personnel
clearly understand their responsibilities. It is preferable
to delegate overall responsibility to a single person who
i has the authority to enforce established preocedures.
Experience has shown that indiscriminate mixing of
wastes and unreported spills to refinery sewers are the
types of events which frequently result in regulatory
violation and decreased cost. The person with overall
responsibility should be certain that personnel under-
stand their individual responsibilities. He should also
establish cost and quality standards which can be re-
viewed to see that goals are met. The consequences of
improper solid waste disposal are not as immediately
visible as a smoky flare. The sampling is not as simple
as sampling water effluents. However, the conse-
quences of improper procedures can be every bit as
costly.
Operating units and maintenance departments
should be held responsible for controlling their own
generation of solid wastes. They should advise the
proper plant authority, by established procedures, of
anticipated changes in quantity or characteristics of
their waste. This will enable measures to be taken to
prevent adverse effects on the overall solid waste pro-
gram. Plant personnel must recognize that responsibil-
ity for a solid waste does not end at the plant gate.
Environmental regulations require that the waste gene-
rator properly notify the hauler and waste disposer of
the properties of a waste. The generator may be held
responsible if wastes are not clearly described.
The first step in establishing an effective waste man-
agement program is to conduct a solids survey to define
2- 1
the problem in terms of waste quantities, character-
istics, sources, costs, and disposal options. This is de-
scribed more fully in subsequent chapters of this man-
ual. The second step is to establish procedures for seg-
regation. waste reduction, and resource recovery.
These procedures should include contingency plans,
short and long-range, in the event that waste charac-
teristics or regulations change or that a contractor is no
longer able to handle the waste. In developing these
plans, bear in mind the ultimate objectives of resource
recovery and sound environmental practice at reason-
able cost.
Combining wastes is frequently the most expedient
way to remove an unwanted material from a process
unit. However, it can readily be understood that adding
a solid waste to a liquid may make the entire waste
unpumpable or adding an oily waste to a nonoily waste
makes the entire waste oily. Mixing affects how the
entire waste must then be treated and disposed. In al-
most all cases, combining wastes increases costs. Com-
bining wastes in a random manner also requires that
individual consideration be given to how that specific
waste container will be treated. Again, this increases
costs.
The second important point is waste reduction. In
almost all cases, cost of treatment and waste disposal
are directly related to waste volume. Waste reduction
also makes the possibility of resource recovery more
likely. For example, if a slop oil has less water it may be
autogenous and not require the use of auxiliary fuel for
incineration. Likewise, it may be economically feasible
to break an emulsion if the total amount of the emulsion
is reduced.
Once a survey has been completed and procedures
established, refinery personnel at all levels must be in-
formed of their responsibilities. They must understand
the effect of their actions on costs and the operating
problems that may be created in other areas.
A complete waste managemenl program should in-
clude plans for the future. Contingency plans for truck
strikes, for the inability of a contractor to process a
waste for short or indefinite periods, and for the need
to meet new federal or local environmental regulations
are examples of considerations to be included in future
plans.
Finally, consideration should be given to resource
2-2 DRW Mucuu-Souo WASTES

recovery. Many so called “wastes” are now recovered.
Some spent catalysts and coker residues are being re-
covered for their metals content. In some cases waste
oils are being reclaimed. These are examples of re-
source recovery and such recovery and reuse are the
stated objective of the Resource Conservation and Re-
covery Act. Regulations and increasing waste treatment
and disposal costs will increase the incentive for re-
source recovery. In the end, resource recovery is the
ultimate soiution to waste disposal problems and should
continue to receive serious attention.
Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Wastes

Chapter 3--Sources, Segregation, Quantities,
and Characteristics of Solid Waste

FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
Petroleum
Institute
 c
Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER 3-SOURCES, SEGREGATION, QUANTITIES, AND
\ CHARACTERlSTlCS OF SOL10 WASTE
There are numerous sources and types of refinery
solid waste. Most wastes can be segregated at the source
for more efficient handling before reclamation or dis-
posal.
Because of varied refinery configurations, each re-
finery will have problems specific to its location, pro-
cess, and local regulations. Even considering the indi-
viduality of refineries, there are basic waste materials
produced which are common to most refining processes
and, therefore, can be handled similarly for resource
recovery or disposal. Besides these basic wastes, there
are other wastes with characteristics and in quantities
not easily defined. A list of waste sources and dassifica-
tion of wastes is presented in Table 3-1. Obviously such
a list cannot be all inclusive. ,
I 3.1 Sources and Classification
Some of the more easily defined waste materials
found in Table 3-1 are listed by refinery unit source and
, classified into combustibles, noncombustibles, and bio-
degradables.
3.2 Segregation of Wastes
By studying Table 3-1 and relating it to a particular
operation, prudent segregation practices that can re-
duce the cost and effort of handling become apparent.
The following catagories for segregation are sug-
gested:
1. Oily process sludges.
2. Nonoily wastes.
3. Biological sludges.
4. Miscellaneous.
5 . Sanitary wastes.
Using the segregation guide along with the source
table, materials that arc compatible and that may pos-
sibly be mixed prior to processing for resource recovery
can be identified.
3.2.1 OILY PROCESS SLUDGES
Oily sludge is the most difficult to handle. Oil sludges
are obtained as sediments from storage tanks. crude
desalters. sewer cleaning, vessel cleaning. oil-water sep-
3- 1
arators, dissolved air flotation, lube oil processing, and
alkylation. X very thorough study is required to deter-
mine which wastes are compatible for mixing prior 'to
recovery.
3.2.2 NONOILY WASTES
Nonoily wastes are much easier to handle. These
wastes come from storm sewer cfeanings. grit
chambers, tank cleaning, cooling tower cfeanings, wa-
ter treating, and catalyst replacement. Used catalyst is
the most likely candidate for resource recovery.
3.2.3 BlOLOGlCAL SLUDGES
Biological sludges are those obtained from biological
wastewater treatment plants. These sludges are concen-
trated by various methods, and when the quality allqws,
may be used as soil conditioners. Methods of concentra-
tion are discussed in Chapter 6 .
3.2.4 MISCELLANEOUS WASTE
Miscellaneous solid waste materials not related to oil
processing can generally be disposed of in municipal
landfiils.
3.2.5 SANITARY WASTES
The sanitary sewage collection and disposal system
should be segregated from the process wastewater
system to eliminate the requirement to chlorinate the
treated water effluent. Where refineries do operate
sanitary waste treatment systems, adequate informa-
tion is available in the literature to answer solids dis-
posal questions.
3.3 Typical Quantities and Characteristics
In 1974, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
contracted with Jacobs Engineering for a survey of the
refining industry to characterize and quantify the solid
waste materials produced by refineries. Subsequent to
that report in 1976, the American Perroleurn Institute
conducted a separate survey to better quantify wastes
through a broader data base.
 3-2 DRW MANUM-SOLID WASTES

Table 3-1--Sources and Characteristics of Refinery Solid Wastes

Classification
Source Combustible Noncombustible’ Biodeqadablc
Rdlnlng P r o u w a

Crude oil storage Wax bottoms Sand, rust, slit

Product Storage TEL sludge. sand, rust, silt
Crude processing Sand. rust, silt, salt. slop oil
emulsions
Thermal cracking Separator coke
Catalytic cracking Spent catalyst
Catalytic reforming Spent catalyst
Polymerization Spent catalyst
Alkylation Corrosion products (sludge. tar)
HF alkylation Calcium fluoride sludge
Asphalt manufacture Asphalt drips Asphalt emulsions Emulsions, light solvent
Cooling Coke fines, wax tailings
Product treating Add sludge Lead sludge
Adsorbents Adsorbents
Lubes and grease Soaps Clay
WaX Slops, drips

