Whole Earth

Ge9physics
An Introductory Textbook for
Geologists and Geophysicists

Robert J. Lillie
Oregon State University

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Whole •arlh gaophysics
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 Library of Conbrre~s C :ltnl o~in g-i n - Publication O:lta

Lillie. Roben J.
Whole earth geophysics: an introductory textbook for geologists
Contents
and geoph ysicists I Rohcrt J. Lillie
p. em.
Includes bibliographical refe rences ~nU inde.'<.
ISBN 0-13-490517-2
I. Geophysics I. ' fitlc.
QC806.L48 1999 97-42092
55{}-{ic21 CIP

To my parents and grandm01her, Foreword, viii

for their inspiration and example.
To my son, Ben,
.· Preface, ix
for his inspiration and example.
The Earth is a circle.
Chapter 1 Introducti0_1_1, 1
Overview of Geophysical Techniques, 3
Executive Editor: Robert A . ,'vlcConnin
Seismic. 3
Art Director: Jayne Conte
Cover l)esigncr: Bruce Kcnselaar Potential Fidc.J. 4
Manufacturing Managcr:Jrudy Pisciotti H~at flow.5
Production Supervision/Composit ion: West Words. Inc.
Cover Illustration: Robert J. Lillie Interpretation: Methods and Constraints, 5
Inside Cover Maps: A. Jon Kimerling M~thods. 6
Text Illustrations: Robert J. Lillie
Const raints. 6
© 1999 by Prentice- Ha1l.lnc. Whole Earth Knowledge, 10
Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company
Upper Saddle Rive r, New Je rsey 07-158
Selected Bibliography, 12
General Geophysics. 12
All rights rese rved. No part or this book may be
reproduced. in any form or by any means, Earthquake Seismology. 12
without permission in writing from the publishe r. Exploration Seismology. 12
Deep S~ ismic Reflection St uc.Jies. 13
Printed in the United States of America
Potential field and Electrical Methods. 13
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 l
Heat Flow, 13

Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics, 14

Major Divisions of the Earth , 15
Classical Divisions, 15
ISBN 0 - 13 - 490517 -2
Modern Divisions, 16
Lithosphere/ Asthenosphere System, 17
Physical State o f Upper Mantle, 18
Types of Plate Boundaries, 21
Prentice-Hall In ternational (L'K) Limited. London Di verge nt Plate Boundaries, 2 1
Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited. Sydney Converge nt Plate Boundaries, 25
Prentice- Hall Canada Inc.. Toromo
Transform Plate Boundar ies, 29
Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A .. Mexico
Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited. New Delhi Hotspots. 29
Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Manifesta tions A long Plate Boundaries, 30
Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd .. Singnpore
Earthquakes. 31
Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil. Ltd a.. Rio t/(• .lnn~im
iv Coments
Contents v

Plate Tectonic Constraints offered by Geophysical Observations. 37

Seismic Refraction, 37 ·
Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing,
Seismic Reflection, 37 and Waveform Analysis, 100
Earthquake, 38 What is a Seismic Section?, 102
Gravity, 38 Acquisition, 102
Magnetics, 38 Receiver A rrays, 104
Heat Flow, 39 Common Midpoint Meth od, 105
Exercises, 39 Processing, 106
Selected Bibliography, 40 General Processing Sequence, 108
General Tectonics, 40 Other Processing Procedures, 112
Extensional Tectonic Settings. 41 Types of Velocities, 113
Convergent Tectonic Settings, 42 Muhiples.ll7
Transform Settings, 43 Seismic Waveform, 118
Hotspot Settings. 44 Input Seismic Signal, J 18
Acoustic Impedance and Refl ection Goef(icient. l22
Chapter 3 Seismic Waves, 45 Noise, 125
Elastic Waves, 45 Total Seismic Trace, 126
Body Wave Propagation , 47 Frequency and Phase Components of Seismic Trace, 126
Velocity of Body Waves. 50 Seismic R esol ution and Definition. 130
Surface Wave Motions, 51 Examples of Waveforms on Seismic Profile, 133
Controlled Source Seismic Techniques, 52 Exercises, 134
Travei-Ttme Curves, 53 Selected Bibliography, 136
Direct, Critically Refracted, and R eflected Waves, 57
True Velocity and Apparent Velocity, 68 Chapter 6 Structural and Tectonic Interpretation of Seismic
Exercises, 70 Reflection Profiles, 137
Selected Bibliography, 72 Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles, 137
1. Geometric "Migration " Effects, 141
Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interp.r~tation, 73 2. Velocity Effects, 146
In terpretation Models, 75 3. Raypath Bending, 150
Single Horizontal Interface. 76 .· Combination of Effects 1. 2, and 3,150
Several Horizontal Interfaces, 78 4.Three-Dimensional ("Sideswipe") Effects, 153
Single Dipping Interface, 87 Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings, 155
Tectonic Interpretation of Seismic Refraction Profiles, 90 Continental Rift Zone, 158
Maps of Crustal Thickness and Uppermost Mantle Velocity, 90 Mid-Ocean Ridge, 162
Crustal-Scale Cross Sections. 92 Passive Continental Margin, 163
Exercises, 97 Subduction Zone,l68
Collisional Mountain Range, 171
Selected Bibliography, 98
Exercises, 180 .
Selected Bibliography, 181
 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology, 185 Chapter .9 Magnetic Interpretation, 284
Characteristics of Earthquakes, 186 Earth's Magnetic Field, 285
Elastic Rebound Theory, 186 Axial Dipolar Model, 285
Location of Earthquakes. 187 Strength and Direction of Magnl.!tic Field. 286
Strength of an Earthquake. 189 Maonetization of Earth Materials, 288
:;,
Earthquake Seismograms, 194 Types of Magne tic J3ehavior, 29 1
Earthq uake Focal Mechanisms, 197 Type~ of Magnetizatio n, 292
.. Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics, 199 Interpretation of Induced Magnetic Anomalies. 293
Divergent and Transform Plate Boundaries. 199 Geometry of Magnetic Bodies in the Subsurface. 293
Convergent Plate Boundaries. 20 l
Paleomagnetic Studies, 297
Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Inte rior, 205 Types of Remanent Magnetization. 300
Travel-Time Curves fo r Earthquakes, 206 Pakomagnetic lnterpr~tation. 300
Major Divisions of Crust, Mantle, and Core, 211 Exercises, 309
Exercises, 218
Selected Bibliography, 310
Selected Bibliography, 221
Chapter 10 Heat Flow, 311
Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy, 223 Heat Within the Earth, 312
Earth's Gravity Field, 224 Sources of Heat. 312
G ravity Anomalies, 225 Heat Transfer. 315
Theoretical Gravity, 226 Heat Flow Across E arth's Surface, 318
Free Air Gravity Anomaly. 227 Heat Flow Equation, 318
Bouguer Gravity Anomaly, 229 Measurement of Heat Flow, 319
Summary of Equations fo r Free Air and Bouguer Gravity Anomalies, 232 Tectonics and Heat Flow, 321
Measurement of Gravity, 234 Continental Areas. 321
Absolute Gravity. 235 Oceanic Regions. 325
Relative Gravity, 235 Exercises, 328
Isostasy, 237 Selected Bibliography, 330
Pratt and Airy Models (Local Isostasy), 237
Lithospheric Flexure (Regional Isostasy), 241 Appendix A Sequenced Writing Assignment for Whole Earth
Gravity Modeling, 244 Geophysics Course, 331
Gravity Anomalies from Bodies with Simple Geometries, 244
Models Using Semi-Infinite Slab App roximations, 251 Appendix B U nits, Conversions, and Abbreviations, 337
Tectonic Settings and Their Gravity Expressions, 260
A ppendix C Igneous Rocks: Classification, Properties of
Gravity Anomalies for Regions in Local Isostatic Equilibrium. 262
Gravity Anomaly Maps, 270
Magmas, and Tectonic Occurrence, 344
Deviations from Local Isostasy, 272
A ppendix D A nswers to Selected Exercises, 350
Exercises, 276
Selected Bibliography, 281 lndex,353

Foreword
The tendency fo r specialists in one discipline of science to become isolated in that
discipline and hence unaware of potentially useful tech niques, developments, and
information from another discipline is a disturbing problem that pervades and
grows in modern science. The problem is exacerbated by a paucity of written mater-
ial designed to bridge such gaps.
Bob Lillie's book is at once a welcome contribution on this score and a fine
textbook in the convent ional sense. l t is designed to introduce the principal geo-
physical phenomena and techniques. namely seismology in its various forms, gravity,
magnetism, and heat flow, to students whose primary training is in geology and who
have a basic, but no t necessarily an advanced, knowledge of physics. The book's
abundant figures (scores and scores of them) and exercises, coupled with the
straightforwa rd and tightly organized style of the text, put the subject of geophysics
well with in reach of such studen ts.
But that very style will also make the book highly useful to others, such as: (a)
begi nning students o f geophysics who seek an orientation and a ready reference
volume, and (b) advanced students of physics who already understand the nature of
phenomena such as elastic wave propagation and gravity but who lack familiarity
with the manner in which such phenomena are utilized by geophysicists as they
explore the earth 's interior from core to crust.
Some other noteworthy aspects of the book include: (a) a brief orientation in
plate tectonics as that subject relates to geophysics, and (b) an appendix that out-
lines an exercise in good writing based on the subject matter of the book. Science
courses, unfortunately, o ften leave the teaching of writing to others, even though
good communicatio n is an essentia l component of good science. This book makes
no such o mission. ·- ·
A ll in all , the book's organization , style, abundant illustra tive figures, exer-
cises, and lists of critical definitions at the head (not the end) of each chapter reflect
the experience, dedica tion, and attention to detail of an author well versed in teach-
ing such a course. Lillie has pro duced a most useful volume for those who seek to
understand the great adventure that is exploration of the earth 's interior throuoh
application of the principles and techniques of geophysics. "'
Jack Oliver
Emeritus Professor
of Geological Sciences
Cornell University
viii
,.
Preface
Wh ole Earth Geophysics illustrates how different types of geophysical observations
provide constraints on Earth's gross structure and composition. It introduces geol-
ogy students with a basic grounding in math and physics to the fundamentals of var-
ious geophysical techniques, but does not slOp there. Specific observations illustrate
how each technique constrains certain aspects of the plate tectonic framework that
is fu ndamental to the study of Earth science today.
This book is designed for a Solid Earth Geophysics course at the advanced
undergraduate o r begi nning graduate level. Whi le the primary objective is to illus-
trate the utilit y of geophysical ob~ervation s to geology students. geophysics stu-
dents may benefit from the book by seeing the basics of their discipline in the
context of geology.
The material is presen ted in a format that takes advantage of the visual learn-
ing skills students commonly develop in geology courses. The text and mathematics
are purposefull y kept at a minimum ; students follow the development of geophysi-
cal concepts and their applications to the Earth thro ugh numerous illustrations
a nd captions.
Mathematics is employed at a level mastered b y, most geology students.
Equations are commonly accompan ied by graphic illustrations, so that students can
visualize how the equations relate to aspects of the Earth. Applying understandable
mathemat ics to geology encourages students to employ quantitative analysis in
their study of the Earth . '
Exe~cises at the end o f chapters are designed to enhance students' skills at
illustration, quantitative problem solving. and the relationship between geophysical
observations and geology. Studen ts are asked to plot various types of geophysical
observations along with geological cross sections at plate tectonic scales; constraints
offered by geophysics can thus be analyzed and appreciated. Other exercises
emp,loy quantitative aspects of geophysics that are best learned by working through
p roblems.
Appendix A is a sequenced writing assignment d esigned to accompany the
text. The assignment enhances the understanding of geophysical techniques by cre-
ating a context: each student does literature research on a region of the Earth and
writes about its crustal structure and tectonic evolution. A course using this book •
may th us be part of the "Writing Intensive" or "Writing Across the Curriculum"
program of a college or university. The text and accompanying writing assignment
thus serve as a vehicle to bring students to the professional world of geology.
Whole Earth Geophysics begins with an overview of geophysical techniques,
discussing how measurements made at Earth 's surface relate to properties investi-
gated within the Earth. Physical aspects of Earth 's crust, mantle, and core are then
presented . with focus on the lithosphere/asthenosphere system. Subsequent chap-
ters e mphasize constraints on E ar th's plate tectonic framework offered by different
geophysical techniques, including seismic refraction and reflection, earthquake
ix
 seismology, gravity. magne tics. and hea t !low. Particular attention is paid to the inter-
relationship between topography, the crust/mantle boundary, and the lithosphere/
asthenosphere transition: st udents learn how configurations of the latter two fea-
tures are constrained largely by geophysical observations.
Ideas for Whole Earth Geophysics evolved over many years as a student at
various universities, and through 14 years of teaching geology and geophysics. I owe
a great deal to many individuals over those years. My mentors, Bill Payne of the
University of Southwestern Louisiana. Dick Couch of Oregon State University. and
Jack Oliver of Cornell University, inspired me to study the Earth, each in his own
way. John Green and Dick Standard of CO NOCO. Inc., made exploration of the
interior of the Earth fun. I am especiall y grateful to the other two Bobs at Oregon
State University (Bob Yeats and Bob Lawre nce) for involving me in research that
applied geop hysical observations to the study of structural geology and-tectonics.
Gravity modeling for this book was done with the interactive GM-SYS software.
developed by Northwest Geophysical Associates, Inc. I am grateful to Gerry Connard
fo r permission to use these programs and for his help and support over the years.
Vicki Collins of the Writing Intensive Course (WIC) program at Oregon State
University was instrumental in emphasizing how the learning of concepts in any
course. including geophysics, can be enhanced through writing.
Many of,my colleagues have offered comments and encouragement during the
development of this book. The following people gave helpful re views and suggestions
during the writing of various chapters: Bob Butler. Randy Richardson, and Clem
Chase, University of Arizona: Kevin Pogue, Whitman College: Bob Karlin. University
of Nevada, Reno; Rob McCaffrey, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute; Greg Moore,
University of Hawaii at Ma noa: Dave Blackwell, Southern Methodist University;
Katherine Favret and Walter Mooney, U.S. Geological Survey. Menlo Park, CA; Rick
Saltus, U.S. Geological Survey, Denver: Joe Kruger. Idaho State University: Carol
Simpson. Boston University; and Gary Huftile, Lisa McNeill, and Jeff Templeton,
Oregon State University. Miroslav Bielik, Cestmir Tomek. Dan Davis, Jarka
Plomerova, Vladi Babuska, Russell Nazarullah. Ashok Srivastava, Abu! Farah, David
Gee, Dan Dyrelius. and Paul Ryan provided stimulating research interaction that
helped to clarify basic concepts of geophysics and how those concepts relate to the
Earth. I am grateful to students who, over the years. have kept me focused on the
objective of the book (to teach them) ; comments, suggestions. and literature research
by Chris Boyette. Chris Davey, Ben Jacob, Gregg Lambert. Joe Licciardi. Colin
Poellot, Don Reeder, Nicole Mare-Shue, Rachel Sours-Page. Jennifer Tatten, and
Zach Washburn were especially helpful.
Many applications incorporated into the text were developed during research
and teaching interaction with different organizations. I am grateful to individuals at
Bucharest Un iversity, Crater Lake National Park, the Czech Academy of Sciences,
the Geological Survey of Pakistan, Geofyzica Brno, the Hydrocarbon Development
Institute of Pakistan, the National fnstitute of Oceanography (Pakistan). the Oil
and Gas Development Corporation (Pakistan), the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission (India). the Slovak Academy of Sciences, University College (Galway),
the Universi ty of Uppsala, and the Wadia Institute o f Himalayan Geology.
This book was penned mostly over cups of coffee. I am grateful to the workers
and patrons of The Beanery, Ja va Rama, New Morning Bakery, M's Tea and Coffee
House, Price Creek Ba ke ry, Sam 's Stat ion, Bocche ri ni 's Coffee and Tea House, Java
Stop, and Sunriver Coffee Company for providing atmosphere and inspiration that
resulted in a book.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
·- 11.., ••
geo Iogy (Jl! • n.. [ < Gr.. •eo-
u ,.,, " • the Earth•· < Gr. tol(os.
_ scie11cej, the
study of the Earth. . . .
physics ([i~ . iks) n.. r< L. physoca. phystcsl. the slttdy oj /11{11/er 111111
t•ners:v and tltt•ir inreractimrs. . . . .
geoplty;ics (j2' up~ · iks ) n., rheapptic:mio11 vf rh e pmrcrples ofphysre>
ro srudy r/1<• Eurrh.
Geoloov is visual. We arc attracted to fea tures on Ea rt~ ·s. surface because we see
th onr ~ur imaoination helps us visualize processes within the Earth that fo rm
m~u~tains. con~inents. and oceans. of Stude~ts ge~logy c?mmo~~y d~v~lo_p ,sktll~
based on visualization: the first impulse ot a geologtst IS otte n to make a ~k<.:tch.
much lik e.: plays diagrametl in the dirt during sa ndlot ball games. . .. •
The.: move ment of objects or tht: passage of energy as wave~ occ ur~ m ~re­
tl ictab lc ways: physics Jcntls itself to the formula tion of m~ them~llcal expn::sston_s
that desc ri be these phenomena. The first impulse of a phystctst mtght be to wn te a
form ula that portrays. concisdy. a panan or process.. . .. . ,
Geophvsics. as the hybrid o f geology and phystcs. r ~q UI~es the a_bdlty ~o VIC\\
the same.: pr~blem from both visualization and mathema ucal torm ulauon (:tg. 1.1 ).
Most geoph ys ics textbooks rely heavily on the Iauer approach. o::xp l~1n~ng w ncepts
mainly through mathematics. That style can lead to two probl ems _'n tntr.o_ductory
geophysics courses: I) students.with_geolog~ bac.kgrounds ma y be,l~st m the: a~stract
world or mathematical equations. wtthout vtsuallzatton of how the equ.atwns ~.:xplalll
things about the Earth: 2) physics students may unders t ~ ntl .t hc c;:quauons. but with-
o ut a fed fo r aspects of the.: Earth modeled by the eq uauons. _. . o
Whole Earth Geophysics is the outgrowth of a two- te rm course co nststtn"' of
undergraduate and gradu.a te geology stude nts. along with a few phystcs and go::o-
physics maj ors. Whi le having a qualitative feel fo r. the E~rth, geology students ofte n
lack advanced-le vel courses in mat h and phystcs. Thts book explallls concepts
throuoh numerous oraphic illustrations; equations. where necessary. are developed
with ~at hematics that most geology stude nts have master.ed. The book pr.esents
oeophysical techniques, but the focus is on how each techmque provtdes lllforma-
tion on the internal structure and tectonic development of the_Eart~. . .
Geophysics stutlents may not have been_ exposed to the tr subJeCt 1n ao grapht~
and systematic way: concepts in many geophystcs courses are revealed throu"'h equa
tio ns and illustrations from the literature inte nded for adva nced-leve l rese_a rchers.
111e visual app roach employed in this book may help geop h~,stcs s tude n~~ ~ee how
1·d ·as deve loped mathematically in ot her co urses relate to the real world . ..
e;;, The book presents plate tecto nic theor_y in an early chapter_. explammg_ the
development of continental rifts, ocean basms, contlllental margllls and vanous_
types of mountain ranges. Illus trations in later cl~apters portray the_ expressiOns o:
oeophysical data in different tectonic setttngs. S1mpl e models pred tct the appo::ar
~nee of oeolo<>ic structures on seism ic retlection profik:s. and show th.: form of grav-
;, " 'l nn.';,~lit·~"' drvc ln ned rl!trino q;~nr:~ nf onc nino 1 11d rlo~1 n!! of ocea n h:J<II1'.
 2 Chapter 1 Introduction
Overview of Geophysica l Techniques 3

OVERVIEW OF GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES

a) Geology b) Physics
Measuri:ments of natural or induced properties are commonly made at the surface
of the Ezr:h (for example, gravi tational accelera tion) ..Applied geophysics in terprets
· those ob;.ep·ations in terms of properties within th ~ Earth (for example, densJty d is-
tributions that locally change the gravitational acceleration). GeophysJcal tech-
/ £81th's Surfsce niques employed at or near E arth's surface include seismic, potemial field and hea1
t.gz • 0.2794 (Lip) A 3 zj(~+z2) 312
0 flow measurements (Fig. 1.2).
·50 •
Subsurface ? Seismic
R elativelv small and rapid, up-and-down or sideways movements of Earth 's sur-
face, mea.s ured by a seismometer. rela te to the passage of seismic wav~s through
the Earth. The ''ground mo tion " (displacement, velocuy, or accelerallon of the

Property Property
+50 Geophysical
~ Measured at Investigated
Ill
§ T~ch nique
c: ::::-
Earth's Surface within Earth
0:
0
..
-f.§.
"' (!)
Natural Source: Seismic Velocity (V)
e
(!) Earthquake ·.QE' and Attenuation (Q)
0 c:: '?
~ ~ ~
-50

~ ~ Refr(!.ctlon ~
.... ~ Seismic Velocity (V)
~ .9:!
::I
Cf) 0
-w C/) "0
§ E § '
'0
~
..Q,! e
Cf)
0....
Reflection
(!)
~ ....
~ 0 "" Acoustic Impedance
~eismic Velocity, V,
'E
0
(.)
a
-....:.. and Density, p)

FIGURE 1.1 Geophysics aims 10 imcrpre t the subsurface by combining obse;:vations of Earth materials (geology) with
observations of physical phenomena (physics). a) Cross-section illuSirati ng surface geology. with no s ubsurface information . -' Gravity
Gravitational
Density (p)
b) Model of a physical para meter. the change in Earth's gravity field (6g,) that would resuh from a sphere of radius (R) and <X: Acceleration (g)
density comrast (6p). TI1e mathematical equation predicts the change in gravity caused by such a mass buried dep th (z) below
the surface. c) Observed change in gravity field. along with a model of subsurface density distribution (p) that might cause suc h ~ ·0
Z-'
a cha nge. The model agrees with the observed surface geology and shows de nsity distributions that resuh in a predicted gravity
anomaly close In tha t ohserved. ww Strength and
Magnetic
~LL. Susceptibility (x)
A primary focus is the relationship between topography, the crust/mantle boundary, 0 Magnetics Direction of and Remanent
and the lithosphere/asthenosphere transition; these 'three features balance through 0.. Magnetic Field (FJ Magnetization (l.m)
isosrasy, whereby pressure eq ualizes at a certain dep th within the Earth. Students
thus appreciate the util ity of geophysical measurements to constrain interpretations
of the crust and li thosphere/asthenosphere system in different ponions of the Earth.
Themnal
The geophysical methods covered in this book (refraction, reflectio n, earth- Geothermal Conductivity (k)
quake, gravily, magnetics, and heat fl ow) are basic to tbe education of geology stu- HEAT FLOW Gradient {BT/Bz} and
dents, particularly in helping them appreciate Earth's gross structure and plate Heat Flow (q)
tectonics. O ther methods (fo r exampl e, geochronology, radioactivity, well logging,
electrical methods) are importan t, but they may be addressed better in geochem-
istry or more adva nced geophysics courses. FIGURE 1.2 Geophysical techniques measure properties at Earth's surface. lnterpretauon of the
measurements suggests properties within the Earth.
 -+ \.. o1 df..Her 1 Introduction
Interpretation: Methods and Constraints 5

SEISMIC TECHNIQUES POTENTIAL FIELD TECHNIQUES

Earthquake I!
SurfaCS Waves Gravity
l Higherg Lowerg
j
I Gravity_ rfl ..
V,Q
i Meter L.!J r:n Earth's
Surface
Seismometers
m m m J High Density Body (+~p) Low Density Body (- ~ p)
Surlaca
I ~
/
Vr t \1){
I
Refracted Wave
I Magnetics
Reflection Seismometers
I / Magnetometer
I [\] h~·: F;~·l
I Earth's
Surface

X
FIGURE 1.3 Seis mic tech niques employ seism ometers to measure movement of the g round
resulting from waves generated by a n earthq uake or a rtificial source. The time of travel from
the source to a receiver is a function of the seismic velocity (V) of the material alo ng the
wave's path. The amount and type of ground motion may reveal other properties within the
FIGURE 1.4 Porenrial field recloniques. A gra,•ity meter measu res gravit~tiona l acceleration (iD~
Earth. such as seismic anen uation (Q) and acoustic impedance ( the product of density, p. a nd
seism ic veloci ty). ·ensitive 10 local density chan•es (~p). Magnetometers reveal the Earths w:al magneuc f•.eld ( F).
~nfluenced by the magnetic su~ceptibility
(x) and remanen t magnetization (J~m)
of subsurface
materials.
seis mome ter) revea ls properties of t he mate rials that the waves t:nco unte red
(Fig. 1.3). The time it takes for the waves to get from their source to a seismome-
ter (tra vel time) is a funct ion of the speed the waves passed through a region of
(magnetic suscepcibilicy, x2
or by the rocks having been magnetized as they for med
(remanent magnetization, J,.,). ·
the Earth (seismic velocity, V). The amoun t and type of ground motion reveals
how readily t he region absorbed or scattered wave e nergy (auenuarion, o r " q ual-
ity factor," Q). Heat Flow
Seismic waves are generated naturally by earthquakes. They travel through the H eat constantly flows outward. fro m hotter regions to Earth's surface.. The change
Earth as body waves, or fo llow Earth 's ou te rmost regio ns as surface waves. Seismic in temperature (T) can be measured from the surface ~ ownw ard m dnll h o le~
waves can also be gene rated fro m explosions or ot he r controlled sources, facilitating (Fig. 1.5). Knowi ng the thermal conduw vay (k) of the rocks rn. the area, the geother
tech niques to measure the refraction of waves as they encou nter regions of changing mal gradient (rJT/oz) can be used to calculate th e rate at whrch heat escapes from
velocity (V), or reflections d ue to cha nges in acoustic impedance (density, p, times that region of the Earth (heat flow, q). Wi tho ut heat, Earth's mtenor would be com-
velocity, V).
pletely solid a nd motionless. H eat softens . up a portion of the uppe r m a~ tl e
Potential Field (asthenosphere); moveme nt of rigid p~ates (I.ithosphere) over this softer zo ne IS a
product of the fl ow of heat from Earth s mte n or.
Potential fields, like those d ue to Earth 's gravitational auraction and magnetism,
change strength and direction depend ing o n the position of observation within the
fie ld. The strength of a pote ntial field generally decreases with dista nce from the INTERPRETATION: METHODS AND CONSTRAINTS
source of the field . When the broad effects of Earth's rotat ion, equatorial bulge, and
Various methods are used to interpret aspects of the Earth from ¥eophysica i data.
topography are subtracted, o bse rvations of gravitational acceleration (g) rela te to
nearby mass dis_tributions (tha t is, subs urface densicy cha nges, ~p; Fig. 1.4). Earth 's The quality of interpretations depends on ~ow well the p rob~em rs constrained by
o ther criteria, such as additional geologica l a nd geophysrcal observatrons, or
magnetic field (F) is changed locally by the ability of nea rby rocks to he maQne ti7ed . . . . " .... , : ., 1., • I .~ ..... I , I
6 Chapter 1 Introduction Interpretation: Methods and Constraints 7

FIGURE 1.5 Heat flow technique.