Smrvlt. Functlonr
Shops
Carpenter Wood ,Metal scrap
Welding Metal scrap
Machine Metal m a p
Maintenance Metal scrap. insulation
Electrical Rubber, plastic Metal scrap
Cafeteria Waste paper Broken glassware cans, bottle Garbage
Laboratory Waste paper. asphalt. Scrap equipment. catalyst Sanitary wastes
samples, boxes
Office Waste paper. boxes Scrap equipment Sanitary wastes
Lodter Rooms Waste paper, discarded Sanitary wastes
clothing

Nonrdlnlng Opmtlon8
Utilities
Steam generation Boiler blowdown sludge
Feedwater treatment Lime sludge
Cooling towers Suspended solids

Wartewatw Pollutlon Control

API separators Oily sludges. Sand. silt Oily coated
heavy hydrocarbons inert solids
Air flotation Oily froth
Clarifiers Bio. floc.” Flocs. Bio floc.
Flocculation Floc. Clay
Filters Filter cake
Biological oxidation Bio. floc. Bio. sludge

Alr Pollutlon Control

Bas filters Catalyst dust
Electrostatic precipitators Catalyst dust

‘In many cases the noncombustibles arc associa~edwith combustibles and ihc whole mass must be
roccssed to remove the combustible before disposal of the inen residue.
‘Biological flocculation.
 SOVRCES, SEGREGATION.
QUANTIES, AND CHARACTERISTICS 3-3

c Table 3-2 shows a comparison of the two surveys for

total quantities of wastes produced from various
sources.
The surveys concluded that emphasis on waste oil
recovery is justified.
The surveys indicated that the major sources of
metallic constituents are API separator bottoms. ais-
solved air flotation units, waste biological sludge, storm
silt, and waste fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)catalyst
(see Table 3-3). Unfortunately. no meaningful correla-
tion could be made between refinery size. barrels per
day of crude processed. and the amount of waste gener-
ated.
Further analysis showed that the metallic content of
wastes varies widely between refineries. however the
total quantity of metals discharged to the environment
is insignificant when compared to municipal sludges.

Table 3-24omparison of API and Jacobs Results

Results in Id Metric TonsA'ear Extrapolated" to the Total Industry

011 Solids 011and Solids

Stream API Jacobs API Jacobs -)\PI Jacobs

Once-through
cooling sludge 5 02 44 28 2 9 28
Cooling tower
sludge 04 0.002 5 01 5 01

API separator
bottoms 28 2.5 53 33 81 58

Air flotation
float 12 9 28 11 40 20
----- __ . - _ _ _ _ __
!
Waste biological
solids 6 0.2 14 11 20 11

Storm water silt 2 1 24 33 26 24

Storage tankb
bottoms - - - - - -
Waste FCC catalyst - 0.06 64 31 64 31

HF alkylation sludge - 1 7 8 7 9

Treating clays 19 4 46 55 65 59

Total 72 40 285 200 357 240

'Extrapolation from industry survey base which consisted of 57 percent oi the U.S. refinery capacitv
bInsufficient data for extrapolation.
 3-4 DAW MANUAL-SOLIOWASTES

Table 3-3-Comparison of the API and Jacobs Survey

Total Quantities of Metals in Each Solid Waste for All U.S.Refineries in Metric Tons Per Year

Once-Through Cooling API Air Waste Storm Storage Waste

Metals Cooling Tower Separator Flotation Biological Water Tank FCC Treating
Sludge Sludge Bottoms Float Solids Silt Bottoms' Catalyst Clays' Total

Arsenic
API 0.06 0.04 0.11 0.001 0.02 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.43
Jacobs 0.02 0.004 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.06 0.08 1.2
Cadmium
API 0.04 0.005 0.06 0.02 0.004 0.03 0.13 0.10 0.39
Jacobs o.ooo1 0.m1 0.03 0.0003 0.02 0.007 0.001 0.071 0.1
Chromium
API 1.85 4.33 8.56 5.32 4.09 3.6 3.0 1.66 32.4
Jacobs 2.4 0.3 17.6 8.4 22.0 10.2 2.6 2.11 65.6
Copper
API 2.09 0.85 3.23 0.43 0.22 1.75 1.47 0.51 10.6
Jacobs 5.7 0.02 1.4 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.45 10.1
Lead
API 1.61 0.24 2.39 0.23 0.46 4.37 2.56 0.51 12.4
Jacobs 2.1 0.M 1.2 0.5 0.4 1.6 1.5 0.1'4 7.5
Mercury
API 0.008 0.02
Jacobs 0.02 -O.ooo6
5
0.03
0.003
0.03
0.001
0.2
0.02
0.02
0.01
(3)
0.005
0.02
0.068
0.3
Nickel
API 0.62 0.08 0.95 0.17 0.10 0.58 12.16 0.69 15.4
Jacobs 1.3 0.003 1.3 o.co1 0.002 2.4 7.4 1.o 13.4
Selenium
API 0.12 0.008 0.01 0.003 0.01 0.02 0.06 0.06 0.29
Jacobs 0.06 -c
0.07 0.1 0.008 0.05 0.0003 0.10 0.4
' Vanadium
API 0.49 0.06 1.20 0.13 0.10 0.51 14.7 1.29 18.5
Jacobs 1.5 0.004 0.7 0.003 0.004 2.1 7.4 3.2 14.2
Zinc
API 2.18 2.45 11.7 5.88 3.09 4.97 2.37 1.89 34.5
Jacobs 4.1 0.3 20.7 6.3 9.9 6.9 1.6 5.5 55.9
Total

API 9.07 8.06 28.2 12.2 8.09 15.9 36.5 6.79 125
Jacobs 17.8 0.6 43.4 15.8 33.6 24.3 21.1 12.7 169

'Insufficient data for extrapolation.

bIncludes lube and jet fuel treating clays.
'Less than 1.0 Ib/hr.

NOTE: Other comparisons are made from the surveys and can be found by reference to the original
document.
 Ihlanual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Waste

Chapter &Source Reduction

FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

I.

American
Petroleum
InsttMe
 Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER 4-SOURCE
A major tool in the management of solid wastes is the
modification of process and operating procedures. This
is done to reduce the quantity of waste solids and to
alter their characteristics to make disposal less costly.
Many such modifications have been put into practice,
and refinery management is continually on the lookout
for additional methods.
4.1 Tank Cleaning
Variable angle mixers installed in storage tanks can
be used in conjunction with selected solvents (such as,
crude, light cycle oil. and water) to reduce the time,
manpower, and cost of removing residual solids from
storage tanks.
The selected solvent is added to the tank to be
cleaned and the mixers are operated for 5 to 15 days in
i various positions typically ranging 30 degrees from
either side of the center line. This sweeps all parts of the
tank floor and lifts the solids so that solvent and oily
solids are in intimate contact. The resulting deoiling of
the solids recovers valuable hydrocarbon for reuse. It
, also reduces the oil content of the residual solids mak-
ing them less difficult to dispose of ultimately and re-
duces the quantity of residual solids by removing the oil
and wax content of the solids. An additional advantage
of this technique is the greater safety afforded by con-
ducting the major portion of the cleaning activity from
outside of the tank.
4.2 Biosludge From Water Treatment
Several techniques are available to reduce the quan-
tity of waste biosludge from wastewater treatment.
4.2.1 SLUDGE AGE
The sludge age in the biological treatment system can
be increased. To accomplish this without creating
sludge settling problems usually requires careful pre-
treatment to remove colloidal material in the waste-
water entering the biounit. Removal may be accom-
plished by use of a well-operated air flotation or sand
filter system. The sludge age can usually be increased
sufficiently to reduce sludge wastage to very low levels.
4-1
REDUCTION METHODS
4.2.2 AEROBIC DIGESTION
Aerobic digestion of the waste biosludge will result in
a significant reduction in the quantity of sludge. It is
also a necessary pretreatment step for landfarming of
biologicai sludge to prevent odor problems.
4.2.3 HYDROLYSIS
Other methods of reducing waste biological sludge
include chemical treatment, such as acid treatment. to
break down the biological cell wall. Thus, organics can
be oxidized and the resultant biological studge is more
easily dewatered for ultimate disposal.
4.2.4 AIR FLOTATION FLOAT RECYCLE
Air flotation units are usually operated with chemical
additives to improve their efficiency. Alum, ferric
chloride, lime, and polyelectrolytes are typical chemical
agents used. If possible, the chemical usage should be
limited to polyelectrolytes since alum, lime, and ferric
chloride type treatment creates a significant volume of
oily solids for disposal.
The use of polyelectrolytes alone opens the possibil-
ity of recycling the float, which is now primarily oil. to
the front of the system thus reducing the quantity of
solid material for disposal.
4.2.5 BENEnClAL COMBINATION
Some wastes may be combined to advantage. For
instance, lime from boiler feed water treatment can be
used for pH control on landfarm operations.
4.2.6 SHUTDOWN PLANNING
The environmental department should be involved in
the planning for all types of shutdowns so that the
quantities and characteristics of wastes to be generated
by the shutdown are anticipated. The shutdown pian-
ning should assure that all possible steps are taken to
keep quantities to a minimum, to control the character-
istics of the waste to simplify its disposal. and to plan the
disposal techniques to be used.
Reference
Knowlton. H. E.. “Source Control in Petroleum Refincnes.” paper
presented at the National Petroleum Refiners Association Annual
Meeting. A M 78-41. March 1978
Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Waste

Chapter 5-Resource Recovery

F!RST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
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Institute
 Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER 5-RESOURCE RECOVERY
Resource recovery is a very important part of a waste
management program. With the ever increasing price of
crude oil. the goal must be the recovery of every usable
barrel of oil. Aside from the profit motive, one must
consider the regulatory requirements for waste disposal
and factor these associated costs into a resource re-
covery program. Whether the recoverable product be
oil, catalyst, or digested sludge the process of recovery
for reuse nearly always reduces the quantity of waste
material for disposal. Of the waste streams identified in
the Jacobs and API waste surveys, the main items which
are recoverable and reusable include oil, catalyst, acids,
caustics, digested biological sludges. filter clays. and. in
some cases, chromate inhibitors used in cooling tower
treatment. Almost every refinery can identify recover-
able items from waste generated by processes which are
individual to that refinery.
5.1 Oil Reclamation
All refineries practice the recovery of waste oils to
some degree. The recovered oils may be reintroduced
, into various process feed streams or sold directly for
fuel or other uses. The techniques for recovery include
simple gravity separation, emulsion breaking with
chemicals and heat, and the use of lighter oils and sol-
vents to aid in emulsion breaking and thinning of
heavier oil fractions. There are a number of patented
processes on the market for the recovery of oil from
waste streams. The chemical companies which special-
ize in emulsion breaking chemicals offer engineering
services directed at maximizing the recoverable oil from
a given waste material. After the oil is recovered. the
residual waste is amenable to landfarming as the ul-
timate method of disposal. If a sludge is to be land-
farmed, oil should be recovered until the oil content is
no more than 15 percent. Since oil concentration is a
limiting factor for the quantity of waste to be applied to
a plot of land, the less oil a waste contains the smaller
the land area required for landfarming.
5.2 Catalyst Reuse
i The metal content of many catalysts is frequently of
sufficient quantity to allow the catalysts to be repro-
cessed for resale or metal recovery. This may be done
5-1
by catalyst manufacturers or companies specializing in
metal recovery from waste materials. If a catalyst sup-
plier will not take the spent catalyst for reprocessing,
the supplier may heip the refinery find a market for the
catalyst. Most spent catalvsts are stable enough that
ultimate disposai can be accomplished by landfilling. It
is a good practice not to mix spent catalyst with other
wastes in a landfill. In many cases, landfills become
acceptable means for disposal if they are dedicated
completely to a particular waste material.
5.3 Acids and Caustics
It is a common practice to match these waste ma-
terials for neutralization prior to disposal. Reacting
waste chemicals in this manner reduces the amount of
fresh chemical required for neutralization and can be
defined as a reuse process. Waste caustics saturated
with phenolic compounds can usually be sold to chem-
ical companies specializing in the recovery of phenolics.
Neutralized acid and caustic solutions can be discharged
into the wastewater treatment system whenever the
total dissolved solids limit of the NPDES pennit is not
exceeded. Spent alkylation acid can be returned to sul-
furic acid manufacturers for reprocessing.
5.4 Biological Sludges
Digested biological sludges have long been used as
soil conditioners for lawns and flower beds. Most re-
fineries have lawns and shrubbery on which dried bio-
logical sludge can be used. Usually the amount of bio-
logical sludge generated exceeds the requirements for
grounds beautification. Biological sludge should not be
used for growing food products but waste sludge may be
spread in tank farm areas.
5.5 Filter Clays
Filter clays used for oil and wax purification can be
regenerated in multiple hearth furnaces for reuse. A
particular clay will withstand several regeneration cy-
cles before particle size and reaction surface deteri-
orate.
Waste filter clay is nonreactive and is amenable to
landfill as an uitimate disposal method.
5-2 DAW MANUM-SOLVJ WASTES

5.5 Chromate Inhibitor Reuse ion exchange process. Stringent wastewater regulations I

have made this reuse process more attractive.

Chromate continues to be one of the most effective
The refinery engineer must always consider reuse of
corrosion inhibitors for cooling systems. Because of
waste materials in the design and development of his
NPDES restrictions, the reduction of chromium con- refining processes. Maximum recovery might
tent in wastewater has become imperative. Chromate
be the difference between success or failure for a par-
can be recovered from cooling tower blowdown for re-
titular project.
use in the make-up water. This is accomplished by the
Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Wastes

Chapter &Treatment Prior to Ultimate
Disposal

FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
Petroleum
Institute
 Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER &TREATMENT
The largest volume of refinery wastes consists of
sludges that result from wastewater treatment. tank
cleanings, and flue gas scrubbing. These wastes contain
hydrocarbons, water, and solids which must be reduced
in volume prior to ultimate disposal. The objective of
this volume reduction is to reduce overall disposal cost
and to reduce technical problems in subsequent treat-
ment steps. There are generally three steps, done in
series, for the volume reduction of these oiVwaterlsolids
sludges.
The first step generally utilizes gravity differential.
that is gravity thickening or flotation. These are rela-
tively low cost operations per volume of waste treated.
They result in large sludge volumes for which disposal
costs are usually prohibitively expensive. Therefore the
next step is usually mechanical dewatering, such as cen-
trifugation or vacuum. pressure, or gravity filtration.
This mechanical dewatering equipment is inherently
more expensive per ton of sludge treated. Investment.
f ' operating, and maintenance expenses are all generally
1.
higher. The final treatment step might be chemical fixa-
tion, incineration, landfarming, or composting which
can be done prior to or as a part of ultimate disposal.
6.1 The Importance of Concentration
The importance of concentrating solids is easily un-
derstood when one considers that the doubling of solids
concentration results in halving the volume for ultimate
disposal. Therefore, increasing concentration from 1 to
2, or from 2 to 4 percent, is especially important be-
cause of the large reduction in volume. However, as the
solids concentration is increased, the economic incen-
tive decreases, because each percent increase in con-
centration is not as significant in terms of volume reduc-
tion. Also, the cost of further concentration becomes
higher.
Because of new effluent regulations, wastewater
treatment sludges have become the single largest source
of sludge. These sludges are difficult to process because
they are often gelatinous or oily. Furthermore, the phy-
sical properties of wastewater sludge may change fre-
quently because of turnarounds or changes in refinery
, operations.
i Selection of the concentration process depends on
the characteristics of the sludge and the ultimate dis-
posal methods available at the specific location. For
PRIOR TO ULTIMATE DISPOSAL
example, the sludge may be heavy and easily settled or
light and easily floated. Land may be readily available
at low cost for landfill or fanning, making the concen-
trating step less important. Or. land may be expensive
and incineration may then be required to reduce sludge
volume as much as possible. In the latter case, the con-
centrating step is quite important because of the high
cost of incineration.
6.2 Sludge Concentration by Gravity
Differential Methods
6.2.1 GRAVITY THICKENING OR SElTLlNG
Dilute refinery slurries can be concentrated to ap-
proximately 1-7 weight percent by gravity. Concentra-
tions of 1-2.5 percent are typical for biological sludges
and 5-7 percent for oily pretreatment sludges which
contain solids, such as rust and silt. Some sludges. such
as lime sludge, coal ash. or incinerator ash, settle to
higher concentrations and care must be taken if they are
to be kept pumpable. Gravity thickeners may be round
or rectangular and sludge is removed from the bottom
by rakes or suction piping. Parallel plate devices used
for streams handling dilute solids are generally not used
for sludge concentration where the more concentrated
feed may result in blocking flow between the plates.
Batch settling tests, using small sludge samples and
laboratory glassware, can be conducted to determine
the size of full scale equipment. These tests can be used
to estimate final solids concentration in the underflow
and the need for flocculation polymers. They also
define the required area by providing information on
whether the initial settling rate or the mass flux of the
solids is the limiting parameter.
Final solids concentration obtained by gravity settling
is a function of initial feed composition and depth of the
settled sludge blanket. Other factors affecting sludge
blanket concentration are listed here.
1. A higher oil-to-solids ratio in the feed results in less
dense sludge.
2. Entrained air results in less dense sludge.
3. Use of polyelectrolytes increases the settling rate but
decreases final sludge density. The extent to which
polymers affect final sludge density varies greatly from
one polymer to another.
4. Long retention time for biological sludge may result
in an anaerobic biological growth and in merhane gas
6- 1
 6-2 DRW M A N U A L ~ ~
WASTES
LIO
-.
Table 6-1-Sludge Source versus Solids Concentration
Initial Solids Final Solids
Solids Rate
Concentration Concentratton
Sludge Source (Wtclo) (wt%) ( Ibs/ft2/dav) (kgm’/dav)
Filter backwash 0 1-1.0 4 0-8 0 6-8 3040
D A F float 2-3 4 0-6.0 4-5 20-25
Biological sludge 05 1.O-2.5 1-2 5-10