HEAT FLOW Temperatures (T1• T 2• e tc.) are a) Observed Seismic Retraction Data
measured at various depths in a
drill hole. The change in temperature (T)
Seismograms
with depth (z), or geothermal gradient
(cJT/ilz), is a function of the thermal
conducti,•ity (k) and the flux of heat
Earth's
through the surface (heat flow, q).
Surface
T1
:: T2
/
:: T3
k aTJaz /
/

X==:>
; T4 ~# Receive/"$ Model
'!>0

Thennometer
:: Ts • ../ I

i
I
i
I

i
i
I
j
i
Ts /
/
;
i
i
i
I
?•
!
Methods
Both inverse and forward methods are used to interpret geophysical observations.
In each case we ask. " What caused what we obser ved?" Inversion uses mathemati-
cal equations to calcula te a subsurface model from observed data;fonvard modeling c) Inversion Equations d) Interpretation Based on Inversion
assumes a subsurface model and calculates observations that would result.
V1 • 1/{S/ope of Direct Wave)
Fig. 1.6 shows an interpretation (model) that results from the inversion of seis-
mic refraction observations. Observed parameters are inserted into mathematical V2 • 1/(S/ope of Refracted Wave)
equations that yield a model of the seismic velocities and thicknesses of layers. We
are accustomed to using inversion in math and physics courses, when we ''plug into·· Be = Critical Angle =sin · (1't~)
1

formulas 10 yield results. t 1 • T-lntercept - (2hcos8c}/V1

The forward modeling of an observed gravity profile is illustrated in Fig. 1.7.
Layers with different densities are assumed:-·calculations from the subsurface
model predict the gravity profile that would result. Thicknesses and densities of lay-
ers are then adjusted until the predicted ("calculated ," or •·computed"} profile
matches the observations; we might consider the adjusted model as one potential
interpretation of the observed data.
Constraints
No matter what methods are used to interpret geophysical data, we should not lose
sight of the objective: We make observations of cercain properties of the Earch in
order to imerpret the nawre of the Earth. Geologists often use rock hammers to
crack open the Earth. to see what's there and analyze how it got to be that way. In
many respects, geophysical techniques are just another type of rock hammer; we bang
on the Earth and listen to what the Earth tells us about itself.
Alone, a geophysical technique may not tell us much about the Earth. When
that technique is combined with other observations. however, we may learn a great
deal about a region 's subsurface geology and evolution.Those other observations, in
the form of geological and other geophysical data, are constraints. The more con-
h • V1 t 1/(2cos8c}
FIG URE 1.6 /lll'erSiOJI example a) Observed seismograms showing times of arrival (T) of direct and critically refracted waves at
seismometers placed'increasing distance (X) from the source. b) Two-layer model showing parameters that can be read from the
observed data: slope of the direct arrival: T-axis intercept time (t 1): and slope of the critically refracted arrival. c) Equations that can
be used to inven observations of slopes and T-axis intercept time (see Chapter 4). d) Model of seismic velocities for two layers (V,. V2),
and the thickness of the upper layer (h). that result from inserting the slopes and intercept time into the inversion equations.
straints we have on a problem, the more likely we are to come to a unique solution.
Rarely is a region so well constrained that we can perceive of only one possibility
for its subsurface interpretation; we therefore say that most interpretations of geo-
physical data ar~ _"nonunique ."
Nonuniqueness means that it is possible to offer more than one interpretation
that agrees with all available information. The problem is like that of the "blind men
and the elephant;" the interpretation depends largel y on our sample locations and
the overall density of sampling. In approaching a problem, it is wise to keep in mind
a hierarchy of constraims (Fig. 1.8}.
 I
8 Chapter 1 Introduction
Interpretation: Methods and Constraints 9

Levell: (Firm Constraints):

D irect observations of the Earth that you can put in your hand:
a) Outcrop samples. • a) Constraints Leve/1
b) Drill cores. +50 Level2
Level 2: (Softer Constraims):
Indirect o r in ferred o bservations about the Earth.
a) Map interpretations based on scattered direct observations.
-~ 0~------~~----------------~--~--=
b) Geophysical observations. E:
Level 3: (Reasonable Assumptions):
Theoretical considerations, based on logic and common sense (for example,
-5o Drillhole
" mo de ling"). Surface Outcrop Topography
Thinking should flow from hig he r (1) to lower (2, 3) levels. For example, sur-
face geological mapping of a region (Leve l 1) can constrain interpretations of geo-
physical data ( Level 2); the geophysical in terpretatio ns fu rther suggest models
(Level 3) fo r ove ra ll s tructure o r processes in the region. Thinking in the o ther

a) ObseNed Gravity Anomaly b) Anomaly Predicted from Model

' b) Interpretation

?~~-
+50

+50

s Surface Geology -Observed

~ :~:;:;:;.;.:':·~=·~:.:·:=~.........., ........~ '·""""~:::;"!1Zl'7/.. ~-:·.·:·:·:·.·:=:·:·:=~:·:·:·:·: Gravity Anomaly ·-·-·-· Pf9dlcred
__,.....,..,..,
_:<,
-'"~ .p-2.32 -50
p=2.39

~ ?• p=2.48

p=2.32 --~=-!!!!!!
p=2.39
c) Predicted Anomaly after Adjusting Model
p=2.48

J.~~~
p=2.51

f ~

·~-=
- Obsstv6d -
!! ·-·-·- Pf9dict6d

FIGURE 1.8 Constraims and interpreted cross seC/ion. a) The firm (Level I) constraints include
topography, types of rocks. a nd dips observed at the surface and in the drillhole. Less f~rm (Lev~l2)
constrain ts come from the orientations of reflectors interpreted fro m se1sm1c reOccuon profiles. and from
the observed gravity a nomaly. b) An interpreted cross section places strict value on the Level I constraints.
less on those from Level2. Level3 constraints (shown by the dashed hnes) result from a model ot density
configurations that brings the predicted gravity anomaly close to the observed.

FIGURE 1. 7 Forward modeling example. a) Gravity anomaly measured at several stations on the surface. Surface outcrop
and dips serv~ as constraints on mterpretation. b) Preliminary model testing subsurface densities and geometries. res ulting in
a pred icted gravity anomaly (see Chapter 8). p = density (g/cm.l). c) Densities and geometries adjusted to achieve closer
agreement between observed and predicted anomalies. Note that the constraints offered by surface geology are not changed.
 10 Chapter 1 Introduction Whole Earth Know lf'c-.qe 11

Surface Outcrop
GEOLOGIC THE RESOLUTION
TIME EARTH (What We Know) Seismic Reflection
and Refraction
Our Lifetime Earth's Surface Great Detail
Recorded History Crust
(0 - 30km)
Quite a Bit
(0- 5,000 years)

Uthosphere -
Phanerozoic
Asthenosphere System Some
(0- 600,000,000 years)
(0 - 700km)
Precambrian Lower Mantle Gravity/
(600,000, 000- and Core NotMudt
Magnetics/
4,600,000,000 years) (100 - 6300 km)
Heat Flow
FIGURE 1.9 Analogy showing diminishing resolution going back in time and going deeper into the Eanh.

direction is not wise (for example. models or geophysical observations do not give
us better information about surface geology than we could get from a detailed geo-
logic mapping project).

WHOLE EARTH KNOWLEDGE

Our knowledge of Earth's interior is analogous to looking back in time (Fig. 1.9).
We know a lot about even ts that happened in our lifetimes, far less about things
from our parents' and grandparents' time. As we look farther back in time or
deeper wi th in th e Earth. the quality of observation deteriorates: not only do we
have less information, but the detail o f the infor ma tion d iminishes. The concept of
reso/t1tion is therefore important in appreciating what is known about the Earth,
both temporally and spatiall y. In our own lifetimes, we know about events that
shaped history (the fall of the Berlin Wall) ,' but also great d etails of some less
importan t observations (the route from our homes to school or work). We know
o f some important events that shaped our parents and grandparents lives (landing
on the moon; World War II), but far less about what daily life was like fo r them. As
we continue back through recorded history. some events stand o ut (Europeans
coming to America; development of Roman, Greek, and Egyptian civilizations),
but the time between "important " events becomes longer and vague. Likewise,
the scale of features we can interpret becomes -larger as we probe deeper and
deeper into the Earth. We know a great deal about Earth 's surface and upper
crust. a fa ir amount about its lower crust and uppermost man tle. Going deeper, we
have only general appreciation of the composition and boundaries of the lower
mantle and core.
Knowledge of the Earth comes almost en tirely from observations made at or
near Earth's surface (Fig. 1.10). Direct observations, in the form of actual rock or
magma , sample o nly the upper 200 or so km, about 1/30\h o f Earth's 6300 km radius.
Surface exposures are almost entirely rocks formed within Earth 's crust, with occa-
sional pieces of uppermost mantle brought to the surface during deformation: those
Earthquake Seismic Waves - - Magma
(from up to 200 km)
(Penetrate Entire Earth)
FIGURE 1.10 Consrraims on namre of Earth s im erior. Direct observations (surface outcrops. drillholes. magma reaching
surfa ce) generally sample only the crust and uppermost mantle. Geophysical observations (controlled-source seismic.
potential field. heat now) provide further constraints on the outer shells; earthquake seismic waves give most of the
information on the lower mantle and core.
materials generally formed in the uppermost 50 km. The deepest drillhole pene-
trates to about 12 km depth, less than half the thickness of typical continental crust.
Volcanic eruptions and igneous intrusions (with the exception of deep-seated kim- .
berlites) come from magma that originated at lower crustal or upper mantle depths,
generally within the upper 200 km.
Geophysical data allow us to look deeper into the Earth and sample more
widely, but with varyi ng degrees of resolution (Fig. 1.10). Our knowledge is limited
by the maximum depth that particular techniques can probe, effectively, within the
Earth. Seismic reflection data show details within sedimentary basins (upper
10 km) and, in recent years, p rovide information about the lower crust and the
crust/mantle transition ("Moho"). Seismic re fract ion data provide constraints on
crustal thickness changes and, in some cases, seismic velocities within the crust and
uppermost mantle.
 12 Chapter 1 Introduction Selected Bibliography 13

il Most of our constraints o n the deep interior of the Earth are due to the fact
that seismic waves from large earthquakes travel through the entire Earth , where
Payton, C. E. (editor). 1977, Seismic Stratigraphy:
Applications to Hydrocarbon Explorat1011, Th.lsa:
Potential F ield and Electrkal Methods
Blakely, R., Potemial Theory in Gravity and Magnetic
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, App/icatio11s, 1995. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer·
they are recorded on the other side. Changes in seismic wave velocity with depth are Memoir 26.516 pp. sity Press. 441 pp.
derived from analysis of the travel times and paths of various earthquake waves. Robinson. E. S.. and C. Coruh. 1988. Basic Explorati011 Butler, R. F.. 1992, Paleomagnetism: Magnetic Domains
The se ismic velocities in turn give constraints o n the composition and physical state Geophysics, New York: John Wiley and Sons. 562 pp. to Geologic Terra11es, Boston: Blackwell Scientific
of portions of the Earth. Robinson. E. A.. and S. Treitel, 1980, Geophysical Publications. 319 pp.
Sig11al Analysis. Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prentice Griffiths. D. H.. and R. F. King, 1981. Applied Ceo·
Gravity and magnetic measurements constrain the size and positions of anom- Hall. Inc., 466 pp. ~ physics for Geologists and Engineers: The
alous bodies within the Earth, but their resolution decreases with the depth o f the Sengbush. R. L., 1983. Seismic Exploration Methods. Elements of Geophysical Prospecting (2nd ed.).
• bodies (potential field strength lessens with increasing distance fro m the source) . Boston: International Human Resources Develop- New York: Pergamon Press. 230 pp.
ment Corp.. 296 pp. Merrill, R. T.. and M. W. McElhinny. 1983. The Earth's
Similarly, heat flow pinpo ints shallow intrusions and suggests changes in the depth Magnetic Field, London: Academic Press. 401 pp.
to the lithosphere/asthenosphe re tra nsition zone. For the Earth as a whole, gravity. Sherift R. E .. 1978, A First Cou rse in Geophysical
£ rploration and Interpretation, Boston: Inter- National Research Council.l986. Tire Earth's Eltetricnl
magnetic, and heat flow data provide constraints o n gross properties (density, mag- national Human Resources Development Corp.. Environment, Washington, D.C.: National Academy
netism, and thermal state, respective ly), though not at the detail given by earth- 313 pp. Press. Studies in Geophysics. 263 pp.
quake seismic studies. Sheriff. R. E.. 1984. Encyclopedic Dictionary of Nen leton, L. L.. 1971. Elementary Gravity and Mag·
Exploration Geophysics (2nd ed.), Thlsa: Society netics for Geologists 011d Geophysicists, Tulsa:
This book frrst presen ts a general framewo rk for study of gross features of the of Exploration Geophysicists, 323 pp:.;.· Society of Exploration Geophysicists. Monograph
Earth (plate tectonics), then examines how each geophysical technique contrib utes Series I , t 21 pp.
Sheriff, R. E.. and L. P. Geldart, 1995, Exploratio11
to whole Earth knowledge. Seismology (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. 592 pp. Heat Flow
Elder, J.. 1981, Geothermal Systems, New York:
Academic Press. 508 pp.
Deep Seismic Refl ectio n Studies
SELECTED BIBLI OGRAPHY Jessop. A.M .. Thermal Geophysics, 1990. Amsradam:
Barazangi. M. and L. Brown (editors), 1986, Reflection Elsevier Science Publishers. Developments rn
General Geophysics Lay, T., and T. C. Wallace, 1995. Modem Global Seismology: A Global Perspectrve, Washrngton. D..C.: Solid Earth Geophysics. No. 17,306 pp.
Seismology, International Geophysics Series American Geophysical Union. Gcodynamrcs Senes.
Bou, M. H. P.. 1982. Tire lmerior of the Earth: Its Lachenbruch, A. H.. and J. H. Sass. 1977, Heat flow in
Number 58. New York: Academic Press. 521 pp. v. 13,311 pp. the United States and the thermal regime of the
Stmcture, Constitution am/ Evolwion (2nd ed.),
New York: Elsevier Science Pub. Co.. 403 pp. Years, R. S.. K. Sieh. and C. R. Allen. 1997. The Barazangi, M. and L. Brown (editors), 1986. crust, in: The Earth 's Crust. its Nawre ami Physical
Geology of Etmhquakes. New York: Oxford Reflection Seismology: !he Continel.l/a/ Cr.ust. Properties, edited by J. G. Heacock. Wasilington.
Chapman. R. E.. 1995. Physics for Geologists. London:
UCL Press Limited. 143 pp. University Press.568 pp. Washington. D.C.: Amencan Geophysrcal Unron, D.C.: American Geophysical Union. Monogrnph 20,
Geodynamics Series. v. 14, 339 pp. pp. 62<Hl75.
De Bremaecher. J. C., 1985. Geophysics: The Earth 's
Interior, New York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc., Man hews. D.. and C. Smith (editors), 1987. Deep Lee, W. H. K., (editor), 1965. Terrestrial Heat Floov,
342 pp. Exploration Seismology Seismic Reflection Profiling of the Continemal Washington. D.C.: American Geophysical Union.
Lithosphere, London: Geophysical Journal of the Monograph 8. 1965.
Fowler. C. ~1. R.. 1990, The Solid Earth: All Anstey, N. A.. 1977. Seism ic l11terprewtion: The Royal Astronomical Society, v.89, No. 1,495 pp.
Introduction to Global Geophysic~ C1mbridge: Physical Aspects, Boston: International Human Sclater. J. G .. and J. Francheteau. 1970.111c implications
Cambridge University Press. 472 pp. Resources Development Corpora lion. 625 pp. Watkins. J. S.. and C. L. Drake (editors), 1982. Swtlies of terrestrial heat flow observations on current tee·
in Cominentnl Ma rine Geology, Tulsa: American tonic and geochemical models of the crust and
Garland. G. D.. 1979. l11troductio11 to Geophysics Badley, M. E.. 1985. Practical Seismic lmerpretntion, upper mantle of the earth, Geophysical Joumal
Association of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 34.
(2nd ed.). Toronto: W. B. Saunders Comp.. 494 pp. Boston: International Human Resources Develop- Royal Astronomical Soc., v. 20, pp. 509-542.
801 pp.
Parasnis. D. S., 1997. Principles ofApplied Geophysics ment Corporation, 266 pp.
(5th ed.), New York: Chapman and Hall, 429 pp. Bally, A. W. (editor). 1983. Seismic Expression of
Steinhart.J.S.. andT. J. Smith (editors).l966. The Earth Struclllral Styles. American Association of Petro-
Benenth the Cominents, American Geophysical leum Geologists. Studies in Geology Series 15.
Union, Geophysical Monograph 10.663 pp. (3 volume set).
Stacey. F. D.. Physics of tire Earth, 1992. Brisbane. Burger. H. R.. Exp/ornrio11 Geophysics of tire Shallow
Australia: Brookfield Press. 513 pp. Subsurface. 1992, Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Pre ntice
Telford. W. :Ill.. L. P. Geldan, R. E. Sheriff, and D. A. Hall, Inc., ~89 pp.
Keys. 1976. Applied Geophysics. Cambridge: Dobrin. M. B.. 1976, lmroduction to Geophysical
Cambridge University Press. 860 pp. Prospecting, (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Turcone. D. L.. and G. Schubert, 1982. Geodynamics: 446 pp.
Applicatio11s of Corrtinrwm Physics m Geological
Dohr, G.. 1981. Applied Geophysics: l11troduction to
Problems, New York: John Wiley and Sons. 450 pp.
Geoplry>·ica/ Prospecti11g, Geology oi Petroleum.
v. I, New York: Halsted Press, 231 pp.
Earthquake Seismology
Halbouty, M. T. (editor), 1982. The Delibernte Search
Boll. B. A.. 1988. Earthquakes, New York: W. H . for the Subtle Trap, Tulsa: American Association of
Freeman and Comp., 282 pp. Pe troleum Geologists. Memoir 32.351 pp.
Bullen, K. E.. 1965. A11 lmroduction to tire Tlreory of Kearey. P. and M. Brooks. 1984. "" lmroduction to
Seismology (3rd ed.), Cambndge: Cambridge Geophysical E.rploratio11. Boston: Blackwell
University Press. 381 pp. Scientific Publications. 296 pp.

CHAPTER 2 a
p la tt (plat) n .. !< Gr. pla1ys,jlar]. a smooth, flat, thin piece of metal or
01her material.
tectnnic (r~k riin 'ik ). adJ.• !< Gr. lektbn, a builder], pertaining to Iorge·
seal~ feawres on Earth's surface and the inremal processes thor led
to their development.
plate tectonics (plat rek riin 'iks), n., o modem idea thor Earth's ow er
shell is made of rigid plates; ft>rge-scole feawres on Earth's s u rface
rcsu/I from movement of the pimcs relative 10 one another.
litho· (lith' o),l< Gr. lithos, a stone]. stone, rock.
spherr !sJir). n.. !< Gr. sphnira, sphere]. a round body with a surfaa
equally diswnrfrom the center at all poims.
lithosphert (lith' ~sJir '). n .. the strong (rigid), outer part ofrhe Earth.
asth f11ia loJ the 'nr o). n .. l< Gr. a. withow; <Gr. st heno!.. strength].
bodi/1· wtaknesJ.
asthenospher~ (liS the' n~sfir), n.. a relatively soft (lesJ rigid) region of
the Earth underlying the lithosphere.
Large features on Earth 's surface. such as continents. ocean basins. and mountain
ranges. result from Earth's internal and externa l processes. Early g~ologists (most
notably James Hall in the 1850's) developed geosynclin al theory, whereby lo ng, nar-
row troughs subsided and were fi lled with sedimentary and volcanic strata
(Fig. 2.1a). The deeply-buried layers, subjected to high temperatures, were metamor-
phosed and expanded, much like a cake rising in an oven (Fig. 2. lb). The expansion
caused deformation and uplift of Earth 's surface as mountain ranges (Kay, 1951).
Geosynclinal theory involves vertical moveme nts; mountains result from materials
moving up and down witho ut large h orizont a l displacements, which were tho ught
unlikely.
Observa tions that blocks of Earth 's crust had, indeed, moved laterally over
long distances led to drastic revisi on of mo unta.ip building ideas. Plate tectonic the-
Geosynclinal Theory
a Sediments
Mountain Range
FIGURE 2. 1 Geosynclinal theory suggests that mountain ranges
result from vertical movement. without significant horizontal
displacement. a) Crust warps downward, fonning depression that fills
with sediments. b) Heated sediments and crust expand and uplift,
forming mou ntai n range.
14
Major Divisions of the Earth 15
Plate Tectonic T'?eory
Psssive Continental Margin Oces.n Bssin
Collisional Mountain Range
FIGURE 2.2 Plate tectonic theory suggests thai moun1ain ranges. volcanoes, eanhquakcs, and
metamorphism result from large horizontal displacements. a) Oe<:an basin closes as lithospheric plates
converge. b) Horizontal displacements lead to vemcal uplift as continents collide.
ory, with horizontal motion as a major premise. more adequately explains the ori-
gins of many mountain ranges, as well as the distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes,
and the metamorphism of rocks (Fig. 2.2).
Plate tectonic theory had its o rigins in the early pan of the 20th century, with
the idea of •·continental drift,'' proposed by t he German meteorologist Alfred
Wegener. The inspiration came from the ''j i ~-saw puzzle" fit of continents across the
Atlantic Ocean, recognized on maps as far back as the...J_500's. The most severe
objections to Wegener's theory involved his mechanism , that blocks of continental
crust drifted over the mantle. Harold Jeffreys p ointed out (correctly) that it was
inconceivable that blocks of crustal material could plow their way over mantle,
known from seismic wave studies to be much stronger. Geo'j)hysical observations
thus disputed the no tion o f large-scale horizon tal movements. Later geophysical
observations made during the 1950's and 1960's caused geologists to realize that the
continents are passengers on large p lates comprised mostly of mantle, information
critical to the acceptance of plate tectonic th eory. The pressure and temperature
conditions in the mantle create a zone o f relatively soft mantle, sandwiched between
hard.er mantle above and below. The softer mantle ("asthenosphere" ) allows the
rigid plates of mantle and crust ("lithosphere") to move horizontally for thousands
of kilometers.
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH
Appreciation of the origin o f large fea tures observed at Earth 's surface (tectonics)
requires information about the overall structur e and composition of the Earth .
Geophysical data gathered at the surface provide the bulk of observations on
Earth's plate tectonic system and deeper regio ns.
Classical Divisions
Earth's deep interior is known primarily from observations of the types and veloci-
ties of seismic waves traversing vario us regions (Fig. 1.10); Earth's gravity field fur-
ther constrains density distribu tion. The classical view of E arth 's interior, developed
"
 16 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
(Density 0Hfef8fldarlon due to
Changes in Chemics/ CoJnp<.>sltton)/.
,,
il 1. Crust
J
I
I'
I
I
FIGURE 2.3 Cta~~ical divisions of the E~rth. Three zones of differing density correspond to changes in
chemocal composotoonj I) The c rust os maonly minerals rich in silica (silicon and oxygen). with de nsities
between 2 and 3 g/cm and thockness between 2 and 70 km. It is less than 2% of Earth ·s volume. 1% of its
mass. 2) The n11mt/e is silicate minerals rich in iron and magnesium. Extending from about 30 to 2900 km
depth, mantle densoty oncreases from 3.3 to 5.8 glcm 1. It comprises 82% of Earth's volume 68% of its
mass. J) The COrr is predominately iron, With Other heavy elementS like nickel. ft has an a:cragc densitYOf
about .10.8 g/cm and extends from 2900 km to the center of the Earth at 6300 km. The core has 16% or
Earths volume and 32% of its mass.
in Ihe .early part of the 20th century, differentiated the Earth into three spheres
accor? mg. to denstty, .the denser material concen trated toward the center (Fig. 2.3).
Dr~sttc dtfferences m denstty correspond to changes in chemical composition,
defmmg the cmst, mantle and core.
Modern Divisions
The insta llation of more and better seismographs in the 1960's resulted in finer res-
olution of seismic wave velocities within the three spheres. A more modern division
desc~ibes portions of the three sphe res according to their physical state (hard solid,
relattvely soft solid, or liquid). Five zones thus recognized are the lithosphere,
asthen~sphere, lower mantle (or mesosphere), ower core, and inner core (Fig. 2.4).
Ftg. 2.5 Illustrat.es that the classical scheme is not out of date. Major divisions
are still along chemtcal boundaries, be tween the crust and the mantle and the
mantle and the core (Fig. 2.3). The modern scheme simply describes th~ ph ysical
st~te. of those chem.tcals under co nditions of increasing temperature and pressure
wtthm the Earth (Ftg. 2.4). St ltcates comprisi ng the crust are generally so cold that
they are ngtd, formmg the top part of the lithosphere. The iron/magnesium -rich
SIItcates of the uppermost mantle are also relatively cold and rioid formino the
remainde r of the lithosphere. At depths below about 150 km. th;se 'same m~ntle
materials undergo slight partial melting. forming the softer asthenos phere. The
Lithosphere/Asthenosphere System 17
Modern Divisions of the Earth
(Physics/ State Due to Increasing
Temperature and Pressure with Depth)
FIGURE 2.4 Modern divisions ofthe Ellrth . Five zones of differing physical state relate to increasing
temperature (T) and pressure (P) with d epth. I) T11c lithosphere is a hard solid. extending from the surface to
about 100 to 200 km depth. It includes the crust and uppermost mantle. I I) The asthenosphere is solid with a
slight amount of partial melt. Relative to the material above and below, the upper part (from about 150 to
400 km depth) is a soft (plastic) solid: the lower part gradually becomes harder to 700 km depth. Ill) The
lower mamle (or mesosphere) is a hard solid, extending from about 700 to 2900 km depth. IV) The oilier cor<,
from 2900 to 5100 km depth, is liquid. V) The solid inner core extends from about 5100 to 6300 km depth.
pressure becomes so great below depths of 350 to 700 km that the lower mant le is
a hard solid. The heavy (iron-rich) material of the outer core is liquid at the tem-
peratures and pressures encountered between 2900 and 5100 km depth. The pres-
sure is so great near Earth's center, however. that the same material exists as a
solid inner core.
LITHOSPHERE/ASTHENOSPHERE SYSTEM
Ideas about large lateral displacements of Earth 's crust originated in the early
1900's. Development and widespread acceptance of plate tectonic theory did not
occur until the 1960's and 1970's, however, when a vast number of geological and
geophysical observations were made in the ocean basins. Drilling and magnetic
anomaly patterns suggest that the basa ltic rocks of the ocean crust fo rm at mid-
ocean ridges and are progressively older away from the ridge axes (Vine, l966).The
resulting concept of "sea-floor spreading" provides an acceptable mechanism for
continents to drift apart, leaving new oceanic crust in their wakes. A worldwide seis-
mograph network reveals that most ea rthquakes occur along narrow ba nds outli n-
ing the boundaries of lithospheric plates (Isaacs, Oliver, and Sykes, 1968). Bands of
earthquakes extend to great depths in regions landward of deep-sea trenches, where
one plate appears to descend beneath another.
18 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics Lithosphere/Ast henosphere System 19

FIGURE 2.5 Comparison of classical

and modern divisions of the Earth. a) Linear Increase in b) Non-Linear Increase in
Pressure with Depth Temperature with Depth
P- Pressure (MPa) T - Temperature (° C)
§10' !
-
§;:!. ~ ~
<\1 N ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
0 l"liiT=:------,-----.:__---~
..... ,.,,.,,.,,.,: ~Shallow .. Rapid

",-....
0 "
....... ; ,' "••... · . Temp9mture

.:~~~~:~~;.~;,~~~:~;J .fnaease .
100 100

200 ", ....-.... .