formation. The sludge blanket will become less dense
and even rise.
5. Deeper sludge blankets. at equal retention time, will
result in greater sludge density. However, above 3 feet
(1 meter), the increase in density becomes less pro-
nounced.
Design values depend upon Ihr: specific sludge to be
thickened; however, the values listed in Table 6-1 are
typical.
6.2.2 AIR FLOTATION UNITS
After removal of the majority of free Oil in an
separator, the remaining 50-100 PPm free 0‘1 together
with colloidal emulsions and suspended solids may be
further reduced in a dissolved or induced air flotation
’
unit (DAF or IAF). These units typically concentrate
sludge to 4-5 weight percent.
The basic principle of either DAF or IAF is that air
bubbles attach to the suspended oil or solids causing the
particles to float to the surface where they can be
skimmed.
In dissolved air flotation, small bubbles are formed
by dissolving air in water under pressure and then re-
leasing the pressure to form small bubbles as the water
becomes supersaturated. In induced air flotation. air is
dispersed in the water at the vortex of a mechanical
agitator. This reportedly results in a greater number of
large size bubbles than that for dissolved air flotation.
To improve the flotation process, the suspended
solids and oil are usually coagulated by addition of in-
feed pressurization, and (3) pressurization of a portion
of the effluent, which is then recycled back to the feed.
The recommended mode of operation is recycle pres-
surization. Recycle pressurization avoids problems with
emulsification and floc shearing, which can occur dur-
ing total feed pressurization.
Air flotation is the most effective means for removing
free oil from process waste streams. At times. when
using inorganic coagulants, suspended solids may in-
crease. Use of polymers generally reduces suspended
solids but may reduce oil rimoval efficiency. The oil-to-
solids ratio of a Darticular waste will affect solids re-
moval and can ilso affect overall oil removal. The
ranges of removals listed in Table 6-2 can be expected.
Typical dissolved air flotation process design param-
eters are described in Table 6-3.
6.2.3 CHEMICAL FLOCCULATION
Chemical flocculation is another pretreatment or
roughing treatment used for removing oil and solids.
Because it involves settling. it is best suited where there
is no opportunity for high oil content in the feed.
Chemical coagulation consists of adding chemicals to
a coagulant chamber. Flocculated sludge is then al-
lowed to settle. Some of the settled sludge is recir-
Table 6-+Typical Dissolved
Air Flotation Process Design Parameters
~~~~ ~

Parameter Design Value

organic coagulants (usually alum) or organic flocculants
Flotator nse rate 1.s2.0 gpm/ftl
(synthetic polyelectrolytes), or both, before introduc- (3.7-2.9-m’lhr. m2)
tion of the bubbles.
In dissolved air flotation, bubble formation can be Saturator tank presser 5 0 6 5 psig
(4.5-5.5 bar)
obtained by (1) total feed pressurization, (2) partial
Recycle rate, percent of feed 30-100
Table 6 - 2 4 a n g e s of Solids Removal
for the Dissolved Flotation Process Air supply rate to saturator 1.0 SCFllOO gal feed
(0.075 m’lSTPlm’ feed)
oilm Suspended Solids
Low High Low High Flocculation tank holdup time 15-20 min
Effluent concentration. Coagulant dosage 30-ZM) ppm alum
mg/l 6 37 3 37

Removal. percent 81 91 0 87 Polvelcctrolyic dose 1 - 3 PPm

Float produciion percent bv volume

’Extraction-infrared analysis. on feed 0.53.0%
 TAUTMENTP R I ~ R
TO ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL 6-3

Table 6-4-Gravity Differential Processes

Dissolved
Gravitv Air Chemical
Factors Thickening Flotation Flocculation
Relative investment LOW Medium Low

Effluent water quality LOW ,Medium Medium

Operating cost LOW High Medium

Feed to which best suited Constant flow Contaminant Easily coaylared

and sludge lighter than sludge heavier
heavier than water than water
water

NOTE: Induced air flotation has slightly lower investment. water quality. and operating cost than
dissolved air flotation.

culated to the feed where it comes in contact with in-
coming contaminants and drags them down to the
sludge blanket. The advantage of chemical coagulation
is that the sludge blanket may contain a high solids
concentration. The disadvantage is that an upstream oil
spill may cause the sludge blanket to float and be dis-
charged with the effiuent water. Furthermore, re-estab-
lishing the sludge blanket and efficient removal may
require as much as a week, during this time contam-
inant removal efficiency is low.
< Gravity differential processes producing sludge for
further concentration are summarized in Table 6-4.
the inner spiral of the vortex with most of t.e liquid and
escape through the vortex finder opposite the apex end.
Liquid cyclones do not have high solids recovery effi-
ciency. Many of the finer solids escape in the centrate.
and the solids that are recovered are in a dilute suspen-
sion. The advantage of liquid cyclones is their relatively
low cost and the absence of moving parts.
Liquid cyclones have been utilized €or primary sep-
aration to remove coarse solids from tank bottoms or
separator sludges. They have also been used to remove

6.3 Sludge Concentration by Mechanical

Dewatering
6.3.1 CENTRIFUGATION
Three types of centrifuges are used for processing
high solids content sludges-scroll, imperforate basket.
and disc. Scroll centrifuges are frequently called solid
bowl centrifuges; however, this is confusing since im-
perforate basket centrifuges also have a solid bowl.
Oily wastes containing a wide range of solids, oil, and
water can be processed by centrifugation. Units have
also been designed to process emulsions and oily
sludges with high solids content, such as separator and
tank bottoms.

6.3.1.1 Centrifugal Separators

A centrifugal separator, or liquid cycfone, is a com-
pact, cylindro-conical classification unit, as shown in
Figure 6-1, which utilizes centrifugal force in place of
gravity. Feed enters the cylindrical section tangentially
at suff-icient velocity to support the vortex action of the SOLIDS 1 REJECTION
slurry in the unit. Coarse solids thrown to the wall travel APEX
a spiral path axially to discharge at the apex end. Fine
solids. less affected by the centrifugal forces, move to Figure 6-l-Centnfugal Separator
 6-4 DRW MANUM-SOLID WMXS
UNOERFCOW
Figure 6 - 2 4 i s c Centrifuge
coke fines from water and reportedly do a good job so
long as the water flow is kept at the required velocity
and volume. Liquid cyclones are available in sizes rang-
ing from 10 millimeters to 2 meters in diameter. At
equal inlet velocity, finer classifications are achieved in
the smaller sizes because of the greater centrifugal
force. Large production volumes are readily handled by
manifolding units in parallel, as required. The capacity
of any cycione is a function of the pressure differential
between feed inlet and overflow outlet. Standard units
’
have certain fixed dimensions, such as cyclone diam-
eter, feed inlet diameter, and cone angle. These factors
set overall limits on the capacity and size for a specific
application, which is a further limitation. The apex out-
let may be controlled during operation to restrict the
amount of discharge. The most important factor con-
trolling separation is the relative specific gravities of the
solids and the liquid. Other important factors include
viscosity, solids concentration. particle size distribution,
particle shape, and the generally complete absence of
gas phase in the feed.
6.3.1.2. Disc Centrifuges
The disc centrifuge consists of a vertical bowl contain-
ing a concentrically mounted stack of inverted conical
discs. as shown in Figure 6-2. Both the bowl and discs
rotate at high speed and develop a separation force
approximately 6OOO times that of gravity. The bowl con-
tains peripheral novles or ports for discharge of the
solids-containing stream.
Feed is introduced a t the top and flows downward
and radially outward between the discs. Nozzles along
,he outer circumference of the bowl mamtam a back
pressure but allow heavier solids and some liquid to )
escape. To keep these small nozzles from plugging,
most of the flow is recycled back through the bottom of
the bowl. This results in high velocity and abrasion of
the nozzles. Liquids and less dense solids, which do not
escape through the nozzle, flow inward between the
stacked discs. Effective separation takes place between
these discs because of the short distance between plates
that the heavier material has to travel.
One advantage of the disc centrifuge is that high
gravitational force is applied and there is little turbu-
lence between the discs. The disc centrifuge is well
suited for separating two liquids having different densi-
ties but is not well suited for separating solids from
liquids, because of the tendency of solids to plug the
small nozzle openings and the space between the discs.
Another disadvantage is that maintaining flow through
the nozzles requires that the solids discharge stream be
rather dilute. The solids concentration of this discharge
stream is about half of that obtained with other types of
centrifuges.
6.3.1.3 Scroll Centrifuges
The scroll centrifuge consists of a bowl which may be
vertical or horizontal. A helical conveyor. called the
scroll or screw, is located within the bowl. It is driven by
the same drive but is geared to rotate 75-100 revolu-
tions per minute slower. As seen in Figure 6-3, sludge
enters the centrifuge through the hollow conveyor shaft
and discharges through a port about halfway down its
length. Dense solids are carried by centrifugal force to
the bowl wall and are then conveyed along the bowl
wall by the conveyor toward the beach. The beach is the
conical section of the bowl where liquid drains from the
solids. The liquid drains to the cylindrical section of the
bowl and discharges through overflow ports.
’
The scroll centrifuge is a relatively high feed capacity,
low gravity-force machine, useful in separating heavy
coarse solids at high feed rates. The discharged solids
have a high solids concentration and are frequently not
pumpable. A disadvantage of a scroll centrifuge is that
the differential speed of the bowl and scroll causes
turbulence. This affects solid-liquid separation and may
require addition of polymers to assist in solid-liquid
separation.
Because of its high feed capacity and relatively low
solids recovery ability for oily or biological sludge. a
scroll centrifuge may be used as a scalping machine
before an imperforate basket centrifuge is used.
6.3.1.4 Imperforate Basket Centrifuge
An imperforate basket centrifuge, shown in Figure
6-4, consists of a vertically mounted rotating bowl which
 TREATMENT
PRIOR TO ULTIMATE DtSWSi.
6-5

COVER

OlFFEAENTlAL SPEED

BASE NOT SHOWN

CENTRATE SLUCGE CAKE
DISCHARGE OISCHARGE
I
1

Figure 6-3-Scroil Centrifuge

ir

Figure 6-4-Imperforate Basket Centrifuge

 6-6 DRW MANUAL-~LID
is open at the top and the bottom. Feed is introduced
through a downcomer that directs the flow toward the
wall near the bottom of the basket. Rotation of the
bowl and fluid develops a force approximately 10oO to
1800 times that of gravity which forces solids to the
outer bowl wall. Clarified liquid escapes at the top of
the bowl, overflowing the lip. When the solids buildup
reaches the capacity of the basket, the feed is stopped
and pumpable solids are removed by a skim pipe. The
basket speed is then slowed. and heavier solids are
plowed out into a hopper or conveyor. Solids discharge
is intermittent and consists of two types of solids,
skimmed or pumpable and plowed or nonpumpable.
The imperforate basket centrifuge does not have the
fine passages of a disc centrifuge and is, therefore, less
apt to plug. Also, there is less turbulence than in a scroll
centrifuge and this results in less abrasion and less need
for coagulating polymers. The disadvantage of an im-
perforate basket centrifuge is the relatively low feed
rate of generally 34-60 gallons per minute. Because of
the automatic cyclic operation, smooth operation de-
pends on the reliable operation of electro-mechanical
components during the hundreds of cycles each day.
6.3.2 FILTRATION
The various types of mechanical filters which are gen-
erally used to concentrate sludges that have previously
been gravity settled or floated are described here. Pres-
’ sure filters, vacuum filters, and gravity belt filters are
included. Granular media filters which are used for
water treating are not included. Granular media filters
require a more dilute feed and do not concentrate to as
high a solids concentration.
6.3.2.1 Pressure Flltratlon
A pressure filter consists of metal plates covered by
a fabric filtering medium. The covered plates are hung
in a frame equipped with both a fixed and a movable
head. The plates are forced together with a chamber left
between the cloth surfaces. Sludge is pumped through
a central opening in the plates to the cloth-lined
chamber. Sludge is retained on the fabric and liquid is
forced through the fabric to the plate surface where it
drains away. At the end of the filtration cycle. the plates
are separated, and the sludge cake is discharged from
the unit. Feed pressures ranging between 80 and 225
pounds per square inch gage are common.
Pressure filters of the plate and frame type are gen-
erally not used for filtrarion of oily sludges or oily slur-
ries because the filter media plugs rapidly This severely
limits the filtration rate. If spent inert solids, such as
WASTES
lime sludge, are available, they may be mixed with the
waste to provide porosity and improve the ease of
removal of the cake from the filter media.
6.3.2.2 Vacuum Filtration
The typical filter installation consists of a horizontal
compartmented drum, which supports the filter media
on its outer surface. The drum is rotated, partially sub-
merged, in a tank containing the waste sludge. As each
section of the drum passes through the tank. vacuum
pulls the liquid inward and the solids are retained as a
thin cake on the filter media covering the outer drum
surface. As each section emerges from the liquid, a
vacuum is maintained to dry the wetted cake. Cake is
removed from the drum before the section reenters the
tank, where the cycle is repeated. Because the drum has
multiple sections, filtrate flow is continuous. Filtrate
passes through a vacuum valve to a vacuum receiver,
where it is disengaged from the air that enters the drum
from the upper exposed portion of its travel (drying
section). Filtrate is generally removed by a pump.
Vacuum is usually applied to the drum through the
filtrate receiver by vacuum pumps, although steam jet
ejectors can be used. The feed tank is generally
equipped with an agitator to maintain the solids in sus-
pension. The filter media and method of cake discharge
are selected to suit the particular application.
The filter media may be one of a variety of natural or
synthetic fiber fabrics available in numerous weaves.
With a fabric filter media, cake may be discharged by
applying pneumatic pressure from inside the drum to
loosen the cake at the end of the drying period just
before it reaches a knife, which scrapes the cake from
the surface. Some cloth-covered filters use a “string
discharge” to remove cake. A series of strings wound
around the drum lift the cake from the surface before
the drum re-enters the liquid. Rates of 2 to 6 pounds of
dry solids per hour per square foot of filter area are
obtained when filtering biological sludges. Moisture
content of the cake will vary depending upon condition-
ing and sludge type. For oily sludges, vacuum filtration
may require adding an amount of inert solids to the feed
equal to the dry solids content of the wastewater sludge.
When the sludge to be filtered contains material
which trends to clog or “blind” the openings in the filter
media, firtration rates are very low.. The precoat filter
may then be used. A typical schematic diagram of pre-
coat vacuum facilities is shown in Figure 6-5.
Precoating requires applying a layer of solids over the
fabric as a filter media. A slurry of the precoat material,
usually diatomaceous earth, is charged to the filter until
a layer of solids, say 3 inches thick, is built up on the
drum. In operation, the vacuum is maintained con-
 TREATMENT
PRIOR TO
3
AIR BLOW-BACK UNE
)SLUR&
Figure 6-!%-Rotary
tinuously. The solids are retained on the precoat surface
while the liquid passes through and is discharged. As
the drum is about to re-enter the filter tank, a doctor
blade shaves off the accumulated solids plus a thick
layer of the underlying precoat. The shavings drop to a
hopper or conveyor. A mechanism is provided which
continuously advances the blade as the filter drum ro-