........... 200
", .....
:';..
'E
C-300
Gradient
- .
:
:
"
!
.,
:
· :· ··· ······ ····:··· · · · ···· ···· !······ ·· ······:~ ....................... .
: ...':. .r:. ;i
~ 400 .............; ....... ......... ·r............. .............
~: ~ 0.400
Q)
.. ;....................... .....;............... .i. .........;............
; Deeper,. Slower ----TO
Q)
,Temperature ; !, .
. , ........ . . ..... :~····:··········: .•..........
0 0 ;
500 500 ., ............. ; .Increase. .......: a ...... :..... .•.....
: . i
i
600 \~...,....... ........................ ~ ............., i:
-...._
600
..
i
roo L-------~--~------~----~ 700 L---~--~--~--~~L-----~

FIGURE 2.6 Pressure and temperature in Earth·s upper 700 km. Modified from Physical Geology by Skinner/Porter. © 1987,
with permission of John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. New York.

Plate tectonic theory concludes that the outer, rigid layer of the Earth. the
lithosphere. is broken into a mosaic of large plates. 1l1e plates ride on a softer sub-
stratum. the asthenosphere, drifting laterally a few em/year; at those very slow rates,
the asthenosphere is ductile. Most large-scale geologic phenomena result from the
relative motion of plates, as they interact at their boundaries.
Physical State of Upper Mantle
The graphs in Fig. 2.6 show how pressure and temperature increase from the surface
to 700 km depth within the Earth. Notice that. d,l!e to the constantly increasing over-
burden, pressure increases at a roughly ~<instant (linear) rate with depth.
Temperature increase is nonlinear; it rises abruptly at shallow depths, more gradu-
ally with increasing depth.
The physical state of materials depends on· pressure (P) and temperature (T)
conditions. A phase diagram illustrates the P-T conditions under which Earth mate-
rials go from solids. to partially melted solids, to liquids. The phase diagram in
Fig. 2.7 illustrates the physical state of the igneous rock peridotite (see Appendix C)
under conditions of pressure and temperature encountered in the upper mantle.
With increasing temperature peridotite will melt. but the temperature to melt the
rock is greater with increasing pressure (that is, increasing depth within the Earth).
Near the surface (at very low pressure), melting of high-silica minerals within the
rock begins at about 1200 •c. The rock undergoes increasing degrees of partial melt-
ing until it becomes totally liquid at about 1900 °C. At 300 km depth (greater pres-
sure) considerably higher temperatures are required to initiate partial and compl ete
melting (20oo •c and 270o •c. respectively).
The dashed line in the P-T diagram (Fig. 2.7) shows a normal geothermal gra-
dient in the upper mantle. The nonlinear gradient means that phase boundaries are
crossed, giving three distinct regions: (a) in the upper 100 km, the peridotite is cold
and rigid. resulting in a solid lithosphere: (b) between about 100 and 350 km the
temperature rise causes a small amount of partial melt, gi';Jing the softer astheno-
sphere: (c) below about 350 km the pressure is so great that, even though the tem-
perature is hotter. there is a transition (increasing strength) to the solid mesosphere.
The lithosphere consists of both the crust and uppermost mantle. The bound-
ary between the crust and man tl e. called the Mohorovicic discontinuity, or "Moho,"
thus lies within the lithosphere (Fig. 2.8). The Moho was recognized in the early pan
of the 20th century because compressional seismic waves travelling at about
6.5 km/s in the lower crust were refracted along the higher velocity mantle
(== 8.2 km/ s). The boundary is pronounced because it separates regions of different
chem!cal composition; the lower crust is generally gabbroic ("" 50% silica; see
Appendix C), while the upper mantle is composed of peridotite ("" 30% silica).
Unlike the abrupt crust/mantle boundary, boundaries within the mantle are
more subtle and gradational. Peridotite comprises the three zones of the mantle:
lower lithosphere, asthenosphere, and mesosphere. Slight changes in the velocity of
seismic waves allow recognition of the three zones. Compressional waves travelling
8.2 km/ s in the uppermost mantle slow down to about 7.8 km/s at depths of 75 to •
200 km, indicating a transition to the softer asthenosphere. The velocity rises gradu-
ally with increasing strength in the lower asthenosphere, culminating in a jump to
about 12 km/s in the mesosphere, at about 700 km depth. Depths for boundaries
within the mantle (Figs. 2.5, 2.8) are therefore rough approximations to the depths
of subtle phase changes from hard, to softer, to hard material of the lower lithos-
phere, asthenosphere. and mesosphere. respectively.
The Earth 's outer shell consists of seven major and several minor lithospheric
plates (Fig. 2.9).1lle plates move at a few centimeters per year (cm/yr) relative to
 20 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics Types of Plate Boundaries 21

......
. . . . . ....
··········
..... . . .... ...... ·..... ·. ·.',.....
·····..··.... ·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.·.· ~

···

•
::::l::~.:.:.:.: :l~: ~#r~]8J.
~~~~~~~ ~: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~ } f!(fljjil/
.. .........
..........·
·········· ............ ~

J::
......
a.
Q) 400 ........ .
0
soo ..
600 ..
FIGURE 2.7 Phase diagram for peridoti te (Earth's mantle). Vertical scale can be viewed as either
pressure or depth, because of the linear relationship between the two variables (Fig. 2.6a). Dashed
line shows normal increase in temperature with depth for upper mantle (Fig. 2.6b). Percentages
ref~ r to the volume of liquid versus solid in the partial melt. Modified from Plrysical Geology by
Skmner/Porter, © 1987, with pennission of John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. New York.
one another. This rate is important not o nly because it is small. but also because it
results in plates moving large distances over geologic time. It is small in that o ur fin-
~ema~ls grow at about the same rate. Yet taken over a million years, 1 cm/yr results
m a displacement of 10 km. It is thus easy to see how strain rates slow enough for
the asthenosphere to behave ductilly can, over hundreds of millions of years, pro-
duce featu res as extensive as ocean basins and mountain ranges.
Lithospheric plates are thought to be d riven by convection currents within the
upper mantle (Fig. 2.10). Where convection currents rise, they split plates apart,
generatmg new magma from the mantle; the magma coo ls to form new lithosphere.
Plates converge where convection curre nts descend ; o ne plate commonly extends
downward mto the mantle, destroying lithosphere. The motion of lithospheric plates
thus constantly recycles rock materials, with new lithosphere created at mid-ocean
ridges and lithosphere deformed and consumed at deep-sea trenches (su bductio n
zones).
Plate: mo.tion may also be driven by ho rizontal density changes within the
plates, giVIng nse to the ridge push a nd slab pull hypotheses. Accordino to the first
idea, gravity acting on relatively hig h elevatio ns at mid-ocean ridge~ may push
plates away from divergent boundaries. At convergent boundaries, basaltic oceanic
crust on the down~oing plate is metamorphosed to higher-density eclogite. which
pulls the hthosphenc slab deeper into the mantle.
~: l
l.1 1: 1l:.::1:::1:
~~ j~~~~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~~ ~~~
FIGURE 2.8 The relati vely high temperatures and low pressures of the mantle between about I SO and
400 km create a special situation (Fig. 2.7), analogous to the soft creamy filling or an Oreo~ cookie.
Lithospheric plates ride over the softer asthenosphere. C rust forms the top part of the lithosph~ re; oceanic
crust is substantially thinner than continental crust. While the chemical boundary between the crust and
mantle (-Moho") is sharp, the change in physical state between the lithosphere and asthenosphere is more
subtle. The transition from asthenosphere to mesosphere is a broad zone of increasing strength.
TYPES OF PLATE BOU N DARI ES
There a re three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: divergenr, convergem and
transform (Fig. 2.11). Most large-scale geologic structures (mounta ins, continents.
ocean basins) and processes (earthquakes, volcanism , metamo rphism) a re associ-
ated with inte ractions along the boundaries.
Some volcanoes occur far from plate boundaries. in the interior of a plate
(Fig. 2.12). Many of these volcanoes a re thought to be caused by the movement of
lithospheric plates over hotspots that remain fixed within the deeper mantle.
Divergent Plat e Boundaries
Whe re plates move away from o ne another the lithosphere thins, so that underlying,
buoyant asthenosphe re elevates a broad region (Fig. 2.13). The elevated regions are
continental rife zones o r mid-ocean ridges, depending on whether the lithosphere is
capped by continenta l or oceanic crust.
Divergent plate boundaries are characterized by tensional fo rces that pro-
duce fissures, normal faults, and rift va lleys (Fig. 2.14a). If a continent completely
ri ps apart, the two fragme nts can d rift away as parts of different lithospheric
plates ( Fig. 2.14b). New ocean ic lithosp he re is created between the continents, a t a
mid-ocean ridge. If the prO'cess contin ues long e nough, a large ocean basi n form s
(Fig. 2. L4c). The plate boundary is then at the mid-ocean ridge, far from the mar-
gins separa ting conti nental from oceanic crust; such margins are termed "passive
continenta l margins."
 Type5 of Plate Boundaries 23

Divergent
Plate Boundary Lithosphere
l
!!
!

/
/

/
/
/\,~
/
*~
I
[
;
I f'
/ t
i f
; I
i I
I
FIGUR E 2.10 Lithospheric plates ride O\•er the asthenosphere. perhaps driven by a combination of mass transfer
of heat (convection currents) and horizontal density changes (ridge push: slab pull). Lithosphere is created where
plates diverge. destroyed where they converge.

; b) Convergent Plate Boundary

a} Divergent Plate Boundary
t
!

i
c) Transform Plate Boundary

FIGURE 2.11 TI1e three general types of plate boundaries. highlighted by bold lines. Plates rip apart and grow at divergent
boundaries (a), compress and arc destroyed at convergent boundaries (b), and slide past one another at transform boundaries. '
neither creating nor destroying plate material (c).

22
24 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics ~
""',; "" (;,
~
'
Types of Plate Boundaries _ 25 ~ ·' .: r;
FIGURE 2.12 Lines of volcanoes may
"-. ~f;
r-';'
~~ .'
a) Continental Rift Zone ·e, ...
East African ~01<.:.'-~
be due to the movement of a li thospheric
plate over a hotspot. originating from a
plume oi hot material deep within the Basin and Range Province
mantle.

b) New Ocean Basin Red Sea

Gulf of California

Continental Rift Z ones As a continen t pulls apart it stretche·~ thinning the

crust and entJre lithosphere (Fig. 2.13b). The region is raised to high elevation
because t.he underlymg asthenosphere is hot and buoyant. The upper part of the crust
deforms tn a cold, bn ttle fashion, causing earthquakes and elevated ridges (German
word " horst"), separated .by down-dropped valleys (German "graben"). The grabens
f11l wrth up to 8 km of sedimentary a~d volcanic strata as they subside, forming basins;
the adJacent,horst blocks remam htgh as mountain ranges (Fig. 2.14a). A region of
fault block moun tams tn. North Am erica, comprising all of Nevada and portions of c) Advanced Ocean Basin
Uta~, Idaho, Oregon, Cahfor ma. An zona, New Mexico, and Mexico, is thus called the
Basrn a~d Ran~e Province (Fig. 2. 15). Other areas of active continental rifting are the
Pannoman Basrn of central Europe and the East African Rifts (Fig. 2.9).

a) Normal ~~~~~~~~~~~~ r~~

Continental • 35km . Crvst(Mantlo

Boundary
Lithosphere
FIGURE 2.14 £volwion of srrrtelttres at divergent plme boundary. (a) Brinle deformation of upper crust at continental rift zone
• 150km
causes normal faulting. Elongate mountain ranges ( horsts) separate valleys (grabens) that fill wi th sedimentary and volca nic stra ta.
Asthenosphere (b) As lithosphere moves apart a new ocean basin forms. Horsts and grabens are covered by post-rift sed imenta ry stra ta along
continental to oceanic crustal transi tion zo ne. (c) At advanced ocean basin the d ivergent plate boundary is along a mid-ocean ridge
system: passive conti nen tal margins are some distance away. within the interiors o f the diverging plates.

b) Continental
Rift Zone Mid-Ocean Ridges When continents completely rift apart, new oceanic
lithosphere fo rms. as in the Red Sea separating Saudi Arabia from Africa
(Fig. 2.14b). With continued divergence the buoyant asthenosphere elevates a ridge
on the seafloor that may be a few hundred to as much as 4000 km wide. depending
on how fast the plates move apart (Fig. 2.l4c). Although the region of the ridge is
hot, the upper part of the oceanic crust can be cold and brittle, causing earthquakes
and normal faults. A chain of mid-ocean ridges, including the Mid-Atlantic Ridge,
c) Mid-Ocean ••1 J~ :;:;::;::::::;~~:::;:::::;: the East Pacific Rise, and the Indian Ocean Ridge, extends in a more or less contin-
Ridge <== uous fash ion for over 50.000 km ( Fig. 2.9). Though mostly covered by water, the
mid-ocea n ridge system is thus the longest mountain range o n E arth. ...
• fOOkm
Convergent Plate Boundaries
FIGURE 2. 13 . Topography, crust/mantle boundary (Moho) and lithosphere/asthenosphere
bou~dnry at dtvergm~ plate boundaries. (a) Typical crusra t and lithospheric thicknesses on Where lithospher ic plates converge, the plate with thinner, less buoyant crust com-
conu nenral. craton. wtth topography near sea level. (b) Crust and entire lithosphere thin as monly descends beneath the other pla te. The region where a li thospheric plate
conunenr nfls apart; atlrhrce boundaries elevate. (c) Newly-for med lithosphere at mid-ocean ridge descends deeply within the mantle is called a subducrion zone. Two types of subduc-
con rams crus t about t/6 !he thickness of typical conti nental cr ust
tion zones are common. depending on whether the overriding plate is capped by
26 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics Tyoes of Plate Boundaries 27
1!

FIGURE 2.15 Shaded area shows active
rifting of the North American continent in
the Basin and Range Province.
thin (oceanic) or thick (continental) crust. Sornetimes entire oceans close through
subduction , causing blocks of continental crus; to collide; collisional moumain
ranges form as the crust is compressed and thickened .

Oceau/Ocean Su bducti on Zones If both of the converging plates contain

oceanic crust. one plate subducts beneath the other (Fig. 2.16a). Two chains of
mountains. o ne structural and one volcanic, form parallel to the deep-sea trench at
the surface juncture of the plates. Just landward of the trench, where the top of the
plate is shallow and cold , some of the sediments and underlying rock are scraped off
and deformed into a wedge shape. These materials anach (or "accrete") to the over-
riding plate: portions of this accretionary wedge may rise above sea level as the sedi-
ments and rock are compressed, folded and faulted. forming long ridges and valleys.
Prominent islands that are part of accretionary wedges at subduction zones include
Barbados, in the Caribbean Sea, and Timor, north o f Australia.
Farther from the trench the top of the descending plate may reach depths of
100 to 150 km. where it is so hot tha t fluids are dri ven from its crust.1l1e fluids rise.
melting silicate minerals from the mantle and crust of the overriding plate. The
resulting magma thickens the crust of the overriding plate to two to three times thai
of normal oceanic crust. Magma that makes it to the surface erupts as a (straight or
curved) chain of volcanic islands, called an island arc. A depression between an
a) Ocean I Ocean Subduction Zone accretionary wedge and an island arc, which often acc.umulates sediments, is called a
forearc basin. The Aleutian. Lesser A ntilles, and Philippine islands (Fig. 2.9) are
Trench Accretion8.IJI Island examples of trench/accretionary wedge/forearc basin/island arc systems built on
Water Oceanic Crust ' Wedge Fore8!C Arc
' Basin oceanic crust.
•':"• ~
Ocean/Continent Subduction Zones Continental crust is thicker. and there-
Uthosphere c::::::> fore more buoyant. than oceanic crust: a plate with oce~nic crust will subduct
beneath one capped by continental crust (Fig. 2.16b).1l1e resulting morphology is
similar to that developed in an ocean/oct>an subduction zone. including a deep sea
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere trench. accretionary wedge. and forea rc basin. The volcanic arc is on the continental
crust, because that cr ust is part of the overriding plate.
Ocean/continent subduction zones are o ft en called "convergenr " or "active"
continental margins. Examples include Japan, western South America, and the
Pacific Northwest of the United States. For the latter, the accretionary wedge
b) Ocean I Continent Subduction Zone ....
includes the coastal ranges of Washington , Oregon and northern California
(Fig. 2.17). The volcanic arc is the Cascade Mou ntains, and the intervening forea rc
basin js the Great Valley, Willamette Valley and Puget Sound. The Sierra Nevada
Mou~tains in northern California are the roots of a volcanic arc; the volcanoes have
eroded away. exposing now solidified magma chambers.

Continental Collision Zones A t collisional mountain ranges, two plates that

both have thick (continental or island arc) crust converge (Fig. 2.18a). Collision
occurs after the thinner. oceanic crustal part of the downgoing plate is consumed
through subduction (Fig. 2.18b). When the thicker. more buoyant crusts meet. both
plates are too light to subduct into the deeper mantle. The thick crusts are
deformed by compression. their rocks metamorphosed and uplifted. If conver-
FIGURE 2.16 Formatio11 oftopography 011d structu res at subduction zones. 1\vo parallel mountain
I gence continues. one thick crustal block may thrust underneath the other (as the
t Indian subcon tinent extends beneath Asia tod ay): the result is a broad region of

I
ranges form. one structural (''accretionary wedge") and one volcanic ("island arc" or ··volcanic arc").
a) Both plates capped by oceanic crust. b) Oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath more buoyant t high elevation.
continental lithosphere. Box shows that the transition from continental to oceanic crust is at the ~ The highest mountains o n Earth, the Himalayas, are part of a chain of moun-

'
plate boundary. hence an "active continental margin." tains extending from south-central A sia to western Europe (Fig. 2.9). The chain is

t
 a NORTH
Types of Plate Bo u ndaries 29

AMERICAN a) Ocean Basin Closes During Subduction

Ocean Basin
PLATE Passive Continental Margin Oceanic Crust

b) Thick Continental Crusts Collide

.·
Cascade Mountain
Composite Volcanoes

FIGURE 2. 18 Deve/OfJIIItflt ofcollliflentttl collisio11 :o11e. a) Continental margins approach as intervening oceanic
lithosphere is consumed by su bduction. b) Collisional mountain range fo rms as thick continental crusts collide.
---- High elevations arc due to a wmbina tion of th r ust fauhi ng and isosta tic uplift (sec: Chapte r 8).

formed by converge nce of Eurasia with other continental fragments. including

India. Saudi Arabia and smaller pieces of thick crust swept northward as Africa
moves toward Europe. O ther mounta ins in the collision zone are the Pamirs, Hindu
Kush, Zagros. Caucasus. Carpathians. Alps and Pyrenees.
PLATE The Appalachian Mountains in the United States and Canada, and the
Caledonide Mountai ns in southern G reenland. the British Isles. and Scandinavia,
arc parts of a continental collision zone that formed during the Paleozoic era. about
300 to 400 million years ago. Subsequent conti nen tal rifting opened the Atlantic
Ocean. isolating the mountains as separate ranges on different continents.

Transform Pl ate Boundaries

b Mid-Ocean
Ridge
Subduction Zone Where plates slide horizontall y past one another. lithosphere is neither created nor
destroyed. Such boundaries are called "tra nsfo rm " because they connect other plate
Juan de
Fuca boundaries in various combinations, transforming the site of plate motion. A com-
mon example is an offset connecting segments of a mid-ocean ridge (Fig. 2.19).
Relative movement be twe.:n the plates occurs only at and between the ridge seg-
ments, where earthquakes occur. Relative movement outside the ridge segments has
ceased, so that no earthquakes occur there; inactive extensions of transform bound-
aries are called fracwre zones. Prominent examples of transform plate boundaries
that extend on land include the Anatolian Fault in Turkey. the Alpine Fault of New
Zealand, and the San Andreas Fault in California (Fig. 2.20) .

.. Hotspots
Some volcanoes lie within the interior of lithospheric plates, rather than along the
edges. Commonly, the volcanoes get progressively older away from the largest and
~GU RE 2.17 a) Map of Pacific Northwest ~f the U nited States and southwestern Canada. All three types of plate most active volcanoes (Fig. 2.21). The volcanoes are thought to fo rm over narrow
undanes occur. Drvugerrr: Juan de Fuca Rtdge (mid-ocean ridge): Basin and Range Provtnce (continental rift) "plumes" of heat th at rise from deep within the mantle. A " hotspot" is a region in
C I b) S I: Cascadta
r: Oflvergelll . Subduction
. Zone ("s ubduct'tng p 1a 1'c b ound ary " to cascade volcanoes). Tralls[orm : Son Andreas
· the mantle where magma fo rms due to a plume. As a lithospheric plate moves over
• au t. c h.:mauc cross·secuon A~ A '. ~ a hotspot, the line of volcanoes forms. Examples of such hotspot tracks include the
30 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics Manifestations Along Plate Boundaries 31

FIGURE 2.19 Map view of transform FIGURE 2.2 1 Cartoon example of

r&?kl Plate 1 plate boundary connecting two mid· hotspo t beneat h the interior of the
ocean ridge segments. Pacific Plate. Volcanoes of the H awaiian
ia Plate2 Islands record the passage of the plate
over the hotspot.
• Eerthquake

Mid-Ocean
Ridge

Fracture Zone
(No Earthquakes)

FIGURE 2.20 Transform plate boundary

on the West Coast of the United States.
Across the San Andreas Fault. the Pacific
Plate moves north-northwest. rela tive to
the North American Plate. I!
r
morphism. mountain formation, and the creation and destruction of lithosphere, is
thus concentrated at plate boundaries or over hotspots.

Hawaiian Islands within the Pacific Plate and the Columbia Plateau/Snake River
Plain/Yellowstone area of Washington, Oregon,.ldaho, and Wyoming (discussed
below).
Mantle plumes and associated hotspots are thought to be fixed relative to the
deep mantle, as well as to one another. Hotspots are thus important because they
provide a framework through which absolute motions of plates can be determined.
MANIFESTATIONS ALONG PLATE BOUNDARIES
Lithospheric plates are generally strong enough to ride slowly over the ductile
asthenosphere without internal deformation. Materials within the interior of plates
do not undergo much vertical movement, so that the temperature and pressure of
those materials does not change appreciably. Horizontal interactions build stresses
near the edges of plates, wh ere materials rise or sink to regions of different pressure
and temperature. Most tectonic activity, including earthquakes. volcanism, meta-
Earthquakes
Earthquakes occur because materials are stressed to their breaking point. Two fac-
tors are important: 1) the presence of brittle material; and 2) motion that builds
stress in the brittle material. Practically the only part of the Earth }hat meets both of
these conditions is where the rigid lithospheric plates are ip motion, building
stresses where they are in contact with each other. Most earthquakes therefore
occur along or near plate boundaries. within the brittle regime near the top of the
rigid plates (Fig. 2.22).
At divergent and transform boundaries, the rigid lithospheric plates normally
do not extend deeper than about 100 km (Fig. 2.22a,b). The cold, brittle part of the
plates is generally in the upper 20 km, so that only shallow earthquakes occur.
Virtually all deep, and most very large, earthquakes occur at convergent plate
boundaries, where a rigid plate can extend downward to as deep as 700 km
(Fig. 2.22c). Shallow earthquakes (upper 70 km) are associated with compression
and other contortions on the tops of both plates. Very large earthquakes occur due
f.
to sudden stress release where the two plates are locked together, at their boundary.
Moderate to large earthquakes can occur deeper, if the lower plate descends so
quickly that it is still cold enough to undergo brittle failure.
Volcanism
Earth materials commonly melt in two situations (Fig. 2.23): a) the pressure on hot
material drops; orb) cold material is subjected to higher temperature. Decompression
melting occurs when asthenosphere rises as plates rip apart at continental rift zones or
mid-ocean ridges (Fig. 2.23a). Cold crustal materials heat up when a lithospheric plate
descends into a subduction zone (Fig. 2.23b). Most volcanic eruptions are therefore
 Manifestat ions Along Plate Boundaries 33
32 Cha pter 2 Plate Tectonics ·•
~I a) Divergent
a) Divergent Plate Boundary
II Plate Boundary

Earthquakes:
• Small to Moderate Size
o Very Large

d) Hotspot volcanism c) No change In temperarure or

may originate/rom d88p pressure because lithosphere and
mantle or mantle/core asthenosphere do not change
bound8fY. depth. ('* No volcanism)

FIGURE 2.23 Sch~matic cross·scction of E'1rth illustrating the generation of magm;1 th:H h.:::u.Js 10
vo lcanism.

a) Mid-Ocean Ridge Volcanism

Ophiolite
FIGURE 2.22 Occurrence of tarrhquakts at plate boundaries. a.b) Shallow earthquakes of small 10 moderate size occur
along divergent and transform boundaries (see a lso map view. Fig. 2.19). c) Small to moderate size eanhquokes at
conve rgent plate boundaries occur at shallow depths in the descending and overriding plates. Very large earthquakes
occur where !he plates lock together. and a1 greater depths in the upper portion of the descending plate.

associated with divergent or convergent p late boundaries. Volcanism is normally

absent from transform plate boundaries because materials remain at their normal Cau~~ fPMisk .
depths; there is no significant temperature rise or pressure drop (Fig. 2.23c). Some vol- ,... /M~Iti;vg ·~.
canism occurs in plate interiors, where the plates ride over hotspots that may originate Asthenosphere (Hot)
from the deep mantle or mantle/core boundary (Fig. 2.23d).

Divergent Plate Boundary Volcanism The drop in pressure on hot astheno- b) Continental Rift Volcanism
sphere rising at divergent boundaries causes an increase in partial melting, as shown
by the bold arrow on the phase diagram (Fig. 2 .7). High-silica minerals commonly
melt at lower temperatures than low-s ilica minerals (Appendix C); the partial melt
that comes off the peridotite of the asthenosphere (30% silica) is therefore a
basalt/gabbro composition of somewhat higher silica (SO%).
At mid-ocean ridges, partially melted asthenosphere produces relatively low- Asthenosphere
silica magma, resulting in a characteristic sequence o f igneous rocks (Fig. 2.24a). (Hot, Decompressed)
Lavas that pour out onto the ocean floor cool rapidly, forming pillows of basalt
(SO% silica). Material of the same (SO% silica) composition that does not make it to FIGURE 2.24 Volcanism at divergent plate boundaries. a) Midocean ridge illuslralin~ d<compression
the surface fo rms intrusive dikes of gabbro, comp rising the lower crust. The high mehing and the development of on ophiolite seq~ac~ce. b) Co ntinental nft zone sho wang that magma
density material that remains below is still essentially peridotite (30% silica), form- musl initially mel! through continen tal crust. ennchmg !he sthca content of the magma.
 Ma nifestations Along Plate Boundaries 35
34 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics

ing the mantle port ion of the new lithospheric plate. Together with overlyi ng sedi-
ments. this sequence of oceanic crust and uppermost mantle is called an ophiolite.
Volcanoes at mid-ocean ridges form mostly below sea level. Iceland is an exception,
where th e Mid-A tlantic Ridge is above the water; the low-silica (basal tic) magmas
are very fluid. giving broad, gently sloping sh ield volcanoes (Appendix C).
Continental rift zones commonly exh ibit two-stage (bi modal) volcanism ~
(Fig. 2.24b): 1) an early stage, where ascending magma melts a lot of continental Lithosphere
crust, producing high-silica (rhyoli tic) volcanism; and 2) an adva nced stage, where
magma comes more directly from the asthenosphere, producing lower-silica
(basaltic) volcanism. The later stage may evolve to a mid-ocean ridge (Fig. 2.14). Asthenosphere
E xamples of con tinental rift volcanism incl ude Mt. Kenya and Mt. Kilimanjaro in
the east African rift system, and Newberry Volcano in the Basin and Range
Province in central Oregon.
b) Ocean 1 Continent Subduction Volcanism
Volctlnic Andesltelo Rhyolite
Oceanic Crust Trench Arc---- Vola>nlsm
Convergent Plate Boundary Volcanism As a li thospheric plate descends into ·" ' <>;;_:. ~·!f.~
a subduction zone. it gets hot enough for fl uids to be driven from the crust and sedi-
ments on top of the plate. Those fluids migrate toward the surface. inducing melting
of the mantle and crustal materials in their path. Minerals high in silica tend to melt
first. so that magmas generated in this process can ra nge in sili ca content from low
(basaltic; 50%) to in termediate (andesitic; 60%) to very high (rhyolitic; 70%). A '
volcanic arc grows on the overridi ng plate, in the posit ion where the crust of the
lower plate is at 100 to 150 km depth , thereby hot enough to release fluids. The high- c) Continental Collision Zone
viscosi ty of the higher-silica lavas results in steep sided, composite volcanoes;

I
trapped gasses can result in violent eruptions. as occurred at Mt. St. Helens in
Washington state in 1980 (Fig. 2.1 7a).
At an ocean/ocean subduction zone (Fig. 2.25a) the volcanic (island) arc
develops on one of the oceanic plates about 100 to 500 km from the plate boundary
(trench). The rising fl uids melt through mantle and thin (island arc) crust on the ·-----~---------·-----------
upper plate; magmas are therefore low-to-intermediate silica (basaltic to andesitic) t Asthenosphere ------ ------------ -------- ---- --.................... ,
in composition. Examples of active volcanoes are Krakatau (near Java. in the Indian I

Ocean) and Mt. Pelee (West Indies).
At ocean/continent subduction zones (active continental margins) the pla te
with thin (oceanic) crust descends below the (more buoyant) plate with thick (conti-
nental) crust (Fig. 2.25b). Volcanic mountain chains th us form along the edges of
some continents. Rising fluids melt mantle a~d continental crust in their path, pro-
ducing lavas generally of in termediate-to- high ·silica content (andesi te to rhyolite).
I
FIGURE 2.25 Volcmrism m convergent plme hormdories. a) Subduction zon,;-where oceanic_
crust caps both plates. b) Boundary where plate with ocean ic.c~st subducts beneath pl?te '"'~ h
continental crust. c) Volcanism ceases during conunental colhsron. although h1~h-srlica >ntrus>ons
may form due to panial melting as crustal material ex1ends below normal continental depths.
I

In the deeper crust. magma chambers cool to batholi ths of high-silica (gran itic)
composition. Examples of composite volcanoes at active continental margins
include Mt. Mazama (which fo rmed Crater Lake) in Oregon (Fig. 2.1 7a),
Mt. Vesuvius in Italy. and Mt. Fuji in Japan.
At continental collision zones the crust is too thick and buoyant to subduct.
Generation of fluids is commonly low, so th at little or no volcanism occurs
(Fig. 2.25c). Continental crust on the lower plate, however, can extend to 50 km or
deeper, causing some partial melt ing of high-sifica material; granitic magma can
thus fo rm in the lower crust.
Hotspot Volcanism Hotspots provide a framework to track the motion of
li thospheric plates over deeper portions of the mantle (Figs. 2.21, 2.23d). One vol-
cano after another forms as a plate moves over a hotspot. The resulti ng chain of
volcanoes is: 1) parallel to the direction of plate motion: and 2) older in a direction
away from the hotspot. By mapping the changing age of volca nism. the rate and
l
di rection of movement of the lithospheric p late over the deeper mantle can be
calcula ted. .
Hotspot volcanism can occur where ei ther ocea~1ic or continental crust IS ~~
the overriding plate. Hotspot magma intruding only th1~ oceamc crust, as m Hawan,
f
;
)
results in fluid lavas of basaltic composition, forming sh1eld volcanoes (Fig. 2.21). In
India, a broad region of basa lt ic rock, known as the Deccan Trap, is th~ught to have
formed during the initial surfacing of hotspot magma beneath the Jnd1an subco~ll- •
nent. As the Ind ian plate moved northward. volcanoes of the Chago-LaccadJVe
Ridge, in the Indian Ocean, have progressively formed over t~e hotspot. .
i
The Pacific Northwest of the United States reveals a reg1on where contmental
t lithosphere apparently moved over a hotspot. Southe~s~ Washington an~ northeast
Oregon are dominated by layers of basa lt. compnsmg the Col~mb1a Plateau
(Fig. 2.1 7a). This massive volume of rock resulted fro~ mantl_e-?enved lavas that
t extruded 15 to 18 million years ago. Along the Snake R1ver Plam ~ Idaho. la~as are
I progressively younger from west to east, where there is actlve volcamsm m
Yellowstone National Park (Fig. 2.26). It appears that hotspot magma m1grated

r
36 Chapte r 2 Plate Tectonics
PLATE TECTONIC CONSTRAINTS
OFFERED BY GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATIONS
·The plate tectonic framework owes much of its o verall fo rm and derail to geophysi-
p ;jJd Volcanic Rocks from Columbia Plateau to Yellowstone
Seismic Refraction (Chapter 4)
Seismic Reflection (Chapters 5 and 6)
FIGURE 2.26 lmerpretation of Columbia Plateau/Snake River Plain/Yellowstone
volcanism. a) Numbers show age of volcanism from the Columbia Plateau IO
Yellowstone National Park (from A. Grunder, personal communicalion, !995).
b) Observed ages of volcanism a re consislenl wi th !he westward movement of !he
Nonh American lithospheric p lale over a ho1spo1 wit hin !he deeper mamle.
upward fro m the deep mantle in the sha pe of a " mushroom cloud." The broad head
of the cloud ~truck in Oregon a n d Washington 18 million years ago, resu lting in mas-
stve outpoun ngs o f basalt fo rm ing the Col um bia Platea u (Fig. 2.26a). As the North
A mencan Plate moved over the hotspot, the thin "stem" remained. This stem
resulted in fa r less volcanism, with a larger por tion o f the magma enriched in silica
due to the melting of con tinental crust as the magm a migrated upward. The result-
ing lavas erupted in a narrow, steady stream between Oregon and Yellowstone, as
the plate moved westward (Fig. 2.26b).
Plate Tecto nic Constraints offered by Geophysical Observations 37
cal observatio ns. Each techniq ue offers potential constraints o n the composition
and physical state of materials in a given setting, as well as on the three-dimensional
structure of the regio n. The remaining cha pters present the application o f different
geophysical techniques to tectonics, includi ng the potential constraints, observa-
tions, and interpreta tions o utlined below. Research on the crustal structure and evo-
lu tion of a tectonic fea ture can be done in conjunction with this textbook by
following the ··sequenced Writi ng Assignment" outlined in Appendix A.
Geoph ysica l observations are particularly use ful in constra ining the depths
to two fun dame ntal bo uh d ar ies: the crust/mantle boundary (Moho) and the
lithosphere/asthe nosphe re bo unda ry. Together with a third fundam ental bound-
ar y (topography on land and bathymetry a t sea), the two subsurface bo undaries
fac ilitate understa nding o f 'p late tecton ic structure and associated processes. The
concept o f isostasy (discussed in C hap ter 8) ill ustrates the inter-re lationship of the
elevations and depths of the th ree fu ndamental boundaries.
The seismic refraction me thod is useful in resolving relati vely fla t interfaces sepa-
ra ting abr upt increases in seismic velocity. like the Moho. The method ca n therefore
map the pa tte rn of crustal thickness changes in a region as we ll as gross seismic
ve locities fo r the crust and uppe rmost man tle.
Refractio n observations ofte n reveal that the crust is th in at continental rifts
and mid-ocean ridges (Fig. 2.14). and thick at mountain ranges (F ig. 2.18). They
show the transitio n from th icke r continental to th inner oceanic cr ust at continen tal
margins (Figs. 2.14c. 2.16b). Refraction su rveys suggest that the upper man tle has
relatively low se ismic veloci ties where hot asthenosphere is shallow at continental
rifts and mid-ocean ridges (Fig. 2.13). The characteristic layering withi n ocean ic
crust, though t to correspond to an "op hiolite" seq ue nce (Fig. 2.24a), was first
revealed by refraction studies.
Seism ic reflection profiles image stratigraphic and structural feat ures that are char -
acteristic of certai n tecto nic settings; some feat ures developed in one setting are
identifi ed in the subsurface at anothe r. For exa mple, continental rift grabens are
revealed by wedge-shaped zones of reflectio ns from sedimentary and volcanic
strata (Fig. 2.14a). Similar reflections suggest rift grabens beneath younger ("post-
rift") sedimentary st rata on passive continental margins ( Fig. 2.14b).
At continen tal rift zones, seismic reflection profiles often reveal a brittle upper
crust that is nonre llective, overlying a layered, ductile lower crust. A deeper zone of
ho rizontal rellections can be used to interpret the depth and nature of the Moho.
This reflection signature of the continental crust and Moho is also observed benea th
some passive continental margins.
Oceanic crust developed at mid-ocean ridges has block-fau lted topography
that results in a characteristic refl ection patte rn . This pattern is observed to extend
to the edge o f passive continental margins and beneath deformed strata of accre-
tionary wedges.
38 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
Other observations with tectonic implications offered by reflection profiles
include seaward-dipping, wedge-shaped sequences of volcanic strata that occur
along the boundary between continental and oceanic crust on som e passive mar-
gins. Strong reflections beneath the axes of mid-ocean ridges suggest the presence
of magm a chambers. The extent of horizontal detachment surfaces beneath accre-
tionary wedges and collisional mountain ranges is often imaged, as well as the zone
of suturing of continents in collision zones.
Earthquake (Chapter 7)
Earthquake observations reveal the positions of lithospheric plate b oundaries and
the types of stresses in a region. They can be used to determine the strike and dip of
a fa ult responsibie for an earthq uake, as well as the type of fa ulting (normal,
reverse, or strike-slip). The early or late arrival o f seismic waves from distant earth-
quakes can be used to map changes in lithosphere thickness in a region.
Earthquake observations can be used to map the br ittle. top p ortion of lithos-
pheric plates. Studies show that virtually all earthquakes occurring at divergent and
transform plate boundaries are shallow, while earthquakes may extend to consider-
able depths at convergent boundaries (Fig. 2.22). Earthquakes reveal predominately
normal faults (extensional stresses) in areas of plate divergence, and a preponder-
ance of strike-slip fau lts (shearing stresses) in transform settings. Where plates con-
verge, reverse fau lts (compressional stresses) are prevalent. b ut normal and
strike-slip faults may be found in various parts of the region. A delay in the arrival
of seismic waves at continental rifts and mid-ocean ridges suggests that the lithos-
phere is thin, while thick lithosphere at subduction zones and collisional mountain
ranges speeds up seismic waves.
Gravity (Chapter 8)
Changes in the density of rocks cause local changes in Earth's gravity field. Crustal
material is Jess dense than mantle, so that gravity observations can be used to map
crustal thickness changes. Asthenosphere is slightly less dense than the mantle part
of the lithosphere, making it possible for gravity data to constrain changes in litho-
sphere thickness. The state of isostatic equilib rium in a region can also be tested
through gravity observations. ...
Gravity observations are consistent with the presence of thick crust beneath
the high topography of some mountain ranges (Fig. 2.18). At continent al margins, a
characteristic gravity signatureTeveals that the water deepens where the crust thins
(Figs. 2.14c, 2.16b). Mass distributions from interpretations of gravity reveal that
shallow asthenosphere supports the weight of elevated mantle and to pography at
continental rifts and mid-ocean ridges (Fig. 2.13). Details of gravity o bser vations
highlight deviations fro m simple models of isostasy, suggesting that in places lithos-
p heric p lates have enough strength to support the .weight of topographic features.
Magnetics (Chapter 9)
p d) Identify and label the positions of the following feat ures on the cross-section:
Changes in Earth 's magnetic field relate to the size and orientation of magnetic
bodies, and to how susceptible rocks are to being magnetized. Rock m agnetism is
also dependent on temperature; rocks attain their strongest magnetization after
I
cooling below a certain temperature. Earth 's magnetic field periodically reverses in
direction; the reversals preserved as magnetization in som e rocks can be used as a
record of geologic time.
l ..
Exercises 39
Crystalline rocks are generaliy more magnetic than sedimentary rocks, so that
magnetic observations can be used to map igneous intrusions and the changing