tates. The optimum advance rate of the blade allows
‘ centrifuges. The disadvantage is that the process de-
maximum filtration rate at a minimum rate of precoat
consumption. The advance rate can usually be adjusted
over a range of 0.001 to 0.01 inch per revolution. In
practice, dependent upon feedstock viscosity, a precoat
may last anywhere from 10 hours to several days before
the “heel” must be removed and a new precoat applied.
Vacuum filters can also be operated by adding the
inert material to the feed forming a slurry, which is fed
to the filter. By this feed conditioning, operations are
similar to that of a precoat filter.
6.3.2.3 Gravity Belt Filtration
Gravity belt filtration is a newer technology for con-
centration of oily and biological sludges (see Figure
6-6). This process depends on the use of high molecular
weight, usually electrically charged, polymers to coagu-
late the sludge. After mixing sludge and polymer, the
coagulated sludge is poured on a porous screen where
free water drains. After the free water is drained, the
remaining sludge can be pressed, removing water
trapped in the floc, without forcing the sludge through
the screen. The significant difference between gravity
ULTIMATE DISPOSAL 6-7
FEED
Drum Vacuum Filter
belt filtrarion and pressure or vacuum filtration is that
free water drains through the screen before pressure is
applied to compress the sludge and blind the screen.
Also, because a flocculation polymer is used to form
large floc, the screen openings are much greater and.
therefore, less apt to plug.
One advantage of gravity belt filtration is that slower
speeds result in less maintenance than that required for
pends on high-cost polymers, which are sensitive to pH
and other changes in sludge characteristics.
6.4 Sludge Concentration by Incineration
Incineration is the ultimate in volume reduction. It
results in an ash which must be landfilled. Gases are
passed out the stack where particulates and acid vapors
(CO,, SO,, and HC!), if present, are removed. Hydro-
carbons present in the sludge reduce the amount of
auxiliary feed required. The chief disadvantages are the
high capital and operating costs. These costs, per ton of
waste incinerated, are especially high for small incinera-
tors and for large incinerators if not used to their full
capacity. Therefore in evaluating the need and econom-
ics for incineration. three basic steps are required. First.
make an accurate estimate of the amount and character-
istics of the waste to be incinerated. Second. evaluate
alternative disposal methods and types of incinerators.
Finally, make an economic and environmental compari-
son of the alternatives. I
 6-8 DRW MANUAL-SOLIO WGES

POLYMER FROM DILUTION

NO STOPPAGE SYSTEM

FLOCCULATION

GRAVITY DRAIN

I 1 1
I

I COMPRESSION ZONE PRESSZONE

Figure 6-6-Gravity Belt Filter

SHEAR ZONE

-
A brief description of major types of incinerators and sive cavity (screw) pump or screw-type feeder. Wastes
their application is included in 6.4.1 through 6.4.8. that become tacky prior to combustion can be burned if
sand particle diameters are large enough to avoid ag-
6.4.7 BURNER-TYPE INClNERATORS glomerization. Solid waste may also be pneumatically
conveyed or fed through the top of the incinerator. The
Burner type incinerators include several designs
major advantage of this unit is its low sensitivity to
using steam or air to atomize wastes into a refractory-
varying waste heating content because of the intense
lined combustion chamber. With heavy sludges, rotary
agitation and the large heat sink of the fluidized bed.
cup burners replace the atomizing nozzle. The refrac-
High investment cost is a major disadvantage. Another
tory enclosure can be a simple open-ended retort, a
disadvantage is that the amount of air to fluidize the bed
,vertical-cyiindrid fumace, or a rotary kiln. One ad-
is a constant. This air must be preheated and may re-
vantage of the bumer-type unit is that its simple design
and low cost favor several small incinerators located
near process units rather than a large central disposal
facility. However, its use is limited to applications
where the waste can be atomized and combustion is I lI LFI Ill
essentially complete within the flame, that is, liquid
wastes of high heat content.

6.4.2 FLUID BED INCINERATORS

Fluid bed incinerators consist of a refractory-iined
cylindrical reactor containing a heated, fluidized sand
bed (see Figure 6-7). Waste is injected into the
1600-1800 F bed where thermal cracking and burning
occur. Combustion of light ends is completed in the
after-burning section above the sand bed. Heat con-
tained in the flue gas may be exchanged with incoming
combustion air. Because fines from the sand bed are
carried by the flue gas, a cyclone or a wet scrubber, or
both, are usually required to remove particulates. Sand
attrition and carryover require a periodic quartz or alu-
mina sand makeup.
This type of incinerator generally handles all ma-
rerials that can be injected into the bed using a progres- Figure 6-7-Fluid Bed Incinerator
 TREATMENT
PRIOR TO ULTIMATE
quire 50 percent of the heat input. This makes fuel
utilization very inefficient when the incinerator is oper-
ated at reduced sludge feed rates.
6.4.3 MULTIPLE HEARTH INCINERATORS
The multiple hearth incinerator consists of a series of
circular hearths placed on above the other and enclosed
in a refractory shell (see Figure 6-8). Sludge is fed to the
outside of the top hearth and moved by rotating rabble
arms to the center, where it drops to the next level.
Rabble arms move the sludge on this hearth in a spiral
path to the periphery, where it drops through openings
to the third hearth and so on. In a standard six hearth
model, sludge is dried on the first and second hearths,
burned on the next three, and the ash cooled in the
sixth. Combustion air is preheated as it cools the center
shaft and rabble arms. It is further heated as it cools ash
on the bottom hearth before warming the incoming
sludge. These features increase the thermal efficiency
of this design and reduce auxiliarj fuel requirements.
The multiple hearth has long been used for municipal
sludge disposal with more than 100 installations in the
United States. Wastes with large particles (approxi-
mately 1 inch or larger) or wastes which become sticky
and form crusts when heated may interfere with rabble
ci arm operation and are not recommended for multiple
hearth disposal. Wastes which are too soupy to form
A/coouffi
MSCHAAGE
FLOATING
DAMPER SLUDGE
/INLET
FLUE GASES
COOLING
AIR FAN
Figure 6-&Typical Multiple Hearth Incinerator
DISWSM
6-9
furrows when rabbled are also not suited for multiple
hearth incineration. Another disadvantage of multiple
hearth incinerators is that moving parts in the high tem-
perature zone are susceptible to thermal damage and
corrosion.
6.4.4 MONOHEARTH INCINERATORS
The monohearth or single hearth incinerator with
rotating rabble arms is also available. Waste is fed from
above to the grate where rotating arms agitate the waste
and move ash outward toward hinged grates at the
hearth’s periphery. At intervals the outer grates are
dropped, dumping ash into a hopper below. Off-gases
pass through a refractory stack. This type of incinerator
has also been widely used in the United States for muni-
cipal refuse disposal with over seventy installations
completed. The major disadvantage is its size; the smal-
lest available unit is rated at 50 tons per day of refuse.
Few refineries generate sufficient waste to justify this
size incinerator.
6.4.5 GRATE-TYPE INCINERATORS
Grate-type incinerators are used for trash destruc-
tion. These incinerators are not suited to most refinery
sludges since the unburned sludge runs through the
grate.
6.4.6 ROTARY KILNS
The rotary kiln is a slightly-inclined, refractory-lined
rotating cylinder (see Figure 6-9). Thick sludges and
solids are fed via a belt or screw conveyor; pumpable
wastes can be sprayed into the kiln with an atomizing
nozzle. The rotary kiln is suitable for disposing of large
solid waste containers, for example, fiber drums. It can
also handle liquid wastes but at a reduced capacity. The
waste is heated and dried in the first few feet of the kiln
and burned in the remainder. Auxiliary fuel burners in
the afterburning chamber complete the combustion of
soot and vapors liberated in the kiln. The rotating ac-