depth to crystalline basement beneath sedimentary basins. The increase in tempera -
ture wi th depth in a region may be inferred from magnetic observations, as cooler
regions will have a greater thickness of rocks that are strong ly magnetized. Tne
record of magnetic reversals preserved within rocks can be u sed to determine the
age of seafloor created at mid-ocean ridges, the age of some sed imentary deposits.
and the latitudes where rocks formed.
Heat Flow {Chapter 10)
The rate of flow of heat out of the Earth is a function of the change in temperature
with depth and the abil ity of rock s in the region to conduct heat. Heat flow observa-
tions relate to the transfer of heat from one region to another.
Heat flow can be used to determine the p roximity of hot materials to Earth's
surface. A reas of high heat flow reveal shallow asthenosphere beneath continental
rift zones and mid-ocean ridges (Fig. 2.13); low heat flow is associated with thick
slabs of (relatively cold) lithosphere extending into subduction zones and beneath
collisional mountain ranges (Figs. 2.16. 2.18). Shallow magma sources beneath
hotspots, continental rifts, mid-ocean ridges, and volcanic arcs a re revealed by very
high heat-flow readings (Figs. 2.21 , 2.24. 2.25).
EXERCISES
2-1 The Earth's crust, lower lithosphere, and asthenosphere are thin in comparison to
deeper zones of the Earth (mesosphere, outer core, and inner core). Textbooks com-
monly exaggerate the outer zone thicknesses, for clarity on page-size ill ustrations.
Using a millimeter ruler and compass with a very fine pencil, redraw the' whole
Earth cross-section (Fig. 2.5) at a scale of 1:100,000.000 (1 em = 1.000 km). Illustrate
the following boundaries exactly to scale, at the depths indicated: a) oceanic Moho at
12 km; b) continental Moho at 35 km: c) transition from'lithosphere to astheno·
sphere at 150 km; d) bottom of very soft asthenosphere at 350 km; e) top of hard
mesosphere at 700 km; f) core/mantle boundary at 2900 km; g) outer core/in ner core
boundary at 5100 km; h) center of the Earth at 6300 km.
2-2 Draw a cross section along the line of section (B-B ')shown on the map on the follow-
ing page. Notice that the line extends from the Pacific Plate, across the East Pacific
Rise. Peru-Chile Trench, South America, the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and all the way
~· across the East African Rift.
a) Portray how the depths to the foll owing boundaries change along the length of the
cross section: i) topography onshore and bathymetry offshore; ii) crust/mantle
boundary (Moho}; iii) lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary.
b) Put a series of X's within the cross-section to represent zones where significant
earthquake activity might be expected to occur. · ~
c) Put A's on the surfa ce of the cross-section to illustrate where you would expect vol-
canic activity to occur.
i) plate ~oundaries and their types: ii) lithospheric plates and their names; iii) conti-
nental margins and their types (passive or active).
2-3 Based on examination of maps and globes, .give at least three examples of features on
Earth's surface that represent each of these tectonic settings: a) "nonnal" contiriental
lithosphere; b) continental rift zone; c) mid-ocean ridge; d) small ocean basin;
e) advanced ocean basin; f) ocean/ocean subduction zone; g) ocean/continent subduction
 40 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
Isaacs. B.. J. Oliver. and L. R. Sykes. 1968. Seismology
and the new global tectonics. Joumal oj'
Geophysical Research, v. 73. pp. 5855-5899.
Je[freys. H .. 1976. The Earth (6th ed.). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Kay. M.. 1951.Nortll America~• Geosynclines. Boulder.
Colorado: Geological Soc•ety of Amenca. Mem01r
8 ......... 48.143 pp.
Kcarev. P.. and F. J. Vine. 1996. Global Tectonics. 2nd
ed.-. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd.. 333 pp.
Moores. E. M.. and R. J. Twiss. 1995. Tecwni<·s. :-<ew
York:W. H. Freeman and Comp.. 415 pp.
Plate Skinner. B. J.. ami S.C. Porter. 19$7. Physical Geology.
New York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. 750 pp.
Vine. F. J.. 1966. Spreading of the ocean noor: New evi-
dcnce,Sciencc.v.l5~.pp. l 405-l-115.
Wegener. A. L.. 1924. Tile Origin of Continents atlll
Oa""s (1ranslated by J. G. A. Skerl), London:
Nethuen and Co.
Wilson. J. T. (editor). 1976. Continems' At/rift 111111
Antarctic Plate Cominems Agromltl, New York: W. H. Freeman
and Co.
Extension al Tectonic Scllings
Continenwl Rifts
Anderson. R. E.. M. L. Zoback. and G. A. Thompson.
zone: h) active continental collision zone; i) ancient continental collision zone: j) trans- 19:!3. Implications of selected subsurface data on
fonn boun~ary connecting ridge segments: k) transform boundary connecting ridges to the slrucwral form and evolution of some basins
in the nonhero Basin and Range province. Nevada
trenches; I) hotspot trace.
and Utah. Geological Soci<ry of America Bulletin.
2-4 A popular novel from the 1970's contains the follow ing passage: v. 94. pp. 1055-1072.
Earth scientists fwd just discovered something fascinating abort/ the continem Baker. B. H.. P. A. :'vtohr. and L. A. J. Williams. 1972.
Gtology of the tasttm rift system of Africa.
Pauy Keene was swnding 011, i11cidemly. It was ridi11g 011 a slab about fort.v miles Boulder. Colorado: Geological Society oi
thick, and the slab was drifting around on molten glurp. And all the other wmi-
America. Special Paper 136. pp. 1-66.
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were made. (Breakfast of Champions by Kurt Vonnegw. Jr.,© 1973. Delacorte rift: Geology. tcc10nics. and seismicity. 1~ctono­
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Cochran. J. R .. A model for development of the Red
a) Explain what appears right and what appears wrong with the passage.
Sc!a, 1983. Amrricm1 Associmion of Petroleum
b) Rewrite the passage so that it is technically correct (though perhaps not as poetic). Geologists 8ulleti11. v. 67. pp. 41-69.
2-5 E.~plain why pressure increases with depth within the Earth (Fig. 2.6a). Why is the Horvath. F.. I994.Towards a mechanical model for the
increase ro ughl y linear? formation of the Pannonian Basin. Ttcto/lo-
pllysics. v. 226. pp. 333-357.
2-6 Tne phase diagram for per idotite (Fig. 2.7) explains why rising asthenosphere partially Keller. G. R.. E. G. Lidiak. W. J. Hinze. and L. W. Braile.
melts a t a mid-ocean ridge. Using Fig. l0.15a, reuraw the phase diagram for granite. 1983. The role of rifting in the tcc10nic develop-
Illus trate o n the diag ram a n d explain in words why gran itic intrusions form in the ment of the midcontinent. U.S.A .. Tecto11opilysics.
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Keller. G.. C. Prodehl. J. Mechie. K. Fuchs. M. Khan. P.
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Maguire. W. Mooney. U. Achauer. P. Davis. R.
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 44 Chapter 2 Plate Tectonics
Huftile, G. J., 199t,Thin-skinned tectonics of the upper
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Lemiszki, P. J., and L. D. Brown, 1988, Variable crustal
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deep seismic reflection profiles, Geological Society
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Mooney, W. D.. and R. H. Colburn. 1985, A seismic-
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and Calaveras faults. west·cent ral California,
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Sylvester, A. G.. 1988, Strike-slip faults. Geological
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Yeats. R. S., and K. R. Berryman, 1987, South Island,
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Ho tspot Sellings
...
Blackwell, D. D., 1989. Regional impl.ications of heat
flow of the Snake River Plaill, northwestern
United States. Tectonophysics, v. 164, pp. 323-343,
' 1989.
Bryan. C. J., and C. E. Johnson, 199!, Block tectonics
of the island of Hawaii from a focal mechanism
analysis of basal slip. Bulletin Seismological
Society ofAmerica, v. 8t, pp. 491-507.
Duncan, R. A., t991. Hotspots in the southern
oceans--An absolute frame of reference for
motion of the Gondwana continents. Ttetono-
physics, v. 74, pp. 29-42.
Duncan. R. A., J. Backman and L. Peterson, 1989,
Reunion hotspot activity th rough Tertiary time:
Initial results from Ocean Drilling Program, Leg
115, loumal of Volcanology and Geothermal CHAPTER 3
Research, v. 36, pp. 193-198.
Duncan, R. A., and D. G. Pyle, 1988, Rapid eruption of
tbe Deccan flood basalts at the Cretaceous/
Tertiary boundary, Nature, v. 333, pp. 84t-843.
Evans. J. R., 1982, Compressional wave velocity struc-
Seismic Waves
ture of the upper 350 km under the eastern Snake ,.
River Plain nea r Rexburg, fdaho, Joumal of seismic (si;: mik ') adj., [< Cr. scismos. an <arthquake < seiein, w
Geophysical Research. v. 87, pp. 2654-2670.
shake J, relati11g to 011 earthquake or artificial ~ha_king of the Earth.
Filmer, P. E., M. K. McNutt, H. F. Webb. and D. J. wave (wi!v) n., [< OE. wafianJ, motion that perwdtcallyadvtmc<s am/
Dixon. 1993, Volcanism and a rchipelagic aprons in
retreats li.S it is transmitted progressively from one partu.:le 111 a
tbe Marquesas and Hawaiian islands. Marine medium to tire ne:ct.
Geophysical Research, v. 16, pp. 385-406. seismic wave (si;: mik' w/iv) n.. propagation oftnergy th rough the
Jackson, E. D.. and others. t980, Introduction and Earth caused by earthquakes or artificial vibrations. .
summary or results from DSDP leg 55, the elastic (i las'tik) adj.,[< Lgr. .:lastikos <Cr. claune•m: to drtveJ,
Hawaiian-Emperor hot-spot experiment. Initial ability of a mil/erial to re111m immediately 10 its ortgu!al m;e, shop<.
Reports Deep Sea Drilli11g Projtct, v. 55, pp.3 - 31. or position after being squeezed: ~~ietclt<tl. or otherwtse tl<formetl.
Molnar, P., and J. Stock, t987. Relative motions of
,
hotspots in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans
since late Cretaceous time. Nature. v. 327.
pp. 587-591. A great deal of what we know about the interior of the Earth comes from the
Morgan. W. J., 197t. Convection plumes in the lower record ina of seismic waves that have traveled through various portions o~ the Earth.
Cont roll;d source seismic techniques provide seismic velocity informatiOn. as well
mantle. Nature, v. 230, pp. 42-43.
Morgan. W. J.. t983, Hotspot tracks and the early rift· as some detail of layering, for the crust. Seismic refraction d_ata (Chapter 4) are par-
ing of the Atlantic, Tectonophysics. v. 94. ticularly useful for mapping depth to bedrock, crustal thickness, and _uppermost
pp. t23-139.
Smith. R. B.. and L. W. Braile, 1994, The Yellowstone
mantle velocity. Seismic reflection profiles (Chapters 5 and 6) show detatls of layer-
Hotspot, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal ing within sedimentary basins and gross structu re of the deeper crust. The veloctty
Research, v. 61. pp. 121-187. structure for deeper parts of the Earth are determined from the study of earthquake
Walcott, R. L, 1970, Flexure o( the lithosphere at
seismic waves (Chapter 7).
Hawaii, Tectonophysics, v. 9. pp. 435-446.
Watts, A. B., U.S. ten Brink, P. Buhl and T. M. Brocher,
1985,A multichannel seismic study of lithospheric
flexure across the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount
ELASTIC WAVES
chain, Nawre, v. 3 t5, pp. 105-tll.
Earth materials must behave elastically in order to transmit s~ismic _wa: es. The
degree of elasticity thus determines how well a materia l. transmns a ~etsmtc wave.
When a material is subjected to stress (compress10_n . tensiOn, or s_heanng), tt under-
goes slrain (distortion in volume and/or shape; Ftg. 3.la). Elasttc behaviOr means
a b Elastic Behavior c o-vrfo'e .........
; I ~~--·"·
;'
~
~
Undeformed
--~
(/) --"~
-- (5I
Deformed (/)
when ~
CJ)
Stressed
Retums to Original
Shape when
Strain - 111/L
Stress Removed Strain~
FIGURE 3.1 a) The deformation of a material (strain) results (rom a Coree per unit area (stress) acting on the
material. b) An elastic material returns to its original shape and volume when the deform1~g s_tr~ss IS removed.
c) Materials are clastic only up to a certain level of s.trcss. the elastic limit: beyond the elastic hm1t. they unde rgo
some degree of permanent deformation. through lmttle or ducule fatlurc.
45
 46 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Elastic Waves 47

that the material returns to its original volume and shape when the stress is
removed (Fig. 3.1 b). Hooke's Law describes elastic behavior where the amount of
strain is linearly proportional to the amount of stress (Fig. 3.lc).
Earth materials may be elastic under some conditions, inelastic under others.
Two important factors are: 1) the magnitude and orientation of the deforming
stress (amount of compression, tension, or shearing); and 2) the length of time the
material takes to achieve a certain amount of distortion (strain rate). Fig. 3.1c shows
that a material may be elastic (obeying Hooke's Law) only up to a certain level of
stress, known as the elastic limit. Beyond that limit the material fail s, so that parti-
cles do not return to their original positions when the stress is removed.
Deformation beyond the elastic limit may be ductile, wherebv the material flows
like silly p utt y, or briule, like a pencil breaking or the lithosphere rupturing as an
earthquake (Fig. 3.2).
The importance of time (that is, strain rate) is illustrated by the behavior of the
asthenosphere (Fig. 3.3). Small but very rapid movement o f particles results from an
earthquake; at these very high strain rates the asthenosphere behaves elastically
and is thus able to transmit seismic waves. Lithospheric plates move at only a few
em/year; at the very slow strain rates associated with this motion, the underlying
asthenosphere deforms in an inelastic (ductile) fashion.
Body Wave Propagation
Seismic waves (Fig. 3.4) can be categorized by whether they travel through the Earth
(body waves) or along Earth 's surface (surface waves). There are many factors that
inOue~ce t~e propagation of body waves (see Telford et al., 1976. pp. 222-230); their
analys1s 1s S1mphf1ed, however, if the elastic material can be considered isotropic and
unbounded. ls?tropic means that the material has the same physical properties (for
example, dens•.ty and rigidity) in all directions. Unbounded refers to that portion of
t~e matenal WJ.th no free surfaces or interfaces. The analysis below thus pertains to
v1brauons movmg through the "body" of such a homogeneous material.
Elastic Constants An elastic constant describes the strain of a material under
a certain type of. stress. The bulk modulus (or "incompressibility") describes the
a.bthty to res lSI bemg compressed.(Fig. 3 .5). Under pressure th at is equal in all direc-
tions ("hydrostatic" for material under water; "lithostatic" for material within the
Earth), the stress is the change in pressure (~P). The strain is the change in volume
(ll V) divided by the original volume (V). The bulk modulus (k) is the stress divided
by the strain:
k =stress=~
strain ~ V/V

FIGURE 3.2 a) During ductile

where:
a) Ductile b) Brittle deforma tion particles remain connected
LIP= P ' - P =pressure change (applied stress)
Deformation Deformation and now. b) Bri11le deformation results in
P= original confining pressure
the development of fractures.
P' = confining pressure unde r the applied stress
~V = V - V' = change in volume caused by l!P
V= original volume
V' = volume under the applied stress.
The above equ.ation illustrates that if a material undergoes no volume change
(ll V = 0) when subJected to compressive stress (~P), the m~terial is said to be

FIGURE 3.4 Surface wave energy is

a. Fast Strain Rate confined to a thin. outer shell of the
Eanh. Body wave energy rad iates in
three dimensions, like the surface of a
balloon expanding through the Earth.

FIGURE 3.5 Bulk modulus. a) Material

o f volume V under confining pressure P,
shown by equal arrows. b) Material
compressed to volume V' as pressure
increases toP' (longer arrows). The bulk
modulus (k) determines the change in
volume(.~V) of the material.
FIGURE 3.3 Elasric and inclasric behavior af rile asthenosphere. a) Elastic behavior occurs at very high strain rates. as
particles are vibrated by an earthquake; the vibrations result in the passage of seismic waves. b) Inelastic (ductile)
behavior results from very slow straining of the asthenosphere: viscous now facilitates the movement of overlying
lithospheric plates.
·.

..
r
I
48 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves

incompressible (k = x ). Conversely, materials that are easy to compress (k very

small) undergo large changes in volume (large ~ V) when subjected to relatively
small compressive stresses (small ~P).
where:
E = Young's modulus
F I A = force per unit area applied to end of rod
Elastic Waves 49

I The shear modulus (or "rigidiry") refers to the ability of a material to resist L = original length of rod
I shearing (Fig. 3.6). When a cube of material is subjected to shearing, the stress is the ~L = change in length of rod.
tangential fo rce (uF) divided by the area over which the force is applied (A). The
strain is the shear displacement ( ~I) divided by the length (I) of the area acted upon Poisson's ratio states that, for a stretched rod , the ratio of transverse strain ( ~ W I W)
by !lF. For such a stress, the shear modulus (IJ.) is: to longitudinal strain (~}--/L) is:
~WI W
stress !lFI A
IJ.=--=-- u = ~LIL
strain ~ 1/1
where:
A material that shows s trong resistance to shearing (~I"' 0) is very rigid
(IJ."' ,., ). A fluid, on the oth er hand, has no resistance to shearing (~I = co) and u = Poisson's ratio
therefore lacks rigidity (IJ. = 0). · W = original width of rod
For an unbo unded, isotropic material, the elastic constants k and !J., along with u W = amount by which width contracts.
the density (p), determine how fast body waves travel through the material. It may
Lame 's constant (A) illusttates the relationship between the four constants dis-
not be practical, however, to measure those two elastic constants directly. Other
cussed above, according to:
constants may be more readil y measured and used to calculate k and iJ. (Fig. 3.7).
Youngs modulus (or the ·'stretch modulus") describes the behavior of a rod that is 21J. uE
pulled or co~ pressed. according to the equation: A= k - 3 = (1 + u)(l - 2u)

E = stress = FI A Relatively easy measurements of E and u can be used to determine A for a material;
strain ~LI L A can then be used as one o f the parameters describing the velocity of seismic waves
through the material.

FIGURE 3.6 Shear modtdus. Typ es or Uody Waves Body waves propagate by a series of compressions and
a) Configuration of material before di latations of the material (compressiona l wave) or by shearing the material back
change in shear force. Note cube with and forth (shear wave). A compressional wave is a " primary" or " P" wave because
sides of area A and length I. b) The compressional waves arrive first from earthquakes; they are also called " longitudi-
change in shear force 6 F acts across
nal" and ··push-pull" waves because particles of the material move back and forth,
the area A. One side of the cube (A) is
displaced a distance 6 1 relative to the parallel to the direction the wave is moving (Fig. 3.8a). An example is a sound wave
opposite side. accord in~ to the shear
modulus of the material.
FIGURE 3.8 Particle motions fo r body
a) COMPRESSIONAL WAVE wa•·es. a) In a compressional wave.
\Oe panicles of the material move back and
1(9-~ •\0(1 forth. paralle l to the direction the wave
~0' energy moves. b) Panicles of the material
move perpendicular to the direction or
Direction of propagation of shear wave energy. For
wave energy moving horizontally:
Propagation
a FIGURE 3. 7 a) A rod of length (L).
width (W) and cross-sectional area (A)
SV =shear wave with vertical particle
motion: SH = shear wave with horizontal
can be used to measu re Young's modulus panicle motion.
and Poisson's ratio. The rod is subjected
to a longitudinal stress (force. F. acting
over the cross-sectional area. A). Yourrgs
b) SHEAR WAVE
modulus determines the resulting
b i
'·
longitudinal strain (change in length.
i 6L. divided by the original length. L).
i Poisso11 $ratio is the lransverse strain
<0 {6 W/ W) d ivided by the longitudinal
F strain (6L/L).
 I ..

50 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Elastic Waves 51

traveling through air. The sound propagates as the air is compressed then dilated ; a FIGURE 3.9 Typical values for elastic
person's eardrum senses the density changes in the air. ELASTIC SEISMIC constants, density, and seismic velocities
Particle motions for a shear wave are perpendicular to the direction of propa- CONSTANTS VELOCiTIES for selected materials, listed according to
kg/m' increasing compressional wave velocity
gation (Fig. 3.8b). Shear waves are also referred to as "secondary" or "S" waves 10• N/m 2 gf em' km /s (\1 0). Compiled from Kinsler et al. (1982)
because they arrive from an eart hquake after the initial compressional waves, and and other sources. SJ unit~ for density are
as " transverse" waves because of their particle motions. Bulk Shear Compres. Shear kg/ m;; the literature, however, commonly
Denshy
Modulus Modulus Wave Wave gives densities in g/ cm 3.
(p)
Velocity of Body Waves (k) (~o~) ry~ r-'J
The term velocity refers to a vector, with both magnitude and d irection. In seismol- 1.0
Air 0.0001 0 0.32 0
ogy "velocity" is commonly used to refer to the magnirude component, or "speed," 0.001
with direction not necessarily implied. 1000
Water 2.2 0 1.5 0
For an elastic, isotropic. unbounded material , seismic velocities depend on the 1.0
elastic constants (k, 11-, E and u) and density (p) of the mate rial. The more resistant 920
Ice 3.0 4.9 3.2 2.3
0.92
the material is to deformation (tha t is, the greater the material's incompressibility or
2400
rigidity), the faster the waves travel. Body wave velocities are given by: Shale 8.8 17
2.4
3.6 2.6

Vp = \
f+ 4/ 3 fl.
p
f>.. + 2f.l.
= \ -p-
Sandstone 24
I 17
2500
2.5 4.3 2.6

2200
Salt 24 18 4.7 2.9
and: 2.2
2700
Umestone 38 22 2.7 5.0 2.9
2700
Quartz 33 39
2.7
5.7 3.8
where:
2600
VP =velocity of the compressional wave Granite 88 22 2.6 6.7 2.9

V s = velocity of the shear wave. 3300

Peridotite
The velocity equations lead to the following gene ralizations. 1) For the same
material, shear waves will always travel slower than compressional waves. 2) The
more rigid the material, the higher the P and S wave velocities. For example, seismic
waves speed up as they travel from the asthenosphere into the mantle part o f the
li thosphere. suggesting th at the m antle lithosphere is more r igid (higher 11-) than the
asthe nosphe re. 3) Fluids (liquids or gasses) have no shear strength (fl.= 0). This lack
of rigidity means two things: a) shear waves ca nnq~ travel through flu ids, like air,
water a nd Earth's outer core; a nd b) compressional waves travel slower through the
liquid state than through the solid sta te of the sam e material (the fluid oute r core,
for example, has lower Vr than the solid inner core) ..
O bservations suggest that the following factors generally lead to an increase in
seismic velocity. 1) Increasing depth within the Earth. As m a terials are better com-
pacted and cemented, they become more r igid a nd incompressible, increasing both
k and 11-· 2) increase in density. This generalization is commonly true for rocks, even
though the equations show an inverse relationship between velocity and density. As
rocks become more dense, they generaUy become m ore incompressible a nd more
rigid; the corresponding elastic constants (k and fl.) commonly increase more tha n
the density (p ). 3) Decreasing porosiry. With decreasing pore space, a rock becomes
more dense. At the same time, it is generally more lithified and has less flu id con-
tent. thereby increasing both k a nd fl.· 4) Change from liquid (or partial melt) to
solid. The rigidity (fl.) increases. raising both Vr a nd V 5 . Seismic waves therefore
speed up while traveling from the asthe nosphere to the m antle lithosphere, a nd
from the oute r core to the inne r core.
Fig. 3.9 gives typical physical properties for various substances, listed down-
ward according to increasing P-wave velocity. The fluids (air and water) have some
139 58
3.3
8.1 4.2
*
resistance to compression (k 0), supporting P-wave travel.. Lack of rigidity
(I!- = 0) in the fluid s contributes to low P-wave velocities and r esults in no propaga-
tion o f S-waves (V s = 0). Going down the list the materials generally become
stronger (higher k and 11-) and more dense with increasing velocity.
The graphs of P- and S-wave velocity vs. density (Fig. 3.10) were compiled
from the info rmation in Fig. 3.9. The solid portions of the superimposed curves high-
light the crudely linear relationship be tween d e nsity and seismic velocity for cr ustal
rocks 31'ld minerals (shale, sandstone, salt, limestone, quartz, granite).
Fig. 3.11 pr esents common ranges of compressional wave velocities for materi-
als e ncountered at Earth 's surface. The values on the chart illustrate that it is diffi-
cult to identify rocks based only o n velocity informa tion, because the wide ranges
result in sizeable overlaps (see also Fig. 4.22 of Telfo rd e t al., 1976).lt is clear, how-
ever, tha t seismic velocities are gene rally lowest for unconsolidated sedime nts,
higher for sedimentary rocks. still highe r for crystalline rocks of the crust, and high-
est for ultramafic rocks that formed in the m antle.
Surface Wave Motions
Surface waves can be generated when a medium h as a free boundary, such as the
surface of the Earth. As energy travels along the outer shell of the Earth, the distur-
bance is largest at the surface, d ecreasing exponentially with d epth. Fig. 3.12 show's
the particle motio ns fo r two types of surface waves, with body wave motions for
comparison (see also Fig. 6 in Bolt, 1988). Rayleigh waves have retrograde elliptical
 52 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techniques 53

• Vp + Vs ; : q, ; /\tP
FIGURE 3.10 Graph of seismic velocity
Surface Waves Direction of ~
8 :······ · ··· · ·····:·· ······ ~ ·····:··:{·· · · ··· ···
vs. density for materials presented in
Fig. 3.9. L = limestone: Q = quartz:
Propagation ~
··-·--·-·: . e : / ·:s ... ..... . . Sh = shale: Ss = sandstone. Solid
Rayleigh Wave
NBfs • Omks : · · .. .. ... .. . ....:- . ...... <!l ... . .;t. .. ~ Love Wave Earth's Surface

•®
• •
Cu!W$ : : • / : 't:: rectangles with labels arc compressional
>··· .. ··· .. ·<··: liJ~.... ()./ ··~··· ~ ········· wave velocities (V p): corresponding shear
6 ...... .... .....
. -J ·
wave velocities (Ys) shown directly
beneath by plus's. Empirical ("Nafe-
Retrograde elliptical
pa!1icle motion \...Je 0
•
0
0
•
Psrode modon In
and out of page

: ~~ •:r~.,
· i· ·F~·:.·-.~ :
Drake") curves. developed through
analysis of numerous rock and sediment Amplitude of surfsce wsve
samples. are superimposed on the graph motion deaYJBSeS with depth \
\
(Ludwig. Nafe. and Drake. 1971). \
~ : : Portions of these curves. highlighted by ·,
2 ·- . . '\ \
~ :: :::::::::.:f.-:.~:.~:·~·~·~<;.>: .::: ::: :::::::::.: . ...:::.
the solid lines. show roughly linear
relationship between seismic velocities
\
I
!
I
j
and densities for crustal rocks.
Body Waves \ i
:<i! . I
0 •.•.•.•. ~· ~· . I g/cm' = 10' kg/m'.
;
j i
i
0 1 2 3 4 i
Density {g/crrf3)

FIGURE 3.11 Approximate ranges of FIGURE 3.1 2 Partick motions of surface (Love and Ra yleigh) waves. compared to that of body

· · · · · · l-·· · ~ 1 1········ l
compressional wave velocity (Vp) for (compressional and shear) w3\·es. Solid dots represent Love wave motions out of the page: gray
8 ····························· ······················l ············ some materials encountered at Earth's dots are motions into the page.

··········· ~ ······· ~ · ~g ....... ~ ........................................................................ surface (from Grirfiths and King,l981).

~ ~ ~: ~
6 ..:........ ........<?... .'5.... .. .... ........ ~·· · · · · · · · I· · · · · · · · ~
........ . .. Receivers FIGURE 3. 13 Receivers that record
seismic wavc:s are gcner~lly laid our in a

~ ~-· · · · · · · ~
Source
~
........... ~ ···············t ··············(/)t················ ............... ~ ............. Earth's !! [J] [!] line away from the artificial source. The
source could be an explosion at the
~4 ··········· ~ ····· ........................................................ ··············· ~ ·········· ... Surface
surface or in a shallow drillhok. The
receivers depicted arc geophones.
~ · · · · · · ~ · · · · · · · · ............... · · · :· ·:· · ·· · ···· g· ~ ~-~· · ·~·· · ·· · · ·
0 ............ • . iJ& . . . . . .. ..
2 ·············I···················· ........................................... E fl)
~
0 ~ ······················ The artificial sources for surveys conducted on land may be from explosives.
such as dynamite placed in drillholes, quarry blas1s. or even nuclear tests.
Alternatively, plates coupled to the ground beneath large trucks may massage the
ground in a continuous, predetermined fashion , using a technique known as
Vibroseis (registered trademark of Conoco, [nc). Seismic studies at sea (or on rivers
motion; at the top of the ellipse, panicles move opposite to the direction or wave or lakes) commonly employ air guns towed behind a survey boat.
propagation. Love waves are surface waves that behave like shear waves; the pani- The receivers used on land, called geophones, measure ground movement
cles move horizontally in directions perpendicular to the direction or propaoation (either the displacement, the velocity, or the acceleration of the ground surface). A
(SH motion, Fig. 3.8). "' common geophone is a magnet on springs. suspended within a coil or wire
;• {Fig. 3.13); movement of the magnet through the coil generates a measurable elec-
trical current. At sea, hydrophones measure changes in water pressure caused by
CONTROLLED SOURCE SEISM IC TECHNIQUES passing seismic waves.
Seismic waves can be used to determine depths to interfaces within the Earth and Travel-Time Curves
velocities of layers between the interfaces. The velocities in turn may be used as one
pa rameter to interpret the nature of Earth materials. The discussion below develops The travel time of a seismic wave from a source to a receiver depends on the seismic
techntques that can be used for studies of the crust and the top of the mantle, where velocities or the Earth materials traversed, the distance from the source to the
refraction and reflection methods are applicable (Chapte rs 4, 5, and 6). receiver, and the geometry of boundaries separating Earth materials. A receiver
.. '!'he sources of the seismic waves can be natura l (earthquake) or produced commonly records more than one arrival of seismic energy because the energy may
arttftcJally (controlled source). For the latter, the source is at (or just below) Earth 's radiate from the source as various body and surface waves, and because the body
surface and an array or instruments are laid out on the surface to receive the direct, waves are refracted and re flected along different pat hs when they encounter
reflected, or refracted signals (Fig. 3.13). boundaries.
54 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controll ed Source Seismic Techniques ss

Fig. 3.9 shows that the bulk and shear moduli (k and 1-1-) are generally of the a Source Surface
same o rder of magnitude. The equations:

/k + 4/3 1-1-
Vp = \ P and

therefore illustrate that. for many Earth materials, V 5 = 0.6 Vr· Rayleigh waves are - Spherical
slightly slower than shear waves, so that the Rayleigh wave velocity V R = 0.9 V5 . Wave Fronts
Rayleigh waves thus travel about half the speed of compressional waves (VR = 0.5 V p)-
A wave front is a surface along which portion s of a propagating wave are in
phase. For example, ar rival of the wave in Fig. 3.14 occurs where particles first move
as the wave approaches (wave front at 0° phase). The m aximum amplitude of parti-
b
cle motion occurs a long the 90° phase wave front. Other wave fronts correspond to
I
positions where the wave goes from positive to negative amplitude (180°) and at
minimum amplitude (270°).
i ,
' r
Consider the wave fronts that represent the lead ing edges of oncoming P, S, • -r-- Raypaths always
and Rayleigh waves (Fig. 3.15a). ln a homogeneous medium (constant seismic ' Perpendicular
velocities). the body waves (P and S) radiate out ward along spherical wavefronts, to Wave Fronts
while Rayleigh waves (R) roll along the surface.
Seismic energy travels along trajectories p erpendicular to wavefronts, known FIGURE 3.15 a) l nilial wave fronls for compressional (P).shear (S). and Rayleigh (R) wave~
as rayparhs (Fig. 3.15b). Va riations in body wave velocity cause wave fro nts to devi- b) Wave fronls for propagaling. P-wave. Cha nges in velocity cause segmenls of wave fronls lo
ate from perfect spheres. thus bend ing or "refracti ng" the raypaths. Raypaths can be speed up or slow down. disloning lhe wave froms from perfecl spheres. Raypalhs lhus bend
used to analyze portions of seismic waves that m ak e it back to the sur face, as dis- (refracl) as velocity changes.
cussed below for direct. critically refracted, and refl ected waves.
A seismic trace is the recording of ground motion by a receiver. p lotted as a
function of time (Fig. 3.16). A seismic wave takes a certain amount of time to travel FIGURE 3.16 a)Seismicwaves radialing
from the source to a receiver, depending on the distance to the receiver, the path a from a source lO one receiver. b) Seismic
lrace recording gro.und mol ion by lhe
taken by the wave, and the wave's velocity. Arrival of each of the P, S, and Rayleigh receiver. as a funclion of lhe lravellime
R ~Is
!
waves starts as initial movement of the ground. fo llowed by reverberations that die from the source to lhe receiver. For
out with time (Fig. 3.16b). A body wave arrives as a rela tively short burst of energy. com rolled source sludies (seismic
Su rface waves. however, are commonly dispersed; broad (low-frequency) waves
......../
refraclion a nd reDeclion), the lravel lime
arrive first. fo llowed by progressively narrower (higher-frequency) arrivals. is commonly ploned posilive downward .

Source
b .· ,,I.
.I

--rO I'
I
-!!!
oo Phase ~...... _........ Q. i
goo Phase --~iOI
180° Phase 1
I·

270° Phase ·r
FIGURE 3.14 Wave froms are surfaces along which panicle molions of the propagating wave are in phase l,
(one complcle oscillalion is 360' of phase). For example. a surface where panicle molions reach their
maximum posilive amplilude is 90' phase; where lhey are maximum negative amplimde is 270' phase.
 56 Chapter 3 Se ismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techniques 57

FIGURE 3.17 a) Initial wave fronts for The slope of the line is the elapsed time (t.T) divided by the distance traveled
Receivers P, S. and R waves. propagating across
2 3 4 duri ng that time (t.X):
sev~ra l receivers at increasing distance
from the source. b) Travel-time graph. t.T
The seismic traces are ploned according Slope= IDe
to the distance (X) from the source to
each receiver. The elapsed time after the The slope at a given distance (X) can also be determined by taking the first deriva-
source is fired is the travel time (T).
tive at that point o n the t~avel time curve (Fig. 3.18a):

dT I' ( t.T)
dX = ~1~u t.X
Distance From Source (X} =:;::> The travel time can be written:
b~-.1--~2r--.3---T4--~5r-~6--- .·
Seismic TraC$s
/ for each of so that: .·."/
/ the Receivers
dT
dX V
The velocities for each type of wave can thus be calculated by taking the inverse of
the slope (Fig. 3.18b):

The first derivative, or slope, is thus useful in determining the velocity represented
at any point o n travel-time curves fo r different arrivals.

Direct , Critica lly Refracted, and Ref lected Waves

Seismic e nergy is partitioned when waves encounter materials of different acoustic
impedance (the product of seismic velocity and density). For example. when a com-
pressional wave traveling in one material strikes the boundary of another material
at an oblique angle, the energy separates into four phases: reflected P-wave,
reflected S-wave, refracted P-wave, and refracted S-wave (Fig. 3.19).

O n a travel-time graph seismic traces from several receivers a re plo tted side a~----~~--------
xt x ==C> x ==C>
by side, according to the horizontal distance (X) from the source to each receive r
(Fig. 3.17). Trave l time (T) is common ly plo tted as increasing downward in refrac-
tion and reflection stud ies, because T often relates to depth within the Earth. For
each of the initial P-wave, S-wa ve, or R-wave arrivals, the travel time from the
source to a receive r is linear, expressed by the /ravel-time curve:

Slope • a T/dX
dT/dX - lim (aT/aX)
where: 4'-'
- Slope at dlstanC8 X 1
T = total time fo r the wave to travel from the source to the receiver FIGURE 3.18 Travel-time curves for wave traveling in a homogenous medium. a) The stope of