tion of the kiln agitates the waste, thereby exposing
each waste panicle to 1400 F gases in the kiln.
The design of a rotary kiln is complex; computers are
commonly used to optimize designs. The objective is to
completely bum the maximum waste quantity and par-
ticle size expected. This is a function of temperature.
retention time, and degree of agitation. These latter
two variables in turn depend upon kiln diameter,
length, inclination, and speed of rotation. In addition,
the size of the afterburning chamber is based on the
combustion characteristics of the soot and vapors liber-
ated in the kiln. An advantage of this design is its flexi-
bility in handling wastes with wide!? varying character-
 6-10 DRW MANUAL-SOLIDWASTES
FUEL
Figure 6-&-Rotary Kiln Including Afterburning Facilities
istics. The major drawback is the potential mechanical
* problems inherent in rotating the large (typically 5 to 10
feet in diameter) kiln. Problems have been reported
with wastes that ball up in the kiln or cake on the
refractory, resulting in incomplete combustion and
smoke and odors.
6.4.7 INCINERATOR DESIGN CONSlDERATlONS
Incinerator design requires close cooperation with
the incinerator vendor after the characteristics and
amount of sludge are known. Specific design considera-
tions depend on the type of incinerator being con-
sidered. General factors include:
1. The quality of the feed, including variations in com-
position, production rate, and combustion character-
istics. For example, will the feed to a fluid bed incinera-
tor form a low melting eutectic which will bog a fluid
bed or will corrosive fumes attack metal rabble arms.
2. Control of incineration temperature to ensure com-
plete and safe combustion with minimum maintenance
and operating costs. The need for auxiliary fuel, the
control of excess air, turbulence, or mixing heat transfer
and residence time in the combustion zone must be
considered.
3. Control of air pollution due to incomplete combus-
tion, emission of particulates, or the generation of nox-
ious gases. Care must be taken not to create a water
pollution problem when seeking to control the air pollu-
tion problem.
4. Selection of a proper and workable feeding mech-
anism.
5 . Proper design of grates or other means of controlling
the passage of solids through the combustion zone and
subsequent discharge of ash.
6. Provision of adequate facilities for handling ash
without emitting dust.
7. The economics of heat recovery.
6.4.8 PYROLYSIS
Pyrolysis is defined as heating of the waste in the
presence of less air than would be required for complete
combustion. By doing this some of the hydrocarbon is
utilized and some may be partially oxidized. These ma-
terials along with complete products of combustion are
burned in an afterburner for heat recovery or, by con-
densation, some material may be collected as a liquid
For subsequent use as a heat or hydrocarbon source.
Regeneration of activated carbon is also a pyrolysis
process with the limited oxygen being used to prevent
complete destruction of the carbon.
 TREATMENT
PRM TO
ULTIMATE
To date multiple hearth incinerators have been com-
monly used for pyrolysis since: (1) Counter current flow
of sludge and gas increases efficiency; and (2) a mini-
mum air flow for fluidization of a bed is not required.
Pyrolysis is most effective for wastes with high orga-
nic content and low moisture. If water exists in the feed,
- more of the organic matter in the feed must be used as
fuel to heat and vaporize the water. This in turn re-
quires the use of more air and thus more energy to heat
the air. Preheating of combustion air with flue gas can
minimize this.
An energy balance should be the first step in evaluat-
ing pyrolysis. The second step would be a laboratory
evaluation, called differential thermal analysis, to es-
timate how much hydrocarbon might be recovered.
During this procedure, a small sample is heated slowly
Figure 6-10-Infrared
DISPOSAL
6-1 1
in a muffle furnace, and the off gases are collected and
analyzed.
Recently an infrared incinerator has been introduced
for activated carbon regeneration and sludge incinera-
tion. This incinerator shown in Figure 6-10 consists of a
metal mesh belt traveling through a well insulated
chamber. Silicon-carbide rods heat the sludge or car-
bon. For activated carbon, a limited amount of air flows
cocurrent to the carbon. For sludge incineration, air
flow is countercurrent. The advantage claimed for this
incinerator is that air flow, sludge. or carbon residence
time and temperature can be controlled independently.
This incinerator seems to have promise for pryolytic
processes such as carbon regeneration or sludge pyro-
lysis when the sludge is nearly autogeneous.
incineration System
(-

Manual on
Disposal of Refinery Wastes

Volume on Solid Waste

Chapter 7-Ultimate Disposal

FIRST EDITION, SEPTEMBER 1980

American
Petroleum
institute
c Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes
Volume on Solid Wastes
CHAPTER 7-ULTlMATE
7.1 Landfill
7.1.1 GENERAL
.A landfill is essentially a well operated, environmen-
tally safe disposal area. It is not an open dump. In a
proper landfill, groundwater is protected by providing a
low permeability layer of natural or artificial material in
the bottom of the site or by locating the dump where
such a natural bam‘er exists. Regulations will probably
require a leachate collection and treatment system arid
a system of monitoring wells to assure the integrity of
the groundwater protection program. The air is pro-
tected and vectors are controlled by periodic covering,
at least daily, of the wastes with soil as they are depo-
sited. Surface water is protected by diversion of storm
runoff from the disposal site and by collection and freat-
ment of runoff from active portions of the landfill.
. A major concern of the landfill operator is the
potential hazards presented by the diverse wastes to be
handled. Such hazards include flammability, corrosi-
tivity, toxicity, reactivity, compatibility, and patho-
genicity.
The generator of wastes will be required to define
these hazardous characteristics so the disposal site oper-
ator can provide appropriate handling. It is expected
that the ultimate responsibility for the safe disposal of
wastes will be shared by the generator and the disposal
site operator. Therefore, it is important for the genera-
tor. to maintain dose contact with the disposal site oper-
ator to be assured that the operation continues to be
conducted in a satisfactory manner.
7.1.2 SAND-LIME STABILIZATION
Sand-lime stabilization is a process for converting
viscous oily semi-liquid sludges into dirt-like landfill
material. The process can be used to convert “silt
ponds” into soil suitable for construction.
Specific formulations must be determined by labora-
tory testing of representative sludge. In general, SO per-
cent dry sand is mixed with 5 percent calcined lime
(CaO) with the balance being the sludge to be sta-
bilized. Belt conveyors, with continuous belt scales.
meter the sand, lime, and sludge to a mixer (the pug
mill). The mixer intimately mixes the components and
deposits the mix on a conveyor from which it is de-
posited in piles on the ground. There is no immediate
7-1
DISPOSAL
change in appearance or texture: however, after several
days the material cures. A distinct color change marks
the curing process. The oily appearance is lost. and
physically the material has the texture of soil. It may
then be used as backfill.
The process doubles the volume of material and is
generally economical only if there is a nearby low cost
source of suitable sand. There is some fixation of oil,
possibly chemical; however, it is not as effective as in
higher cost chemical fixation techniques.
7.1.3 CHEMICAL FiXATION
The use of fly ash as a component of concrete is a
form of chemical fixation of a solid waste. The addition
of lime and cement to a mass of wet sludge solids will
yield a solid approaching the criteria for ultimate dis-
posal. However, the resulting large increase in volume.
about 100 percent, is a serious disadvantage.
In recent years proprietary methods of chemical fixa-
tion have been developed.
Methods used to stabilize flue gas scrubber sludges
employ lime and blast furnace sludge and result in a
handleable solid material of improved leachate stability
and suitable for landfill or cover on municipal disposal