X = distance fro m the source to the receiver. measured along the surface the line for each arrival is the first derivative (dT/ dX). b)Thc slope of the travel time for ca~h
V = seismic ve locity of the P, S, or R arrival. of the P, S, and R arrivals (Figure 3.17) is the inverse of the velocity.
 58 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source ~eismic Techniques 59

FIGURE 3.19 A compressional wave, The equation for the straight line representing the direct arrival on a travel-time
incidenl upon an interface alan oblique graph (Fig. 3.21b) is therefore:
angle, is splil imo four phases: P and S
waves reflected back inlo Ihe original
medium: P and S waves rcfracred inlo
~
lhe other medium. ~
Note that the velocity of the near-surface material can be determined by tak-
ing the inverse of the slope of the d irect arrival (dTd/ dX) on the travel-time graph:
dTd = ]_
dX V1
so that:

FIGURE 3.20 Raypaths for direct,

re fl ected, a nd critically refracted waves,
arriving at receiver a distance (X) from
rhe source. Tht interface separating Critically Refracted A rri val When seismic energy encounters material of

~h
,·elocity (V 1) from velociry(V 2) material
is a disrance (h) below rhe surface.
different velocity, some of the energy may be transmitied mto the second material
(Fig. 3.19). An increase in velocity sp eeds up wave fronts in the second material; to
remain perpendicular to wave fronts, raypaths bend across the interface (Fig. 3.22a).
Refraction describes the bending of raypaths as seismic waves travel from one mate·
rial to another. For a wave traveling from material of velocity Vt into velocity V 2
material (Fig. 3.22b). raypaths are refracted according to Snell 's Law:

a X -<> FIGURE 3.21 Sclecled raypalh (a) and

!ravel-ti me curve (b) for direcl wave. The
••••ID•••••• !U :t~ m m slope, or first derivative, is the reciprocal
of the velociry (V 1) .
where:
e, = angle of incidence
62 = angle of refraction
Y 1 = seismic velocity of incident medium
Y 2 =seismic velocit y of refracting medium.

a Travel Time (Seconds)

1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE 3.22 Refracrion from layer of
velocity (V1) to one of velocity (VJ.
a) Wave fronts are distoned from pcrfecr
spheres as energy is transmiued into
material or different velociry (Fig. 3.15b).
Raypaths thus bend (''re!ract") across an
interface where velocity changes. b) The
incident (61) and refracted (02) angles are
The discussion below simplifies the p roblem by considering only P-wave Refracted 2 measured from a tine drawn perpendicular
phases for an upper layer with velocity Y 1, separated by a horizontal interface from Raypath 3 Refracted to the interface between lhc rwo lay~
a layer of velocity Y 2 (Fig. 3.20). Raypaths and travel-time curves developed for the Trav9 ;.,.. 4 Wave Fronts
direct. critically refracted, and reflected arrivals are helpful as starting points to ''fl7e ,~ 5
t<->econds)
interpret both controlled source and earthquake seismic data.
b
Direct Arrival The compressional wave that goes directly from the source to
a receiver is a body wave traveling very close to the surface (Figs. 3.20. 3.2la). The
velocity of the wave (Y 1) is the distance from the source to the receiver (X) divided
by the time it takes the wave to travel directly to the receiver (Td):
X
v, =-
Td
 60 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seism ic Techniques 61

Fig. 3.23 illustrates how Snell's Law describes three situations: 1) if the veloc-
ity decreases across the interface. the ray is refracted away from the interface; 2) if
a FIGURE 3.24 a) The angle o f refraction
i~creases as the a ngle of inc idence
increases. b) If V, > V 1• the angle of
the velocity remains the same, the ray is not bent; 3) if the velocity increases across refraction (0,) can reach 90•. Critical
the interface, the ray is bent toward the interface. re fraction the n occurs. wi th energy
In all cases, as the angle of incidence increases, so does the angle of refraction following the top pa r t of the higher
(Fig. 3.24a). A special situation, known as critical refraction, occurs when the angle velocity layer. For such a case the angle
of refraction (92) reaches 90° (Fig. 3.24b). Note that critical refraction can occur only of incidence (01) is called the critical
angle (0,).
when V2 > Vt, as in Fig. 3.23c.
The angle of incidence (et) necessary for critical refraction is called the critical
angle (Sc). Setting the angle of refraction (8 2) in Snell's Law to 90° shows how the
critical angle relates to the velocities of the two materials:
sin ec sin (90°)
--=---
vt v2 .•

sin ec = _.!_
vt V2 Energy Returns to suri~ce ar Critical Angle
FIGURE 3.25 A critkally refracted
wave. traveling a t the top of the lower
sine = -
vt layer with velocity V 2. 1eaks energy back
c v2 into the upper layer a t the critical angle
(OJ.

A critically refracted wave, traveling with velocity V2 at the top of the lower
layer, excites particle motions in the overlying layer. Energy returns to the surface
along raypaths inclined at the critical angle (Fig. 3.25). Critically refracted waves are
sometimes referred to as lreadwaves because, at distance, they arrive ahead of the
direct waves that travel only in the upper, lower-velocity layer.
Fig. 3.26 shows that the travel time for a critically refracted wave (T,) can be
calculated by adding the time spent in each of the three segments of the travel path:
down through layer I (T t): horizontally along the top of layer 2 (TJ : and back up
through layer l (T;).

b ~c X ==>

a ~ < Vt b c
Interface

FIGURE 3.26 a) Geometry showi ng the three segments (T1• T1 • T,) comprising the total time
Refracted away from interface. Ray not bent. Refracted toward interface. path for a critically refracted ra y that returns to the surface. b) Travel-ti m~ _curv~ for critically
FIGURE 3.23 Behavio r of refracted ray when velocity (a) decreases, (b) remains the s.1me. a nd (c) increases across an refracted wave. The wave arrives at th" surface only a t and beyond the crl!teal dl:;tance (X,). The
interface. intercept time ( t 1) is the projection of the curve to the T-axis.
62 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techniques 63

The time for each segment is the distance travelled divide~ by the velocity for X FIGURF 3.27 Selected raypalhs and
that segment. For an upper layer of thickness (h) the travel times m the segments are: kF====i>.I c
I
travel-time gra ph for the direct (dashed)
. i and cntic<olly refracted (solid) arrivals.
h/ cose, X( :: c:itic~l distance; Xa = crossover
T, =-\-,- dista nce.
1

where:
X = horizon tal distance from source to receiver.

The total travel time from source to receiver is:

sin a,
But: ran e, = --a-
cos c The above equation is a straight line (Fig. 3.26b) with:
1 1 sin e,) X t1 = T-intercept time
so that: T - 2b ( - -- - - -- +-
I - V 1Cos a, \12 cos a, v 2
and
1
- = slope
Vz
v_J_ = sm. a The raypaths and travel -time curves in Fig. 3.27 show relationships between
By Snell's Law: th e direct and critically refracted arrivals. Note that critically refracted waves are
Vz '
observed only at and beyond a certain distance fro m the source, k nown as the criti-
so that: cal di~:tance (X,). The dotted line segment extending from Xc to the T-intercept at t 1
is therefore fictitious, because no critically refracted waves arrive at less than the
critical distance. Fig. 3.26 shows that the critical distance is a function of the critical
angle (6,) and the th ickness of the upper layer (h):
X,= 2htane,
2hcose, X
T, = -v-
· - +v-
I 2
Near the source the refracted wave, where present, arrives after the direct
wave. The refracted wave appears before the direct wave at distant receivers, how-
ever, because proportionally more of the refracted travel path is through the layer
2hcosa, with higher veloci.ty (V 2). At the crossover distance (Xcr) the direct and critically
Let: tl =--v-- (t 1 is a constant)
1
refracted waves arrive at the same tim~; beyond the crossover distance the critically
refracted wave arrives before the direct wave. The crossover distance is:

x. . = 2h \vz-
~ vi
 64 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techniques 65

I
I ·a FIGURE 3.28 a) r\ compressional wave
is re!lected buck at :>n angle (8,) ~qual to a X
FIGURE 3.29 a) Geometry used to
determine traveltime or ray reflected
from horizontal interface. b) Geometry
I the incident angle (0 1). p1• v, and p,. v,
represent the densities and
oi ray directly down 10 horizontal
I compressional wave velocities of the two
interface al depth (h). reflected back 10
the source location. The traveltime (I,) is
layers. Renection occurs when the
2h/ V1• c) The renccted wave appears as a
acoustic impedance oi the lower layer
(p2 x V,) differs from that of the upper
layer (p1 x V 1). b) V-sh ap~u raypuths for
\ \0 hyperbola on a travel-time graph. with
the T-axis intercept a1 10.

:. compressional wave from a source to

six receivers. renectcu from a horizontal
~l7~~~~~==
w~J~
interfac~.

.·
b soiJ{ce
2 2

Reflected Arrival When seismic energy traveling in one layer encounters a

layer with different acoustic impedance, some of the energy is reflected back in!O
the fi rst layer (Fig. 3. 19). Snell 's law illustra tes that the angle of reflection (0 2) is
exact ly the same as the angle of incidence (Ot), because both rays travel at the same
ve loci ty (V 1':' Fig. 3.28a): c x=C>

so that:
to ~:::0$.,._.6
I fl t = e2 j 1- v~
Reflected waves therefore fo llow V-shaped raypaths (Fig. 3.28b).
Fig. 3.29a shows that the travel time for a reflected wave. from the source to a
receiver a t horizontal distance (X). can be calculated by determining the total time
~
spo::nt in the consta nt velocity (Vt) layer. The total le ngth of the rd1ected path (L). is
the sum of the raypa th segments for the incident (Lt) and reflected(~) segments:
L = L1+ L2
2
= Vh + (X/2) 2 + Yh2 + (X/2)2
Fig. 3.29b illustrates that the time (t0 ) to go vertically down to the interface and
= 2Vh 2 + (X/2) 2 straight back up to the shot location is a constant. given by:
= Y4h2 +X 2
2h
The total travel time (T1) from sou rce to receiver is: to=-
v,
T 1 = L/ V 1 The travel-time equation for a reflected wave from a horizontal interface overlain
4-,h2;-+-X~2
V' by a constant velocity medium is therefore:
v,
4h + X 2 2 T/ = to2 + ( ~~Y x z
T2 = ---=--
, yt2
or:
4h2 X2
=vz+vz
t I ~
?h)Z ( I )2 'to· +V? I
T/ = ( ~~ + Vt xz
 66 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techniques 67

FIGURE 3.31 Selected raypaths and

a X ==e> X ==e>
X ==C> travel- time graph of direct. critically
re fracted, a nd renected waves for a
horizontal interface separating a higher
velocity (V2) laye r from a lower velocity
(V1) surficial layer. X, is the critical
distance (closest dista nce from the source
where the critically refracted wave is
observed) and X., the crossover distance
Refracted (beyond that distance the critically
refracted wave a rrives before the direct
Xcr X ==C> wave).
[<:Ji==-'==~=:>j

X=-
i
i
l rangent at Critics! Distance
................ .1 Retriict.
······ ed(StrCi;g;,
~;;;·.... t L.il7e)
~~·· ...
&. '•,
O";;:c''••.,
~ ··..
;o(Sl~···.
~·······.,,,
FIGURE 3.30 Selected raypaths and travel-time graphs illustrati ng relationships between rcnccted and other arrivals.
a) The direct and rcnectcd arrival curves are asymptotic at large distance from the source. b) Tne critically refracted
arrival curve is tangent to that of the d irect arrival a t the critical d istance (X,). (Fig. 3.31). Equations used to compute travel times for the three arrivals are sum-
marized below.

TI1is is the equation o f a hyperbola (Fig. 3.29c), with: Direct Wave:

t0 = T-axis intercept .!i_me.

~
Two special circumstances illustrate how the travel-time graph for the
reflecled wave relates to the direct and critically refracted arrivals (Fig. 3.30).
~
a) Long distance from the source. As X becomes very large. the T-intercept time (t0)
.· Td = travel time of direct wave
becomes insignificant, so that: X = horizontal distance from source to receiver

Tr= \w . . ~=Td
VI VI .
V 1 =seismic velocity of upper layer.
Criticallv R efracted Wave:

The travel-time curve (T1) for refl ections recorded <at large distances is therefore
approximately the same as for the direct wave through the ·upper layer (Td): the
reflected wave is asymptotic to the direct wave. b) Critical distance. At the critical
distance (X,), the reflected and critically refracted waves have the sa me arrival time; T, = travel time down to, along, and u p from refracting interface
th e straight line for the refracted wave is tan gem to the hyperbola of the refl ection. V 2 =seismic velocity of layer below refracting interface.
tt = T-axis intercept: '
Summary of Raypaths. Travel-Time Curves, and Equations For a horizontal ,
two-layer model (Fig. 3.20), arrivals of direct, critically refracted, and reflected 2h cos a,
tl= - --
waves show simple geometric relationships when plotted on a travel-time graph vl

I
68 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Controlled Source Seismic Techn iques . 69

h = thickness of surficial layer. FIGURE 3.33 Apparem velocity.

a) Selected raypaths and wavefront for
ec = critical angle : an emerging. critically refracted wave. A
lime JoT elapses as the wave front strikes
ec = sin -I (~:) the receiver at X1 then at X,. b) Travel-
lime graph for critically refracted arrival.
Reflected Wave: The slope is the inverse of the velocity
(V, p) that the wave appeared to travel
along the surface from X1 10 X2.

T 1 = travel time along V-shaped path, down to and back up from

reflecting interface
t0 =T-axis intercept (time to go vertically down to the .interface and
straight back up to the shot location):
b X ==e>
2h
to=v
I

True Velocity and Apparent Velocity

True velociry-~efers to the actual speed at which seismic energy (that is, a seismic wave) ~-0 :
travels through a material. The distance (C. Y) traversed along a straight line, divided ~&.,.
by the elapsed time (C.T), gives the true velocity (V,) of the material (Fig. 3.32): ; <1~
v C.Y
=-
L1Tj ~~ ~
1 C.T L .............................. ~

A seismic wave emerging at Earth's surface, however, appears to travel with a

LlX
certain velocity across a horizontal array of receivers (Fig. 3.33). The apparent veloc-
ity (V.P) is the distance (C.X) between two close ly spaced receivers, divided by the
difference in travel time (C.T) to the two receivers: FIGURE 3.34 Refracted arrivals have
Direct
higher apparent velocities than direct
Wavefronts
V = !lX Refracted Wave Fronts arrivals. Direct wave fronls are vertical:
th e time it t:tkcs a wave front to travel
'P !lT
from one receiver to the ne;tt is a
A direct arrival from a surface source has vertical wave fronts that travel hori- fu nction oi the true velocity of the
material (V,). Refracted wave fronts
zontall y (Fig. 3.34), striking geophones at a velocity equal to the shallow velocity strike the surface at an angle equal to the
(V 1). Wave fronts from a critically refracted wave emerge from the ground at an critical angk (0, ); the apparent velocity is
angle, passing geophones at a rate that appears faster than V 1•The apparent velocity v,; sin a,= v,.
for such a critically refracted wave is:

v •P =!lX
-
!lT
uX
= - --
D.Y/ VI - V t::.X
- 'c.Y
FIGURE 3.32 The true velocity (V,)
depends on the rime (~T) it takes the But: sin ec = !l y I C. X, meaning !l y = !lXsin ec
seismic energy 10 travel a distance ( ~ Y).
so that: V =V~
1
'P t::.Xsin 6c
70 Chapter 3 Seismic Waves Exercises 71

FIGURE 3.35 Selected raypaths and

From Snell's Law:
1 2 travel-time graph illustrating apparent

so that: v.P-- v-:;v;-

v, - v 2 X=O 3 velocity situations (1, 2. and 3) discussed
in text.

v.r = v2 I v,
The apparent veloci ty (V,p) measured at the surface for the critically refracted
wave is therefore exactly the same as the seismic velocity o f the refracting layer
(V2). Notice that the inverse of the slope of the line for the refracted arrival on the
travel-time graph (Fig.. 3.33b) yields the same appare nt velocity:
X ==e>
CIT l l
Slope =- = - =-
t.X v,P V2

1 l =V = V
Slope (ATI t.X) •P
2

The travel-time equation for the critically refracted wave can be used to
demonstrate the same relationship:
X
T = t-'--
' ' . v2
dT, l
Slope = - = -
dX V2
1 - v2
Slope (dT / dX) -
This result means that. for the simple. flat layer case, V 2 can be de termined by
taking the inverse of the slope (1/Y,r) for the refracted arrival. Likewise, for other
arrivals the apparem velocity is the inverse of the slope on a travel-time graph. Three
si tuations are apparent from the raypath diagram and travel-time graph in Fig.. 3.35.
1) A ray emerging almost vertically has high apparent velocity. The reflected wave
that travels straight down and up, arriving at time t0, thus appears to have mfmne
velocity. 2) At the critical distance raypaths for tf!e reflected and critically refracted
arrivals emerge at the same angle. The refract~o ·wave is therefore tangent to the
reflected wave on the travel-time curve. signifying the same appare nt velocity (Y 2) .
3) The apparelll velocity of a ray travelling almost horizontally is approximately the
same as the true velocity of the near-swface materi'al. The direct and reflected waves
observed at great distance thus have apparent velocity "' Y 1.
EXERCISES
3·1 Fis. 3.10 shows a curve plotted through data point~ from Fig. 3.9. suggest ins that com·
pression a! wave velocity and density are directly proportional. The equation:
lk + 4/3 I"
Yr = \ ' P
implies that ?-wave velocity is inversely proportional to density. Explain the paradox.
3-2 Using the information in Fig. 3.9. explain the anomalous positions of V rand Vs for ice
in Fig. 3.10.
3-3 Use equations relating seismic velocities (Yr and Vsl to elastic constants (k and 11.) and
density (p) to discuss the following questions about the Earth.
Reflected:
1)X•0=> V"' - oo
2)X - Xcr=> V"' - ~
3) X - L.srgs => Vop" V,
a) How does the crust differ from the mantle in terms of chemical composition and
density? Explain why seismic waves travel faster through the mantle than through
the crust.
b) How does the lower lithosphere differ from the asthenosphere in terms of chemical
composition and density? Explain why seismic waves travel slower through the
,· asthenosphere than through the lower lithosphere.
c) How does the asthenosphere differ from the mesosphere in terms of chemical com-
position and density? Explain why seismic waves travel faster in the mesosphere
than in the asthenosphere.
d) How does the mesosphere differ from the outer core in terms of chemical composi-
tion and density? Explain why seismic waves t ravel slower in the outer core than io
the mesosphere.
e) How does the outer core differ from the inn er core in terms of chemical composi·
tion and density? Explain why S-waves travel io the inner core but not in the outer
core. Explain why ?-waves travel faster in the inner core than in the outer core.
J -4 "THE WAVE"-was a phenomenon of the 1980's and early 1990's. Spectators at athletic
events stood up and sat down, making "THE W,AVE" propagate around the stadium.
a) Comparing the people to particles within the Earth, describe and illustrate the type
of seismic wave represented by "THE WAVE."
b) Describe and illustrate the motion the people could make to simulate other types
of seismic waves.
 72 Cha pter 3 Se ismic Waves

il
3-5 a) For the horizontally layered model below, choose an appropriate horizontal scale
and plot a travel-time graph for the fo llowing arrivals: i) direct compressional wave; ii)
direct s~ear .wave; iii) direct Rayleigh waves (include schematic portrayal of dispersion
rang~); tv) atr wave (compressional "sound" wave from the source that travels through
the a1r to the recetvers); v) renected compressional wave; vi) refracted compressional
wave.
b) For the direct P, refracted P and reflected P, sketch raypaths on the model and com-
pute the apparent velociry that would be observed at 0 m, 2500 m. and 25000 m
from the source.
3-6 For th~ model below illustrate and explain (verbally and mathematically) why critical
refraction cannot o~cur when V2 < V1•
CHAPTER 4
Seismic Refraction
Interpretation
seismic (S ilmik') adj., (< Gr. seismos, 1111 earthquake< seicin,/0
shake), rtlnting 10 an tarthquake or artificial shaking ofthe Earth.
refraction (ri frak' sh:Jn) n., (< L refractus.pp. of refringere < re·,
back, + frangere. to breakL .the bending of a ray or wave of light,
heat, or sowul as it passrs obliquely from one medium to another.
Interpret (in wr' prit) vt., (< MFr.< L. interpretari < interprcs,
negotiator), to explain the meaning of; to give ones own
understanding of '."/
seismic refraction interpretation (siz mik' ri frak' sh:Jn in wr' pr~ tii'
sh;m) n., an explanation of subsurface conditions rhatled ro rhe
bending of seismic waves in such a way that the waves were
observed at Earth :S surfact.

The refraction of seismic waves provides constraints on the composition and struc-
Earth's Surface ture of certain parts of the Earth. Waves refract because they encounter changes in
seismic velocity. Velocity changes relate to changes in bulk modulus, rigidity and
density; measuring how waves refract thus tells us something about those properties
Refractor in regions traversed by the seismic waves.
The refraction method is most useful where there is an abrupt increase in
velocity with d e pth, because critically refracted P-waves eventually arrive ahead of
other waves (Fig. 3.27). Fig. 4.1 illustrates two problems addressed effectively:
1} Crustal thickness. Seismic waves bend abruptly when refracted from the crust
3-7 The sedimentary section off the east coast of the United States is cut by domal struc- into the underlying, higher velocity mantle. It was the observation of these critically
tures that could be either g ranite intrusions or salt diapirs. Based on the information in refracted waves that led Mohorovicic to the discovery of the crust/mantle boundary
Figs. 3.9 to 3.11, explain how you might combine observations from seismic refraction (or "Moho") in the early par t of the 20th century. 2) Depth to Bedrock. Hard rock
and gravity data to a) find the domal structures; and b) distinguish between the two underlying loose material generates a critical refraction; the "bedrock" depth is
types of domes. In addition to drawing cross sections and graphs, be specific about the thereby mapped for engineering, groundwater, or other applications. The method is
physical properties that each method is able to resolve (see Figs. 1.2 to 1.4).
also effective at resolving seismic velocity of material below refracting interfaces;
internal crustal velocities a nd the velocity of the uppermost mantle may thus be
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY mapped.
Seismic refraction experiments must be long enough so that critically
Bolt, B. A., Earthquakes, \988. New York: W. H. by A. E. ~axwell, New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Freeman and Comp., 282 pp. refracted events appear before other events on travel-time graphs (Fig. 4.2). As a
Inc., pp. 53-84.
G riffiths. D. H ., and R. F. King, 198\ , A pplied "first arrival," th e slope (and hence apparent velocity) of the event can be readily
Ramsey, 1. G., and M. I. Huber. 1983, The Techniques
Geophysics for Geologists and Engineers: The of Modern Structural Geology. Volume /: Strain determined; as a secondary arrival, the event may be masked by interference from
Elements of Geophysical Prospecting (2nd ed.), A nalysis, New York: Academic Press. 307 pp. direct, reflected, or other refracted events. Receivers therefore must extend well
New York: Pergamon Press. 230 pp.
Suppe, J., Principles of Structural Geology, 1985, beyond the crossover distance for the deepest refractor of interest. A general rule is
Kinsler, L. E., A. R. Frey, A. B. Coppens, a nd J. V. Englewood Cliffs, N. 1.: Prentice Hall, Inc.• 537 pp.
Sanders, 1982, Fundamentals of Acoustics (3rd that the length of the array of receivers ("spread length") should be at least twice
Telford. W. M., L. P. Geldart. R. E. Sheriff. and D. A.
ed.), New York: John Wiley and Sons, fnc .. 480 pp.
Keys, 1976, Applied Geophysics, Cambridge: the crossover distance. Unlike reflection experiments, where the spread length is
Lay, T., and T. C. Wallace, 1995, Modem Global Cambridge University Press. 1976,860 pp. about equal to the depth of the deepest retlector, seismic refraction spread lengths
Seismology, International Geophysics Series
Twiss, R. J., and E. M. Moores. 1992, Strucwral are about five to ten times the depth of the deepest refractor.
Number 58, New York: Academic Press, 521 pp.
Geology, New York: W. H. Freeman and Comp.,
Ludwig, W. J., J. E. Nafe. and C. L. Drake. 1971, 532 pp.
Seismic refraction, In: The Sea (v. 4, part I), edited

73
 74 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Interpretation Models 75

a X ==C>
b X==C> INTERPRETATION MODELS
The theory for the refraction of seismic waves is developed in Chapter 3.
t1 Interpretation of seismi c refraction data involves the identification of linear arrivals
on travel-time plots (Fig. 4.3). The slopes of lines drawn through arrivals rel ate to
velocities encountered by direct and critically refracted waves. For layers with con-
stant velocity separated by horizontal interfaces, apparent velocities determined
from slope inverses correspond exactly to true layer velocities (Burger, 1992,
pp. 72-74). Where interfaces dip, true layer velocities do not correspond exactly to
apparent velocities; a more elaborate analysis is necessary (see, for example,
pp. 281-284 of Telford et al. , 1976; pp. 433-439 of Sheriff and Geldart, 1995; pp.
124 -126 of Fowler, 1990).
h. h. The models below show travel-time graphs that would result from a single
10 - 70km 1 ·100m horizontal in terface, several horizontal interfaces, and a single dipping interface.
Equations developed from the models can be used in two ways (see Chapter 1):
1) forward modeling gives anticipated travel-time graphs; and 2) inversion yields
velocities, thicknesses, and dips of interfaces from actual refraction profiles.
FIGURE 4.1 Two p roblems addressed effectively by seismic refraction. a) Critical refraction from the top of the mantle
facilitates mapping of crustalthicknc~s. b) The strong contrast in velocity between soft (unconsolidated or weathered) material
and firm bedrock results in critical refraction. Note that traveltime (T) is commonly plotted downward in seismic refraction
a nd reOcction studies, because traveltime relates to depth within the Earth.

===<>=I
i
i
i

,.
.....

X ==>

FIGURE 4.2 In order to see a critical refraction clearly

as a first arrival. the spread length should be at about
twice the crossover distance.
FIGURE 4.3 Refraction interpretation from rravel-rime graph. ·a) Seismic traces showing. events on uninterpreted record.
b) Straight lines drawn through events define direct and critically refractetl arrivals. c) Events ploued on travcl-time.graph,
with the T-axis intercept (t 1) , slopes lor direct and critically refracted a rrivals. critical distance (X,). and crossover distance
(X") identified. d) Simple horizontal interface model used to interpret a rrivals.

·-
76 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction lnt~rpretation Interpretation Models 77

Single Horizontal Interface

X -=> X==-
i 8
t1 •3S
b
The theory behind a critical refraction fr om a single, horizontal interface was devel-
I tI
Normal Thin
.
oped in Chapter 3. The mod el (Fig. 4.3d) involves an interface at depth (h), separat- ~ Bs
Crust
ing a lower velocity (V 1) from a higher velocity (V2}: The travel time (T ) to a
receiver at horizontal distance (X) from the source is:
'
i
~
f..

~
j
ha10-20
Moho
where:

. . 2hcos6,
t 1 = T-ax1s Intercept = - - -
tt
VI
x==- c
0, = critical angle = sin- 1
(~J Thick
Crust
r,• 13s
X, = critical distance = 2 h wn 6,
.
Xcr = crossover distance = 2h Jv2 +vi
- --
' V2- V I

The above equations can be forwa rd modeling equations; when applied to a hypo-
thetical model (Fig. 4.3d), they yield a predicted travel-time graph (Fig. 4.3c).
Inversion, on the other hand, can be used to interpret the velocity structure
from an observed refraction profile (Fig. 4.3a). The intercept time (t 1) and the slopes
of the direct and refracted arrivals are read directly from the travel-time plot
1 V, ~ 6 km/S
(Fig. 4.3b,c). The obse rved slopes a nd interce pt time can then be solved for the true
t
velocities (V 1, Y 2) and the depth to the interface (h), using the following inversion
equations: j FIGURE 4.4 Comparisons or intercept limes (t 1) a nd crossover distances (X") for different crustal thickness. The
1 ' grossly simplified models illustra te the approximate spread lengths (2X~) necessary to_resolve the d~pth to M~ho (h).
Slope of Direct = vl ::) VI = The travel-time graphs were determined using forward modeltng equattons present~d rn text. InversiOn equattons can
1 slope of direct be used to interpret crustallhickness if the T-axis intercept (t 1) and apparent veloctltes are read from observed
refraction profiles. a) The distance from the source to the farthest receiver must be about 350 km to resolve the c~stal
l 1 thickness in regions of typical continental c rust: the T-axis intercept is a boutS s. b) Oceans and rcg10ns or very thtn
Slope o f Refracted =-::) V , = - - -- --
V2 - slope of refracted continental crust require abou t ! 50 km spread lengths. ':here a shorterT·intercept of about3 s might be expe~ted. c)
Very deep Moho beneath some mountain ranges necessnates very long s pread lengths (- 600 km), and resu lts tn large

e, = sin - I (~~) T-axis intercept times(- 13 s).

crust is thin (continental rift zones; passive continental margins; ocean ?asi~s), t 1 is
t
1
= 2h cos6, ~ h = ~ small. Similarly, the crossover distance (Xcr) is large where the crust 1s thtck and
V1 2cos6, small for thin crust. In order to resolve crustal thickness, refraction spread lengths
Fig. 4.3d, in this case, represents the inversion model that results from the observed must be very long ("" 300-600 km) in continental areas, much s horter
refraction profile (Fig. 4.3a). ("" 100-150 km) in the oceans.

Crustal Thickness The single-layer case illustrates the utility of the seismic
refraction method to map changes in crustal thickness (Fig. 4.4). The T-axis inter-
cept (t1) can be tho ught of as a "delay time"; the critically refracted arrival from a
deep Moho is delayed (Fig. 4.4c) , compared to the arrival where the Moho is shal-
low (Fig. 4.4b). Thus, relative to areas of normal-thickness continental crus t. t 1 will
be large where continental crust is thick (collisional mountain ranges). Where the
Depth to Bedrock Hard bedrock beneath weat_h ered mat~rial or loose sedi-
mentary deposits results in cri tical refraction. Refraction surve y 1~g IS therefore an
effective too l fo r mapping changes in depth to bedrock 1n eng1neenng proJects
(Fig. 4.5). The major difference between crustal scale (Fig. 4.4) and bedrock survey-
ing (Fig. 4.5) is that the de pth to the re fractor is much shallower(.., 1-100 m deep)
for the latter. The receiver arrays only need to extend lOs to lOOs of meters fro m
the source, compared to lOs to 100s of kilometers for crustal surveys.
78 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Int erpret ation Interpretation Models 79

b a Yap- Yt / sinBt.:s- Y3 v. Y
".
v
""'" , 1s1n6,,.. .. •
FIGURE 4.6 Model for critical refraction
from three horizontal intc~(nces. a)
t, • 0.001 s Shallow Yap • Y1 / sln6,,2 • Y2-.. . __ ""'- 6 1,3 \ ,,
6 4 Increasing velocity with depth
l""i:""""~~~ (V, > V3 > V2 > V 1) results in a critical
1- Bedrock
refraction from each of the interface~
~ Each refracted ray emerges at an angle
indicating the velocity o! the
corresponding refracting layer. b) Travel-
Spresd Lsn¢1 time graph resulting from (a). The
<l- •20m =>
inverse~ o! the slopes for the direct and
refracted arrivals indicate the four layer
velociti e~

b X =<>
x=
c
Deep
t, -0.03 $ Bedrock

FIGURE 4.5 Approximate T-axis inte rcept times {t 1), crossover d istances (X"). and required spread lengths third critical refraction :
!or bedrock depths ( h) that are (a) moderate; ( b) shallow; and (c) deep. Travel-time gra phs were determined
using forward modeling equations presented in text. sin 61_4 = V/V 4
sin 62.4 = V2/V 4
Several Horizontal Interfaces sin e3_4 = V 3/V4
Consider the case of several horizontal interfaces, where the velocity of a deeper where ti 1•2, 623 , and 63 .4 are the critical angles for the second, third, and fourth layers,
layer is always greater than that of the layer above (V4 > V3 > V 2 > V 1 in Fig. 4.6). respectively.
A ray bends more and more toward the horizontal as it crosses deeper and deeper Apparent velocities reco rded along Earth's surface (Fig. 4.6a) are inverses of
interfaces, traveling ho rizontally along the critically refracting layer (Fig. 4.6a). Rays slopes observed on the travel-time graph (Fig. 4.6b):
refracted along a higher-velocity interface at depth emerge at higher angles than
those from shallow, lower-velocity refracto rs; the apparent velocities corresponding v1
v ap.'= -
sin-
6- .2 = v 2
to deep refr actors are thus higher than those associated with shallow interfaces. 1
Each critically refracted ray bends across successive interfaces, according to
Snell's Law (Fig. 4.6a):
v
v ap3 =sin
- -1-= v
61.3 3
first critical refraction:
v1
v ap4 = - -
sine 1.4
- = v4
second critical refraction:
where V apl• VapJ • and V•P' are the apparent velocities for refractions fro m the sec-
- ond, third, and fourth layers, respectively.
80 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Interpretation Models 81

a FIGURE 4. 7 a) Generalized refraction

model for seve ral horizontal interlaces.
An example for a 4-/ayer case (Fig. 4.6) is given below.
There are n layers: layer velocity increases i n = 1 ~ Direct Arrival
with depth (V. > v._, ... v, > v,). 1
. X
b) Travel-time graph showing T-axis
J travel ttme: T 1 = V
intercept times ( t1,t2, . •• 10 _ 1) and slopes I
.
__________________ .,:______________
for direct and critically refracted arrivals
from (a). See text for travel-time
i T-Axis intercept: 0
.
~-- - - - --------· -··- ---

. equations for each event. 1 critical distance: Q

·-··-·-· -·- ·-- ----..::-----·----- ----:-------~------·---··

l n = 2 ~ 1st Refraction

.
travel ttme: T 2 = t 1 +
X
V
2

.• . . 2h 1coseu
T-Ax1s tntercept: t 1 = V
I

critical distance: xc;·= 2h, tan el .~

n = 3 =2nd Refraction
X
travel time: T 3 = t2 + V
J

~
. . 2h 1 coseu 2h2 coseu
1 T-Axts tntercept: t 2 = V + V
j I 2

critical distance: xd = 2h, tan eiJ + 2h2tan e2J

n = 4 = 3rd Refraction
. X
travel ttme: T 4 = t3 + V
J

For a model with several horizontal interfaces (Fig. 4.7), the generalized critical distance: xc3 = 2hl tan e, .. + 2h2 tan 9v + 2h3tan a)A
travel-time equation for a critical refraction fro m the top of layer "n" is (Telford
et al., 1976, p. 280-281; Burger. 1992, p. 79-80): The model (Fig. 4.7a) can be applied to any number of horizontal layers, as
long as velocity does not decrease with depth. Inversion of observed data (travel-
X time graph in Fig. 4.7b) can be accomplished by: 1) reading the velocities (V 1, V2,
T. = '•-t + y ... , V.) as the inverses of the slopes of the direct and refracted arrivals; 2) reading
n
the T-intercepts (t 1, ~ •• • . , t 0 _ 1); then 3) solving for the thicknesses (h 1, h2 , • •• , h._ 1)
where: from the above equations.

T. = travel time down from the source, horizontally along the top of R efraction Surveys of Oceanic Crust The character of a typical ophiolite
layer n, and back up to a receiver at X sequence (Fig. 2.24) was first recognized through seismic refraction observations in
tn-t = T-axis intercept for the refraction from layer n: ocean basins (for example, Fig. 4.8). Based on inversion of many refraction profiles,
a consistent pattern of P-wave velocity and thickness has emerged (Fig. 4.9a):
~ 2 h.cose.
t =L.J 1 a.n
n-1 i•l V; Velocity:
direct arrival in water "" 1.5 km/ s
X = horizontal distance from the source to the receiver refraction from Layer 1 =- 2 km/ s
v. = velocity of layer n. refraction from Layer 2 "" 5.07 :!: 0.63 km/ s
82 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Interpretation Models 83

Source to Receiver Distance (km) a

h 1 = 4.5 km
0 10 20 30 Water V1 -1.5km/s
== 0.5 km
Water

5 b 0
\./-
"'""~ :Critical Distances:;
\( • Xc 1-10.2km
······ "·<S':~... ...... . Xc2•3.21 km 5
. "
:. . . . '"·";Si xc3- 6.35km
\. X<>~•18.7 km

10 15 ~
T-lntercepts:
t1 - 3.97s
t2 •6.19s 20
t3 • 6.76s
14- 7.73$
~~~~~~-r~~~~--~r-~+-~425
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
FIGURE 4.9 a) Model of layer velocities and thicknesses of an ophiolite, detennined by averaging
results of seismic refraction studies of oceanic crust. Modified from The Solid Earth: An lmroduction to
Global Geophysics, hy C. M. R. Fowler, © 1990. b) Travel-time graph computed through forward
modeling of the velocities and thicknesses in (a).

FIGURE 4.8 Seismic refraction profile recorded in an ocean basin. Modified from Exploration Seismology,
2nd ed.. by R. E. Sheriff and L. P. Geldart, © 1995. A sonobuoy was tossed into the water: the ship then
periodically fired an air gun as it moved away (to the right}. The horizontal scale gives the distance from the refraction from Layer 3 "" 6.69 ± 0.26 km/s
source (ship} to the receiver (sonobuoy). The vertical scale represen ts the elapsed time between firing the air
gun and arrival of events at the sonobuoy. The linear event extending through the origin is the direct arrival.
refraction from Layer 4 "" 8.13 ± 0.24 km/ s
Linear events observed at greater d istances on the record. some as first arrivals. are refractions from within Th ickness:
the crust and from the Moho. Hyperbolic events are reOections from the bottom of the water (see Chapters 5
water "" 4.5 km
and 6).
Layer 1 "" 0.5 km
Layer 2"" 1.71 ± 0.75 km
Layer 3 "" 4.86 ± 1.42 km .

•..
 84 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Interpretation Models 85

Deep-sea drilling and comparisons with ophiolite sequences exposed on land have FIGURE 4 .1 1 a) Model showing velocity
led to the following stratigraphy: increase with depth, but with a tnin layer
(h1 very small). b) The first refraction,
water column from the top of the thin layer, arrives
Layer 1 = deep-sea sediments either after the direct arrival. or after the
second refraction (o r after both ); it rna y
Layer 2 = basalt (volcanics and shallow intrusions) be difficult to identify the first refraction
Layer 3 =gabbro (deeper intrusions) on the record. c) If the first refraction is
Layer 4 = peridotite (uppermost mantle; gives Moho refraction). overlooked, inversion equations yield a
model with velocity (V 1) directly over the
The general appearance of refraction profiles in areas of oceanic crust thus consists X~ V1 material. The thickness ("h1")
of a direct arrival through the water and refractions from four interfaces (Fig. 4.9b). b computed for the V1 layer will be too
large. and the depth (also ''h 1") to the top
Problem Situations There are two common situations where the equations of the V, layer will be too small.

presented above will yield erroneous results: a low-velocity layer and a thin layer.
1. Low-velocity layer (V2 < V 1 < V1) . There is no critical refraction from the layer
with velocity V 2 (Fig. 4.10a). It wilt appear from the travel-time graph that the
layer with velocity V3 lies directly below the layer with Vt (Fig. 4.10b). The
equations will yield no layer with V 2, and the layer with Vt will be too thick
(Fig. 4.10c).
2. Thin !ayer. (V1 > V 2 > V 1, bw with h 2 very small). The layer with velocity V 2 is
so thm (Ftg. 4.lla) that nowhere is the critical refraction observed as a first
....

a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~·
FIGURE 4.10 a ) Model of low-velocity
(V1) layer, sandwiched between higher
velocities (V1, V1) . No critical refraction

........................"t............................................;:;;c:';;;;;;;;·;;;;;;;·;;;;;;;;;;;..; rrh 1
can occur from the low-velocity layer
(Fig. 3.23a). b) Travel-time graph for (a).
c
The only critical refraction observed is
rrh2 from the layer with velocity (V1).
c) Model that would result from
inversion of velocities (V 1 and V1 ) and
intercept time (" t1")determined from
X =e>
b (b), using the two-layer equations
presented in te xt. Note that "h 1" is
thicker than the upper layer, a nd tha t arrival ( Fig. 4.llb).The thin layer wo uld have to be recognized through a sec-
the low· velocity layer is absent. ondary arrival; if it is not recognized, the equations yield an erroneous depth
10 the top of the layer with velocity V 3 (Fig. 4.llc). The sediment layer overly-
"tt- If ing oceanic crust (oceanic " Layer 1") is often so thin that its critical refraction
nowhere appears as a first arrival (Figs. 4.8, 4.9).

Reduced Travel-Time Plots In the literature, seismic refraction records are

often plotted not with the actual travel time, but with a reduced traveltime. That is
because, when seismic traces are plotted according to actual travel time (Fig. 4.12a),
the slopes o f refracted arrivals often appear similar; it may be difficult to see and
identify the different events.
Identification of arrivals may be improved by replotting the seismic traces on
a reduced travel-time graph (Fig. 4.12b). On such a display of the data, an amount of
time is subtracted from the actual travel time (T) of each seismic trace according to
the distance (X) from the source to the receiver and a reduction veloci ty (V,.d):

X
T ,ed = T - V
red
 86 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation lr:terpretation Models 87

a '\
Distance From Source X ==:::>
FIGURE 4.12 a) Positions of direct and
critically refracted arri\'als on seismic
refraction profile. b) Same profile as (a),
a) Shooting Downdip b) Shooting Updip
(1 but plotted with a reduced traveltime of
Low Apparent Velocity High Apparent Velocity <:;==X
, \ -Direct 0/1 -3 km,ls) 6 km/s. Arrivals with apparent velocity
t2 \ of 6 km/s are horizontal on the graph.
-First Refraction 0/2 - 4 km,ls) Velocities < 6 km/s have positive slopes
t3 (toward the right); velocities> 6 km /s
/Second Retraction (Y, - 6 km/s) slope in a negative direction (toward the
'·, left).
\ 'fllfrrt /f,
\ 9frq,.,.,
\ vuon /1,
\ tv, .. 8 X c:::::> <:;==X
\
\ lctrv8)
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\.
\
\
\
\

FIGURE 4.13 Seismic survq of a dipping rrfractor. a) Selected raypaths shooting toward receivers in a downdip
b Distance From Source X -c.
direction. Raypaths for the critical refraction emerge at a shallow angle. resulting in an apparent velocity (V,.) lower

Cll
t1 than the true velocity (V 2) . b) When the receivers arc updip from the source, rays emerge at a steeper angle; an apparent
velocity (V2.) higher than V2 results.

~ w t2
~ ~
It t3 6 km/s refraction might be from crystalline basement. The higher velocity arrival
~
f.:;: ~ (8 km/s; probably from the Moho) stands out because of its negative slope.
"tl '
1-
8 Single Dipping Interface
-5
~
~ For a dipping interface (Fig. 4.13). apparent velocities observed at the surface are
not equal to the true velocity of the refracting layer. When the source shoots
downdip toward the receivers, the apparent velocity is lower than the true velocity
(Fig. ~.13a) ; a velocity higher than the true velocity results from shooting updip
where: (Fig. 4.13b).
The dipping interface can be resolved by recording a reversed refraction pro-
T,.d = reduced travel time. file. A profile is shot in one direction (as from a shotpoint at A to receivers extend-
The same information for the travel-time graph in Fig. 4.12a is plotted in ing to B ), then in the other direction (from B to A: Fig. 4.14a). The seismic
Fig. 4.12b with a reduced travel time of 6 km/s. Instead of plotting actual travel time travel-time records (Fig. 4.14b) are superimposed with the same horizontal and ver-
(T), the reduced travel time (T,.d) is plotted, where: - tical scales, then analyzed according to the equations presented below (see also
Burger, 1992, p. 80-85; Telford et al., 1976, p. 281-284).
X For a dipping interface, the intercept times shooting in the downdip and updip
T,.d = T - 6 km/s directions are not equal:
The reduced travel-time display makes it easier to identify events relative to an
apparent velocity (V ap) of 6 km/s: I) events with v.P < 6 km/s have positive slopes;
where:
2) events with v.P = 6 km/s are horizontal; and 3) events with v.P > 6 km/s have
negative slopes. The positive slopes thus show that the direct arrival and first refrac- t 1d = T-axis intercept when shooting downdip (from A to B)
tion hav ~ velocities of less than 6 km/s (perhaps indicating sedimentary strata). The t 1u = T-axis intercept when shoo ting updip (from B to A).
 l
88 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Interpretation Models 89

8 Low Apparent Velocity ==:>- FIGURE 4.14 A reversed refraction

profile is the combination of surveys
~~ <J=== High Apparent Velocity ~<¢ shooting in do wndip and updip directions
C:J~o C:J~o ( Fig. 4. 13). a) A ray from the source at A,
shooting to a rec~ive r a t B. traverses the
where:
same course as a ra y from the shot at B V = apparent velocity shooting downdip
shooting to a receiver at A. The ~ . up d'tp
reciprocal times TAB andTBA in (b) are
Vzu = apparent velocity shooung
therefore exactly the same. Apparent V1 = velocity of the overlying layer
velocities V14 and v,, in (b) are different, ec = critical angle
because the rays emerge at different a = dip of the interface.
angles. b) Superposition of travel-time
curves for the downdip (Fig. 4.13a) and The dip of the interface and the critical angle can be determined by solving for
updip ( Fig. -I.Ub) surveys. Note that,
y 1d and Vzu simultaneously:
b because the interface is deeper beneath
Shot B. the intercept time (1 1,) for updip
{

i sin - 1(V1/ V2d ) - sin_, (V 1/ V,J

shooting is greater than when shooting a = 2
downdip ( 110).
siri- 1 (V 1/ V2d) + sin- 1 (VtfV2J
e.= 2

The true velocities can be determined from the travel-time graph (Fig. 4.14b)
by reading the velocity of the overlying layer (V1) as the inverse of the slope of the
di rect arrival. and then solving fo r the veloc1ty of the refractmg layer (V2) from
Snell 's Law:
1
V1 = slope of direct arrival
VI
v2 = -sinO.
-TAa The travel times to a receiver at horizontal distance (X), shooting downdip
(Td) and updip (Tu), are:

The travel time from the shot at A to a receiver at B, however, has to be the same as X
the travel time from the shot at B to a receiver at A , because the exact raypath is uti- Tu = tlu + V
2u
lized. Thus the reciprocal times must be equal:
where:
TAB = TaA
where: 2hdcos ec
tid= v
I
TAB = travel time from shot at A to receiver at B
T 8 A =travel time from shot at B to receiver at A. 2hucosec
tlu = V
l
In picking even ts on a reversed refraction plot (Fig. 4.14b), one can verify if refrac- hd = perpendicular distance to interface when shooting downdip:
. l
I tions are from the same interface by determining if TJ\0 = TnA · If reciprocal times
are not the same, the analysis below will be erroneous. VI t i d
h = --
The apparent velocities for the refracted arrival when shooti ng in the downdip d 2cosec
and updip directions are: hu = perpendicular distance to interface when shooting updip:
V =
vI VI tlu
h = --
z~ sin (ec +a) u 2cosec
90 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation

The vercical depths to the interface below points A and B, respectively, are
(Fig. 4.14a): a
hd
zd = -
coso:

z• = -
h.
COSCl

where:
zd = vertical distance to interface when shooting downdip.
z. = vercical distance to interface when shooting updip.
(Note that Zd and z. are sensitive to error in intercept times; t 1d and t 1• should be
determined carefully from the records).
The method can be expanded for multiple dipping interfaces, equations
becoming complex with more layers (Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, p. 433-439). The
utility of a multiple dipping-layer model should be examined carefully before appli-
cation; assumptions about constant velocity within layers and uniform directions of
strike and dip of interfaces may not be valid.

TECTONIC INTERPRETATION
OF SEISI".'IJC REFRACTION PROFILES
b
The seismic refraction method is a useful tool to resolve crustal thickness (Fig. 4.4)
and, in places, gross velocity layering within the crust (Fig. 4.9). For some regions,
refraction velocity determined for the uppermost mantle can be an indicator of
thermal state.

Maps of Crustal Thickness and Uppermost Mantle Velocity

The depth to the crust /man tle boundary (Moho; Fig. 2.8) often relates to tec-
tonic history. Regions of plate divergence commonly have shallow Moho depths
(continental rift zones, Figs. 2.13b, 2.14a; passive .continental margins, Fig. 2.14c;
mid-ocean ridges, Figs. 2.13c,2.14b,c). Low mantle refraction velocities can indicate
zones where hot asthenosphere is shallow at mid-ocean ridges and continental rifts
(Fig. 2.24).
The Moho geometry is altered considerably where lithospheric plates con-
verge. At subduction zones, the oceanic Moho deepens on the subducting plate,
while oceanic to continental depth Moho occurs on the overriding plate (Figs. 2.16,
2.17).ln continental collision zones, the crust may thicken to twice its normal value
for continental areas (Fig. 2.18).

Uppermost Mantle Velocity, United States Fig. 4.15 reveals changes in FI~ U~E 4.15 . a) Map of c?mpressional-wave velocity (km/ s) for the uppermost mantle beneath the United States. from
uppermost mantle velocity based on critical refraction. Compressional-wave veloc- se1smJc refracuon observations. Fro m Introduction to Geophysics, by G. D. Garland,© 1979. Modified with p ermission of
ity is affected by changes in rigidity (Figs. 3.9, 3.10), which relate to temperature. W. B. Saunders Comp.,Toronto. Shaded region corresponds to anomalously low velocity ( < 7.9 km/ s). b) Major tectonic
features of the Umted States that relate to observations in (a) and in Fig. 4.16.
Normal upper mantle velocity of about 8.1 to 8.2 km/ s occurs in areas where litho-
spheric plates are cold (continental craton). Where hot mantle is shallow (Basin and
Range continental rift zone; Columbia Plateau/Yellowstone hotspot trace), velocity
drops to as low as 7.8 km/s. Velocity is also low in the magmatic arc region of the
91
 ~~•sm1c Kerract1on Interpretation •
j
I Cascade Mountains. Relatively high velocity occurs in the Sierra Nevada
Mountains, due to a cold slab of lithosphere that remains from past subduction.

I Moho Depth, North America The map of crustal thickness for North
I America (Fig. 4.16) is based largely on seismic refraction observations ( Mooney
and Braile, 1989). The normal cratonic thickness is about 35 to 45 km. Regions that
II
have undergone continental rifting (Basin and Range Province; Gulf and Atlantic

~I
coastal plains) have thin crust. Thick crust occurs beneath the region of high topo-
graphy in the Rocky Mountains. Subdued crustal roots are associated with the
Paleozoic continental collision zone in the Appalachian Mountains, and with the
remnant subduction zone of the Sierra Nevada Mountains.

Mo ho Depth, Central E uro pe Se ismic refraction studies in central Europe

reveal changes in the depth to the Moho that relate to tectonic history (Fig. 4.17). In
the older parts of the continent (Bohemian Massif; European Platfofll}), average
crustal thickness is about 35 km. A thick crustal root occurs in the continental colli-
sion zone of the Eastern Alps; a smaller depression of the Moho rims the so fter
zone of collision in the Carpathian Mountains. Thin crust corresponds to young con-
tinental rifting in the Pannonian Basin.

Crustal-Scale Cross Sections

Oceanic <;rust The three cross sections in Fig. 4.18 reveal geometry and
compressional-wave velocity of oceanic crust and upper mantle at plate boundaries
and continental margins. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge profile (Fig. 4.18a) shows results
.of the classic study by Talwani et al. (1965). The composite of many refraction lines
indicates thin crust' and low uppermost mantle velocity in the vicinity of the ridge
(compare with Figs. 2.13, 2.14, and 2.24a).
The right side of Fig. 4.18b, based on refraction lines off the east coast of
South America, reveals seismic velocity and layer thickness typical of oceanic crust
(ophiolite, Figs. 2.24a and 4.9). Approaching the passive continental margin on the
west, the crust thickens as the water and sediment layers thin and the Moho deep-
ens (Fig. 2.14c).
Fig. 4.18c, based on refraction profiles recorded in the Pacific Ocean, shows
oceanic crust at both diverging and converging plate boundaries (Fig. 2.17a). A t the
axis of the Juan de Fuca R idge, shallow Moho and low upper mantle velocity is
indicative of an active spreading center (Fig. 2.17b}. Approaching the Cascadia
Subduction zone on the east, the Moho of the Juan de Fuca plate is seen descending
beneath the accretionary wedge.

Continental C rust Fig. 4.19 shows velocity and crustal thickness associated Normal Thickness
with plate boundaries cutting continental lithosphere. The western part of Fig. 4.19a Thick Crust
reveals thin crust and relatively flat Moho associated with the San Andreas Thin Crust Continental Crust
Transform boundary. The crust thickens beneath the Sierra Nevada mountains,
depicting a preserved root of the former convergent plate boundary. On the east, [[[] < 35 km D 35 - 40km E j 45- 50 km
relatively thin crust("" 30 km} and low uppe r mantle velocity (7.8 km/ s) coincide
with continental rifting in the Basin and Range Province.
In the Alps (Fig. 4.19b), crust thickens due to plate convergence tha t led to
• 40-45 km Iii> 50 km
continental collision. Moho refractions (Vp = 8.1 to 8.2 km/ s) can be traced south- FIGURE 4. 16 Map of crustal thickness (km) in Nort h America. compiled primarily from observations of Moho
refractions. From The Seismic str ucture of the continental crust and upper mantle of North Ame n ca. by W. D.
ward to depths below 50 km, as crust of the Euro pean continental margin under- Mooney and L. W. Brai le. in Tile Geology of North Amerrca-A11 Overview, ed. by A. W. Bally and A. R. ~almer.
thrusts rocks of the collision zone. On the south, Moho depths of 30 to 35 km e 1989. Modifi ed with permission of the Geological Soc1ety of Amenca, Boulder. Colorado. Compare wnh map
represent "exotic" crust of the overriding continent. of major ~ectonic features in the United States ( Fig. 4. 15b).

93
 a 0
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
b) Tectonic Map

5
E
..::.c: 10

15
48'
0 500 1000 1500 2000km

a) Index Map
b South American Margin
2.14
Atlantic Ocean
0

0 100 200km - Inner Corpe!hlono

~
~
EastemAipno
ntaricr
Rl Ncoge." ' Vok:anlco
20

c) Crustal Thickness
0 500 1000km

c Juan de Fuca Ridge Cascadia Subduction Zone

400 500 600km

100 200 km !;::~::;::j < 30 km ~ >40km
CD Oceanic Layer 1 (Sediments) ITEm Oceanic L.aysr 2 {Basalt) 1!miJ Oceanic Lsyer 3 (Gabbro)
FIGURE 4 .17 a) Map of western and central Europe. Box shows area of (b) and (c). A = Austria: C = Czec.h Republi~;
G =Germany; H = Hungary; 1 = Italy; M = Moldavia: P = Poland: R = Romama; Se ~ Serbta: ~I =Slovak Repubhc. FIGURE 4.18 Composite cross sections based on seismic refraction studies in oceanic regions. Numbers are compressional-
Sv = Slovenia. b) Tectonic map of central Europe, showing Eastern Alpine and Carpathtan colhstonal mountaon ranges and . . • wave velocities (km/ s) from refracting layers. a) Cross section of velocity and th ickness, based on nine refraction profiles on and
Pannonian Basin continental rift zone (aft er Salters et al., l988). c) Map of crustal thickness (km) on central Europe. based ~~~·ctp~ll) ncar the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Talwani'et al.. 1965). b) Results of reCraction profiling of the passive continental margin off
on observation of critical refractions from the top of the mantle. (Compiled (rom maps of Beranek, 1978: Mayerova et al.. I ' an Argentina (Ewing, 1965). Short, bold lines represent the tops of critically refracting layers. c) Section based on refraction studies
Tomek. 1988). Maps (b) and (c) in Lillie et al. (1994). of the Juan de Fuca Ridge and Cascadia Subduction Zone off the Oregon coast (Shor et al., 1968). (a) and (b) from The Interior
of the Eorrh: Its Structure, Constitwion and Evolwion, 2nd ed., © 1982. Redrawn with permission of E lsevier Science Pub. Co.,
New York . (c) from Seismic refraction studies off O regon and northern Californi a.Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 73.
pp. 2175-2194, e 1968. Redrawn with permission of the American G eophysical Union, Washington. D. C.

94 95
 Exercises 97

a .Ccast Ranges
Great
Vslley
Sierra Nevada
Mountains
Basin and Range
Province
EXERCISES
4-1 A h ypothetical refraction line is run across a continental craton. Sketch a single, hori-
zontal interface model s howing: a) approximate thickness and P-wave velocity of the
crust; b) approximate P-wave velocity of the uppermost mantle. On the model sketch:
c) raypaths for direct, critically refracted , and reflected P-waves; d) wave fronts for
direct and cri tically refracted P-waves. Compute travel times and plot the following
arrivals o n a travel time vs. distance graph: e) direct P-wave; 0 critically refracted
P-wave; g) reflected P-wave. Calculate and illustrate o n the graph; b) critical distance;
i) T-axis intercept time; j) crossover distance; k) approximate length of refraction line
necessary to resolve the Moho depth.
4-2 A hypo thetical refraction line is run along s trike, on the coastal plain of a passive con-
tinental margin. Crustal thickness is between " normal" continental and "normal"
oceanic. The sedimentary section is approximately 5 km thick. Sketch a multiple, hori-
.· zontal inte rface model showing:
a) approximate thickness and P-wave velocity of the sedimentary strata and crys-
talline crust; ·
b) approximate P-wave velocity of the uppermost mantle.
b North South Compute travel times and plot P-wave arrivals on a travel time vs. distance graph for:
c) direct wave through the sedimentary section;
d) critically refracted wave fro m the top of the crystalline basement;
e) critically refracted wave fro m the top of the mantle.

]3o- Calcula te and illustrate o n the graph:

0 crossover distance for crystallin~ base ment refraction, relative to direct arrival;
g) crossover distance fo r Motio refraction. relative to basement refraction;
h) length of refraction line necessary to resolve basement depth;
i) length of refraction line necessary to resolve Moho depth.
100 200 300 400km 4-3 The seismic refraction profil e in Fig. 4.8 was recorded in an ocean basin. Determine
Swiss Alps seismic velocities a nd thicknesses, assuming a layered model with several horizontal
interfaces.
a) Identify and draw straight lines through the direct, three refracced, and a few
reflecced arrivals on the section.
b) Give the apparent velocicy for each of the direcc and refracced arrivals.
c) Calculate thickness fo r each of the three layers overlying the highest-velocity mate-
rial; that is, knowing the velocities (V 1, V 2, V 3, V,) and T-intercepts (t 1, ~. t3) , solve
for the thicknesses (h 1, h1 • h3).
d) Draw a cross-section illustrating the depths to the interfaces and the layer veloci-
ties and thicknesses. Speculate o n materials that might comprise each layer
(Figs. 2.24a, 4.9, 4.18).
4-4 Fig. 4.9a shows average results of inversion of refraction profiles recorded in deep
FIGURE 4.19 Refraction studies from regions of continental lithosphere. Numbers are compressional wave velocity (km/s). ocean basins. Fig. 4.9b shows arrival times for direct and refracted arrivals predicted
a) Composite section from California coast across the San A ndreas Fault and Sierra Nevada Mountains, extending into the Basin fo r such a model.
a nd Range Province (Eaton, 1963, 1966; Bateman and Eaton, 1967). From Seismic evidence for the structure and Cenozoic tectonics
a) Compare the hypothetical travel-time graph in Fig. 4.9b with the actual seismic
of the Pacific coast states, by D.P. Hill, in Ceno~oic Tectonics and Regional Geophysics of tire Western Cordillera. ed. by R. B. Smith
and G. P. Eaton, @ 1978. Redrawn by permission of The Geological Society or America, Boulder. Colorado. b) Section across the proftle in Fig. 4.8. How are the records similar and how are they different? Explain
western Alps, along the Swiss geotraverse ( Rybach et al., 1980). Geological model below velocity profile from Trtlmpy (1973). From the similarities and differences.
Gravity anomalies and nexure of the lithosphere at mountain ranges. by G. D. Kamer and A. B. Waus. in Joumal of Geophysical b) Compare the model of an ophiolite sequence (Fig. 4.9a) and your results of invert-
e
Research. v. 88, pp. 10449- 10477. 1983. Redrawn by permission of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C. ing the actual seismic profile in Exercise 4-3. How are the models similar and how
are they d ifferent? Explain the similarities and the differences.
c) The record in Fig. 4.8 was recorded in Baffin Bay (Canadian Arctic). Discuss how
and why the water depth you compute differs from tha t obse rved across a nonnal
ocean basin.
96
98 Chapter 4 Seismic Refraction Interpretation Selected Bibliography 99

d) Discuss how differences in crustal layer thicknesses and velocities for the models in Ewing. J. !., and M. E"ing, 1959, Seismic refraction Lillie. R. J.. M. Bielik, V. Babuska and J. Plomerova,
measurements in the Atlantic Ocean basins, in the 1994, Gravity modelling of the lithosphere in the
Fig. 4.9a and Exercise 4-3 might be due to actual difierences and how they might be Mediterranean Sea, o n the mid· Atlantic ridge. and
due to interpretation error. List the differences and possible sources of error. Eastern Alpine-Western Carpathian-Pannonian
in the Norwegian Sea, Geological Society of Basin region, Tectonophysics, v. 23, pp. 215-235.
Amuico Bulletin, v. 70, pp. 291-318.
4-5 The travel-time graph below shows results of a reversed refraction profile ~ecorded Mayerov~. M .. Z. Nakl~dalova, I. lbrmajer and H.
Fowler, C. M. R., 1990, The Solid Earth: An
with the shotpoint at A. the n at B. Assuming a single dipping interface ~ odel, mterpr~ t lmroduction to Global Geophysics, Cambridge:
J:lerrrnann, 1985, Plosne rozlo!enf Moho-plochy v
through inversion: a) true velocity for the layers above and below the mterfa ce; b) dtp CSSR-sestavene z v)'sledkil profilovych mcrenf
Cambridge University Press, 472 pp. HSS a technickych odpalu, 8 celost6tni konference
of the interface: c) depths to the interface vertically below points A and B. Garland, G. D., 1979, Introduction to Geophysics geofyzikil. Geofyzika Brno, pp. 44-55.
(2nd ed.), Toronto: W. B. Saunders Comp., 494 pp. Mooney. W. D., and R. H. Colburn, 1985, A seismic-
Harding, A. J., J. A . Orcutt, M. E. Kappus, E. E. Vera, refraction profile across the San Andreas, Sargent,
A X ==e> km <?= X 8 J. C. Mutter, P. Buhl, R. S. Detrick, and T. M . and Calaveras fau lts, west-central California.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Brocher, 1989, Structure of young oceanic crust at Bulletin Seismological Society of America, v. 75,
13• N on the East Pacific Rise from expanding pp.175-191.
0 0 spread profiles, Journal of Geophysical Rosearch, Mooney, W. D., and L. W. Braile. 1989, The seismic
w
~
I' ~·
I' w
~
v. 94, pp.l2163-12196.
H ealy. J. H., 1963, Crustal structure along the coast
structure of the continental crust and upper man-
1- ~·
..... of California from seismic refractio n measure-
tle of North America, in The Geology of North
America-An O vervirw, edited by A. W. Bally and
~·
~
ments. Journal of G eophysical Research, v. 68.