sites.
Another more costly method employs soluble sili-
cates and has been used with limited success for oily
sludges. Polyvalent metals contained in the sludge react
with the silicates to form insoluble silicates in the form
of a gel. The gel formation entraps the sludge particles
(solids and oil) and water is retained in the gel mass in
somewhat the same manner as it is retained in a sponge.
The additive acts as a setting agent and can be propor-
tioned to obtain either rapid or slow setting. Leachate
studies on inorganic sludges stabilized in this manner
have shown excellent chemical stability. Caution should
be used for oily sludge since the oil may become mobile
over a period of time.
7.2 Landfarming of Oily Sludge
7.2.1 GENERAL
Landfarming is a disposal process in which naturally
occurring soil bacteria are used to degrade either bio-
logical or oily sludges. This process is similar to the
 7-2 DAW MANUAL-SCLIOWASTES
decomposition of leaves in a mulch pile or the disap-
pearance of grass clippings from a lawn. In each of these
processes, bacteria use the organic materials as a food.
producing carbon dioxide and additional bacterial cells.
To develop a successful landfarm operation. it is
necessary to provide the proper environment for bac-
terial growth. The major parameters which limit growth
in the presence of a feed substrate are oxygen. nu-
trients, the soil pH, and temperature. Oxygen is sup-
plied to the soil by disking, rototilling, or blading with
a bulldozer. It is also supplied by natural oxygen
transfer as the soil "breathes." In addition to oxygen
transfer, the mixing or tilling of soil facilitates degrada-
tion by dispersing the sludge. Micronutrients such as
calcium, magnesium, and boron are generally available
from the soil; however, the level of the macronutrients,
nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus, is generally
below that required to obtain maximum degradation
rates. These nutrients can be added by applying an
agricultural fertilizer to the landfarm area. Several
studies in both laboratory and full-scale operations have
shown substantial increases in degradation rates with
the addition of fertilizer.
Similarly, soil pH can be raised by the addition of
agricultural limestone to acidic soils. The maximum de-
gradation rate will be obtained in the.pH range of six to
eight. Lower pH should be avoided to reduce solubility
of metals.
The soil temperature is an uncontrollable parameter.
If possible, landfarm operations for oily sludge should
be initiated during the spring and summer months.
Once started bacterial growth, like crop growth. occurs
over a wide range of soil temperatures.
7.2.2 PROCEDURE
A successful landfarming operation can be ensured
by proper site selection, pH control, controlled oil-in-
soil loadings (the amount of oil added per acre), nu-
trient addition, and aeration by tilling of the soil.
7.2.3 SITE SELECTlON AND DEVELOPMENT
The landfarm site should be relatively flat and the
ground water level should be at least several feet below
the surface. A wide range of soils has been used success-
fully, but a loamy type is ideal. Problems have been
encountered using soils with either a high clay or a high
sand content. Clay soils tend to remain wet, thus ex-
cluding oxygen and creating anaerobic conditions.
Also, clay soils that do not drain well are generally
difficult to till. They do not aerate as well and maintain-
ing traction of mechanical equipment is difficult.
Contamination of surface water by storm water run- \
off from a landfarm site must be prevented. The runoff
can be controlled by providing berms around the perim-
eter of the landfarm and by using a gate valve to control
runoff which must be routed to a water treatment
system. In the event of a storm soon after sludge appli-
cation, this gate valve can be ciosed to prevent sludge
from washing from the landfarm. Fish kills and con-
taminations of surface waters have occurred when these
precautions have not been taken.
7.2.4 OIL LOADING AND NUTRIENT AODlTlON
In the past little attention has been directed to the
amount of sludge or to the oil content of the sludge
added to a landfarm area. The generally-accepted pro-
cedure has been to add sludge to a depth of 1-6 inches
and to allow it to dry (forming a thick cracked cake)
before disking the oily sludge into the soil. Laboratory
and full-scale tests have shown that thr: maximum rate
of degradation is obtained when the initial oil-in-soil
loading is maintained between 5 and 10 percent oil-in-
soil. Oil levels of about 10 percent or higher, can pro-
duce oxygen transfer and tilling problems. Higher oil
levels have been applied where less-than-optimum
degradation rates can be tolerated.
After analysis to determine the oil content of a
sludge, the amount of sludge which should be added to
obtain a given oil loading can be determined by use of
a nomogram (see Figure 7-1). This nomogram was con-
structed for a soil disking depth of 4 inches. The use of
a different depth would require a proportional change
in the amount of sludge added.
As shown by the dashed line (Figure 7-1). 1200 bar-
rels of sludge per acre (1.86 acre-inches) of 24 percent
oil-in-sludge would be required to give an oil loading of
7 percent. The amount of fertilizer required for nutrient
addition is also given by this line. For a disking depth of
4 inches, 4066 pounds of 10-5-5 fertilizer are required.
The weight percent of nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium are indicated by 10, 5 , and 5 , respective!?.)
Better results would be obtained by the use of two or
more fertilizer dosages instead of one large addition.
High fertilizer loadings can result in ground and surface
water contamination.
7.2.5 SLUDGE DlSTRlBUTlON .
AND TlLLlNG FREQUENCY
The sludge viscosity and distance to the landfarm will
dictate the application method. For fluid sludges, a mud
pump and irrigation pipe or fire hose can be used for
short distances. but longer distances require the use of
a vacuum truck. The flow and depth of iluid sludges can
 L

7.3 Landfarming of 8iological Sludge

30 4007062
3
1742

;4
26
7.3.1 GENERAL
Although landfanning has been used as a disposal
method for biological sludges for many years, regula-
tory agencies have not as yet established design criteria
(solids-soil loading levels, monitoring procedure, and
so forth). The main requirement is that the sludge be
’\ stabilized to eliminate the possibility of odors or vector
breeding within a landfann area.
Aerobic digestion is generally the method used to
stabilize biologicai sludge. In this process the solids are
“s$2*4, y.?
aerated for periods up to 20 days. Durin: this period the
, 800 bacteria utilize the accumulated cellular material. leav-
1900
zoo0 309 ing the cell walls or “bacteria bones.” This material is
2 2 0 0 3 3 40 nonputresible and resembles peanut hulls after drying.

7.3.2 LANDFARMING PROCEDURE

12
10 5808-
Figure 7-l-Graph for Estimating Oil Loading
and Nutrient Requirements
( be controlled by constructing mini-dikes two or three
times the sludge application depth in each landfann
plot. The sludge drying rate will be increased by disking
prior to sludge application.
On the other hand, viscous or semisolid sludges, such
= as tank bottom sludges, can be hauled by dump truck
and spread with a bulldozer or grader.
All landfarms should be tilled at 2-to4 week intervals
between the last and first frosts or until the oil level in
the soil decreases to 2 to 3 percent.
The design of a biological sludge landfarming area is
the same as that given for oily-sludge landfarming (see
10
7.2). However, nutrient addition is not required since
biological solids will contain nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium.
Although data are limited. a loading of 20 tons of dry
solids per acre per year appears realistic. The sludge
may be applied as thickened or dewatered solids:
however, application of the dilute sludge is just as effec-
tive and may be more economical providing the soil is
kept aerobic; Aeration is not essential once the sludge
is incorporated into the soil. However, periodic tilling
of the soil does increase the degradation rate by main-
taining aerobic conditions. It is expected that each state
will adopt regulations with respect to loading, moni-
toring of the groundwater, and the metal content of the
sludge.