~
~· A. R. Palmer, Boulder, Colorado: Geological
~· pp. 5777-5787. Society of America. Decade of North American
I' ~· H ealy, J. H., and L. G. Peake, 1975. Seismic velocity Geology. v. 1, pp. 39- 52.
l structure along a section of the San And reas Rybach, L., S. Mueller, A. Milnes, J. Ansorge, D.
Fault near Bear Valley, California, Bulletin Bernoulli, and M. Frey, 1980, The Swiss
1.0 1.0
Seismological Society of America, v. 65,
~·
Geotraverse Basei·Chiasso-A review, Ecologae
,,~· .......
,1111••"'"
pp. 1177-1197.
Heinzler, J. R. and X. Le Pichon, 1965, Crustal struc-
Geol. Hell:, v. 73, pp.437-462.
Salters, V., S. Hart, and G. Pant6, 1988, Origin of late
... ···"l"
,
l
,, ture of the mid-ocean ridges: I. Seismic refraction
measurements, Journal of Geophysical Research.
v. 70, pp. 318-339.
Cenozoic volcanic rocks of the Carpathian Arc,
Hungary, in: Tlo e Pannonian basin: A study in
Basin Evolwion, edited by L. H. Royden and F.
.~ Shot at A Hill. D. P.,l978.Seismicevidence for the structure and Horvath, Tulsa: American Association of
l Cenozoic tectonics of the Pacific coast states, in Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 45, pp. 279- 292.
••••••••••• Shot at 8
Cenozoic Tectonics and Regional Geophysics of Sheriff, R. E., and L. P. Geldart, 1995, Exploration
2.0 2.0 the Western Cordillera, edited by R. B. Smith and Seismology (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge
G. P. Eaton. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society Uni ve rsity Press, 592 pp.
of America, Memoir 152, pp.l 45-174. Shor, G. G., Jr., P. ·Dehlinger. H. K. Kirk, and W. S.
Ibrahim, A. K., G. Latham, and J. Ladd, 1986, French, 1968, "Seismic refraction studies off
4-6 a) Based o n the map of North America (Fig. 4.16), draw a cross section .o~ changing Seismic refraction and reOection measurements Oregon and northern California,'' Journal of
Moho depth along 40• N latitude. b) From Fig. 4.15, add P-wave velocttte.s for the in the Middle America Trenc h offshore Geophysical Researd1. v. 73, pp. 2175-2194.
uppennost mantle to your cross section. c) Discuss reasons for the crustal thtcknesses Guatemala. Journal ofGeophysical Research, v. 84, Steinhart, J. S., and T. J. Smith (editors), 1966, The Earth
and mantle velocities you illustrated on your cross section. pp. 5643-5649. Beneath the Continents, Washington: American
Ja rchow, C. M., G. A. 'Inompson, R. D. Catchings, and Geophysical Union, Monograph 10,663 pp.
4-7 a) Based on the central European maps in Fig. 4.17, draw a eros~ section along 47• N W. D. Mooney, 1993, Seismic evidence for active
latitude. b) Discuss reasons for the crustal thickness changes you t!lustrated Ill (a). Talwani, M., X. Le Pichon, and M. Ewing. 1965,
magmatic underplating beneath the Basin and Crustal structure of the mid-ocean ridges: 2.
Range province, western United States, Journal of

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bateman. P. C., and J. P. Eaton, 1967, Sierra Nevada
batholith. Science, v. 158, pp. 1407-1417.
Beranek, B.. 1978. Results of deep seismic sounding
measurements in Czechoslovakia and their cont ri-
bution to solution of contact of Alpine syste m with
European platform, Czed1oslavak Geology and
Global Tectonics, Bratislava: Slovak Academy of
Sciences, pp. 248-256.
Bon. M. H. P., 1982, Tloe Interior of the Earth: Its
Strucwre, Constitution and Evol<dion (2nd ed.),
New York: Elsevier Science Pub. Co., 403 pp.
Burger, H . R .. 1992, Exploration geophysics of tloe
shallow subsurface, Englewood Cliffs. NJ.:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 489 pp.
Couch, R. W., and R. P. Riddihough, 1989, The crustal
structure of the western continental margin of
North America. in: Geophysical Framework of the
Continental United Stares. edited by L. C. Pakiser
a nd W. D. Mooney. Boulder. Colorado: Geological
Society of America, Memoir 172, pp. 103-128.
Dobrin, M. B.. 1976. Introduction ro Geophysical
Prospecting (3rd ed.), New York: McG raw-Hill.
446 pp.
Eaton, J. P., 1963, Crustal structure from San
Francisco California, to Eureka, Nevada, fTom
seismic-r~·fraction measurements, Journa l of
Geophysical ResearCh , pp. 5789-5806.
Eaton, J. P., 1966, Crustal structure in northern and
central California from seismic evidence, in:
Geology of Northern California, Bulletin
California Division of Mines and Geology, v. 190,
pp. 419-426.
Ewing, M., 1965, The sediments of the Argentine
basin, Quarterly Journal of tloe Royal AstronomiCal
Society, v. 6, pp. 10-27.
Geophysical Research, v. 98, pp. 22095-22122.
Karner, G. D.. and A. B. Watts, 1983, Gravity anom-
alies and nexure of the lithosphe re at mountain
ranges, Joumal of Geophysical Rtsearclo , v. 88,
pp. 10449 -1 0477.
Kearey, P. and M. Brooks, 1984, An Introduction 10
Geophysical Exploration, Boston: Blackwell
Scientific Publications, 296 pp.
Keller, B., W. A. Prothero, A . M. Trehu. and D. J.
Stierrnan, 1983, Ra y trace model of the Santa
Barbara Channel, California, land-sea seismic
refraction experiment, Geophysical Rtswrch
Letters, v. 10, pp. 933-936.
Koch, K., and B. W. Stump, 1996, Constraints for
uppe r mantle shear-wave models of the Basin
and Range from - surface wave inversion,
Bulletin Seismological Society of America. v. 86,
pp. 1591 -1 607.
I
Computed model from gravity and seismic rdrac·
tion da ta, Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 70,
pp. 341-352.
Telford, W. M .. L P. Geldart, R. E . Sheriff and D. A.
Keys, 1976, Applied Geophysics, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 860 pp.
I
Tomek, C., I 988, Geophysical investigation of the
Alpine-Carpathian Arc, in Evolwion of thr
Northern Margin ofTethys, Volume I , edited by M.
I
Rakus, J. Dercourt and A. E. M . Nairn, Paris:
Mem. Soc. Geol., Nouvelle Serie No. 154, Paris,
pp.167-199.
TrUmpy, R. 1973, The timing of orogenic events in the
I
I
central Alps, in Geology and Tectonics, edited by
K. A . deJong and R. Scholten, New York: John
Wiley and Sons, pp. 229-252.
Warren, D. H .. and J. H. Healy. 1973. Structure of the
crust in the conterminous United States,
Jecronophysics, v. 20, pp. 203- 213.
 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis 101

c · HAPTER 5 a ·---·---·-·Refraction Spresd Length ·-·-·-·--- ; FIGURE 5.1 a) Model of horizontal ·

interface at depth (h). sepa rating layers of
contrasting velocity (V) and density (p).
Selected raypaths illustrated for: l. direct
arrival; 2. rcOection closer than the critical
distance ( .. normal incidence reOection);
Seismic Reflection: h
3. reOectionlrefraction at the critical
distance: 4. reOection beyond the critical
distance (wide angle reOection): 5. critical
.Acquisition, Processing, refraction. b) Travel-time graph for events
illustrated in (a). The reOection method
commonly utilizes events recorded at
And Waveform Analysis . Xc distances closer than the critical distance
(X.,). away from interference from the
b !<F===C>!
I
k
I
i
other events. Refraction typically utilizes
events reco rded beyond the crossover
seismic (siz mik') adj., [< Gr. seismos. a11 earthquake< seiein. to
sirake J, relating tO an earthquake or artificial shaking of tire Earth.
! X =C> distance (X,.). Spread lengths are thus
reflect (ri flekt ') vi., [<Mfr. < L. < re·, back + Oectere, to bend], to approximately equal to h for reOection
bend back. studies. and Sh to IOh for refraction.
reflection (ri flek'sir<Jn) n., tire be11ding back of a ray or wave oflight,
heat, o r sound into the same medium, as it encounters a medium
witir differellt properti<S.
acquire ( ~ kwir') vt., [L. acquirere <ad·. to + quaerere. to seek], to
get or gain by o ne 's OWII effortS o r actions. 2
proctss (prils' es) n., 1< Ofr. < L. procedere < pro-.forward +
cedere, tO goJ, a particular met/rod of making or doing something, in
whiclr there are a number of steps.
\
wave {wilv) n., [< 0£. wafianJ, motion tirat periodically advances and z Normal
~ retreats as it is trnnsmiued progressively from o ne particle in a
meclium to the next.
Incidence
form (form) n., (< Of< L. forma J, tire sir ape, o wline or configuration Reflection
ofmlytiring.
seismic wavt/Oml (slz mik ' wav ftJrm) n., tire configuration of a
seismic trac~. due to th e interference pattern of reflected wavts and
various types of noise.

Horizontal strata commonly contain abrupt changes in seismic velocity and density,
resulting in the re fl ection of sound waves back to the surface. The seism ic reflection
me thod was th us developed in the 1920s and 30s as a tool for oil and gas exploration
in sedimentary basins (Petty, 1976). Financial incentive led the petro le um industry
to refine the technique to sophisticated levels by the 1970s; many advances in com-
puter equipment and data processing can be attributed to this eUort.
Compared to sedimentary strata. igneous and metamorphic rocks commonly
are acoustically homogenous and s tructurally complex; stratification, if present, is
generally no t horizontal. The reflection method initially was thought of little value
in studying areas of crystalline rocks. Since the 1970s, however, the technique has
provided valuable constraints on the composition and structure of the mid- to-lower
crust (Oli ver, 1986, 1996).
St:ismic reflection and refraction studies differ in their field geometries and in
the types o f problems they can resolve (Fig. 5.1). Refraction requires tha t receivers
extend to well beyond the crossover distance, so that refraction spread lengths need
to be five to ten times the de pth to the deepest refractor of interest. At large dis-
tances, direct and critically refracted waves often interfe re with reflections. The
most useful reflectio ns are usually those arriving nearly vertically, at less than the
critical distance; reflection spread lengths ther efor e approximate the depth of the
deepest re fl ector of interest.
R e fractio n and reflection studies are complimentary, refraction providing
gross crustal velocities and thicknesses, re flection showing fine r details of struc-
ture and stratigraphy. Critically refracted waves require abrupt increases in veloc-
ity; slopes of refracted waves thus provide veloci ty estimates fo r thick intervals of
the crust. Reflections occu r when there are changes in seis mic velocity and/or
dens ity; boundaries or laye rs that are nearly flat and continuous are especially
resolvable.
The seismic reflection method is popular with geologists fo r two main rea-
sons: 1. r efl ection data are co mmonly portrayed as profiles resembling geologic
cross sections; 2. under certain circumstances (fo r example, fl at-lying strata in sed-
imentary basins) reflection profiles o ffer high resolution of subsurface detail.
Whe n o ne or both of these reasons are valid, reflection data are a powerfu l tool to
constrain interpretations of parts of the Ear th. Wise use of reflection profiles,
however, requires appreciatio n of both the utility and the pitfalls of the method.
Th is chapter presents the standard me thods used to acquire and process such pro-
files, alo ng with an overview of the fa ctors that influence the form of the waves
recorded.

100
102 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Acquisition 103

WHAT IS A SEISMIC SECTION? a Seismic Section ic Cross Section

Seismic reflection data are normally recorded with several receivers offset from
each source. A seismic section used for interpretation, however, has undergone pro·
cessing that condenses the results of many shots. The standard portrayal of the data,
an unmigrated time secrion, presents each seismic trace as if a source and a receiver
were in the same posirion (Fig. 5.2). Reflections from the common source/receiver
positions result from raypaths striking reflectors at 90°, or normal incidence.
Seismic waves reflect when they encounter changes in the acoustic impedance .. Changes in Seismic Waveform Stratigraphic Change
(product of velocity and density) of the Earth. There are two general categories of
problems addressed through seismic profiling (Fig. 5.3): 1. Seismic Strarigraphy.
Relatively small changes in lithology, porosity, and/or thickness of layers cause
changes in acoustic impedance. Those changes are analyzed by observing lateral
b
changes in the seismic waveform. 2. Geologic Structure. The relatively large-scale
Unmigrated Time Section
geometry of reflected events can be used to map structures in the subsurface.
Seismic acquisition and processing procedures are designed to attenuate ~
unwanted signals and noise, and to present the data in an interpretable format. E ,..,,. •••••••..,..
F , ,, ·-...,,,
Parameters determined in attempts to optimize acquisition and processing sometimes
yield information on rock properties (for example, seismic velocities). Ideally, a seismic v~ -·-·-;,.'··-·
. ··-·"-\_····-····
.
interpreter is involved in acquisition and processing; at the very least, the interpreter
should be knowledgeable of acquisition and processing parameters used in the survey.

Geometry of Reflections
Geologic Structure
ACQUISITION
FIGURE 5.3 T~o t)'P~ of problems addressed by seismic reflection profiling. a) Seismic srrarigraphy,
Field geometries vary considerably according to the environment (land vs. marine), based ?n analysos of seosmoc waveform. b) Geologic srructure, according to the overall geometry of
reflections.
the nature of the geologic problem, and the accessibility of the area. Geophones are
designed to record only frequencies near that of the input signal (source), discrimi-
nating against noise outside source frequencies. Most geophones are designed to
respond to motions that are vertical (Fig. 5.4); reflected compressional waves (verti-
cal particle motion) are enhanced. at the expense of events that produce horizontal
~~oe Geophones,'
motions at the surface (direct compressional waves; reflected shear waves).
Surface c,,O [J] [JJ ~
Several Common Source
.......... Re{h ..........:;h...........................: i
Common Source I Receiver \ ected p_ !
a Position
b I Receiver Positions
,· \ · ····f
.
,.._,,
,,
Wave ;;
Normal
-5
a. lnddence Ren :
G> \'ected
0 Raypaths ......\~- S-Wav.
WM8mm/ '~.
\ f "'-,, 9
c Unmlgrated
Reflector \/
FIGURE 5.4 Ellhollceme/1/ ofreflecred compressio11al waves compared to other arrivals.
Tlme Reflected P-v.:aves have particle motions that are nearly vertical, exciting vertically oriented
Section geoph_on~s. Dorect P-waves and reOected S-waves have nearly horizontal particle motions,
r p
resultmg m httle r~ponse from the geophones.

FIGURE 5.2 Normal i11cide11ce seismic secrio11. a) A reflected ray must strike a reO ectOr at normal
incidence (90") in order to return to a receiver at the same position as the source (common
source/receiver position). b) A seismic section (profile) mimics normal incidence reOections to
several common source/receiver positions. c) A common portrayal of reflection data, the
unmigrated time section, mimics responses to the normal incidence configuration depicted in (b).
 ·•

I
104 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acqu isition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Acquisition 105

Receiver Arrays
Most surveys are designed so that the so urce (explosive; Vibroseis; airgun) is "fired"
into stations of receivers (geophones; hydrophones). Each receiver station commonly
is not a single instrument, but rather a n array of several receivers, connected electron-
ically and centered around a point (Fig. 5.5a). The geometry of an array (or geophone
group) is designed to cancel certain unwanted signals, while enhancing reflected
events. Rayleigh waves are an example of unwanted noise; they are also called
groundroll, because the waves produce an up-and-down, rolling motion of the ground
a Receiver Arrays
Receiver Statton 1 Receiver Station 2 Receiver Station 3
surface (Fig. 3. 12).The array can be proportioned to the wavelength of the ground roll,
so that half the geophones in the array are moving up, while half are moving down
(Fig. 5.5b). The corresponding positive and negative electrical signals sent by the geo-
phones cancel, so that the groundroll is attenuated. Reflections commonly arrive at high
angles to the ground surface, (that is, with high apparent velocity; see Chapter 3). The
result is that geophones in the array move up and down in unison; their electrical signals
add in phase, enhancing refle;ted signals at the expense of other arrivals (Fig. 5.5c).
Common Midpoint Method
A seismic retlection survey is commonly conducted in the common midpoint
t... ( CM P) mode, whereby seismic traces from d ifferent sho ts have a common point on
the surface, midway between-source and receiver pairs (Fig. 5.6). (The term com-
m on depth point, or CDP, is used to express the same concept). The CMP method

~1~k-m·-m ~~;~k'nnn G;~:-~·m·-m provides redundancy of infor(l1ation that enhances s ignal-to~noi~e ratio_ (see
Source "Seismic Waveform" discussiO.f.l below) and facilitates the determmauon of setsmtc
velocities used in processing and interpretation.
In Fig. 5.6 a source is shot into arrays o f six receiver groups. During the first
shot. the source and receivers are toward the right. As the survey progresses, the
source and receiver positions a re "pulled" in steps of one interval toward the left.
During the first shot, the midpoint between the source (S 1 ) and the first receiver
b group (Rt) is the same midpoint as S2/ R 3 and S3/R5 for shots 2 and 3, respecuvely.
Likewise, there are common midpoints for o ther combinations: (St/R2• S2/ R,,
S3/ R6) ; (S2/ R 1, S3/ R3 , S./ R5); and (S 2/ R 2, S3/ R,, SjR6 ) .

-·. FIGURE 5.6 Common m idpoint (CM P)

method. The six seismic traces fo r Shot t

ij
~c::
v~ ~ •Direction of ..r.F?
are illustrated in Fig. 5.7a. Fig 5.7b shows
the three traces for a common midpoint,
highlighted by the bold raypaths.

\ ~ ~t
Rayleigh ~ave IIJ.-8
~ _; Propagation

c
Earth's

\'~~~~),
''''~ \
\\\·,·~·
\\. '\.','~'' j
\ \ \"'','I..
I
I«' /
-rt ce·<A----''A----:f\----~..!----~----'/"1-·-·-·-·-·-·-·­
su a ~ ~- ; / /, /, Reflected

\ \ r.:'l,:'i/ / / / .
~
/

"
Compressional

Particle
Wave
.
'.,....
.. "'
r, ,\' 'i•'"''J
'-1' / /
' \ .:<.• ,/
Mot1on
'
FIGURE 5.5 Auenuation and enhancement of seismic waves by geophone array. a) Source fired into
receiver stations of connected geophones ("arrays" or "groups "). The geophone responses for a group add
I·' together as a single seismic trace. b) Respo nse of one geophone gro up. If the group length is equal to the
wavele ngth of a Rayleigh wave, positive signals from geophones moving up cancel negative signals from
those moving down; the Rayleigh wave is thus attenuated . c) A reflected P-wave at close d istance to the
source moves the group of geophones up or dow n in uniso n, e nhancing the arrival.
106 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analy~is a) Shot Gather
For the shots illustrated in Fig. 5.6, each record of six seismic traces is known
as a shor gather (Fig. 5.7a). A display of traces corresponding to reflections around a
common midpoint, plotted side-by-side according to horizontal distance (X) from
each source, is known as a CMP (or CDP) gather (Fig. 5.7b). A reflection from a X --c> t0

~
horizontal interface, overlain by constaDI velocity, appears as a hyperbola on both
the shot and CMP gathers. Before the three seismic traces on the CMP gather are
added together ("stacked"), the event must be corrected for differences in travel
time, according to the hyperbola. The differences in travel time are called normal
moveow (NMO). The travel time for a reflection (rom a horizontal interface is
(Chapter 3):

I.X.2
T1 = \jt0' + \12
1
X -<>
Sr $2 $3
where: b) CMP Gather R. R R
T 1 = travel time from source, to interface, to receiver
X = horizontal distance from source to receiver
Common
V 1 =seismic velocity of layer above interface Midpoint
t0 = T-axis intercept (time directly down to interface, straight back up to to
shot location): Rr Rs R5 ... ,...,
.... '•
2h
to = -
VI v, ~
h = thickness of layer above interface
V 1 = seismic velocity of layer above interface.
The normal moveout (T N~w: Fig. 5.7b) is the difference between the travel time
along the hyperbola (T1) and the intercept time (t0 ):

IT NMO = Tr - to I c) Normal Moveout Correction and Stack

After TNMo Three-Fold
A single trace on a seismic section is a composite of the traces from a CMP Correction Rs'f Stacked Trace
gather. corrected forTNMO• then added together .as a stacked trace (Fig. 5.7c). The
fold of srack is the number of traces from the CMP gather comprising a stacked
trace. A resulting profile, comprising numerous stacked CMP traces, is a stacked + +
seismic section.
c:: ~· ...... c::;--" ~
t0
PROCESSING
'·• .,,,.,
,,,,
Seismic reflection data are subjected to various processing steps to enhance .,
reflected signals, attenuate noise not dealt with during acquisition, and to present
'·'·
the data in a more interpretable format. In most cases, signals to be enhanced are
primary reflections that occur within (or very nearly within) the plane of the seismic
'-.
profile.
A primary reflection results from energy that undergoes only one reflection FIG~RE 5.7. _Roypath dio~roms dniJ tra_vel·time graphs for.slwJ and CMP gathers. a) Left: Raypaths for one shot with six
before returning to the surface (Fig. 5.8a). Energy that reflects more than once is a mul- rece1ver pos1t1on.s (Shot 1_ m Fig. 5.?). R1ght: A shot gathtr fs a travel-time graph of the resulting seismic traces, plotted
accordmg to honzontal d1stance (X) from the source. b) Left: Raypattis centered around a common midpoint, selected
tiple reflection (or multiple). Multiples can be of many forms., depending on the geome- from shots I , 2. and 3 ID F1g. 5.6. R1ght: A common midpoint (CM P) gather is the travel-time graph plotted d.
try of the reflected raypaths. A common multiple is a reflection that reflects back down h · 1d" (X) fr h · , accor mg to
onzonta 1stance . o~ t e respect1ve sources. c) Left: CMP gather after normal moveout (T.,.., ) correction. The
0
at the surface, then reflects back up again (Fig. 5.8b). Multiples as well as other noise events from the honzontal 1~terface are 10 phase; peaks and troughs align so that they constructively interfere when tbe
must be attenuated during processing so that primary reflections can be seen. traces are added together. Right:The reflected event on the.~esulti n g (3-fold) seismic trace shows enhanced amplitude.
 108 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Processing 109

a X -<> FIGURE 5.8 a) Selected raypat h and

shotpoint gather for a primary reflection.
b) Comparison of primary reflection and
x ==e> Primary Reflection surface mul tiple on ra ypath diagram and
shot point gather.
a Shot Gathers
X -<>
Shot 1 ...---R...:'-R;.,_R7,_R7,_R..;.•-R_,,_

~
X-<>
b
X-=-e> Surfare Multiple

One appealing aspect o f the seismic reflection method is that the data may be
plotted with the time axis downward, mimicking depth within the Earth. Certain
processing steps are thus aimed at enhancing the image crea ted, so that the profi le is
R, R, R, R, R1 R,
an abstract representation of a geological cross section. The final prod uct must be Shot 3 ..--r--r---r-+--T--+-
interpre ted wisely, however, as there are many pitfalls to li teral interpretation of
seismic refl ection profiles (Chapter 6).

General Processing Sequence

Objectives and d escriptions of the general steps taken to process seismic reflection
data are presented below. More thorough and detailed treatment of processing can
be fo und e lsewhere (Robinson and Treitel, 1980; Chap. 9 of Sheriff and Geldart,
1995; pp. 370-395 of Telford et al., 1976).

FIGURE 5.9 Gather. a) Raypa th diagram and shot gathers for three shot records. Highlighted raypa ths represent
1. Gather In the ga ther p rocess, traces from different shot gathers are
three common midpoint (CMP) traces. b) Ra ypath diagram and gather for the three CMP traces rughlighted in (a).
rearranged as common midpoint (CMP) ga thers. The three traces highlighted in
bold in Fig. 5.9a comprise the CMP gather in Fig. 5.9b; the same CMP gather, taken
through the processing steps in subsequent illustrations, comprises one 3-fold trace
on the stacked seismic profile. to= T-axis intercept (time directly down to interface, straight back up
to shot location)
2. Velocity Analysis A reflection from a horizontal interface follows a hyper- T NMO = hyperbolic increase in time with increasing distance from the
bola, according to: source.

Velocity analysis determines velocities that best "tune " primary reflections when
where: traces are stacked (Fig. 5.10). The process is commonly trial and error, whereby dif-
ferent normal moveout time (TNMo) corrections are applied to traces in CMP gath-
T 1 = travel time from source, to interface, to receiver ers. A desired velocity removes T NMO so that events that originally followed
 110 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Processing 111

FIGURE 5.10 Velocity analysis. A

Before TNMo After TNMo reflection from a horizontal interface a) Before ~Mo b) After TNMo FIGURE 5.11 Normal moveout
corrections. a) Shotpoint gather showing
Correction Correction foUows a hyperbola (left). Corrections
according to different velocities attempt
Correction Correction two hyperbolic events, with T·axis
intercepts at to( I) and to(2). b) TNMO
X---<> to remove T ~,. 0 , the increase in travel s, s. s,
a time with distance from the source R, R R,
corrections applied according to
velocities that best move the hyperbolic
Velocity (right). a) A slow velocity employs a
....... ............ t""tO to events to horizontal alignment at to( I)

t·H. Too Slow

-Acti.Jal Hypertx>la

'T,
Assumed Hyperbola
h

~
hyperbola that is too steep, removing too
much T N><O· The events are over
corrected,lining up out of phase.
b) A high velocity does not employ
enough TNMO correction; the reflection
hyperbola is under corrected, with events
and t0(2). c) Model of the two-way travel
times to the events [to( I) and to(2)) and
the velocities that best align the events
[V RMs(l) and V,..,s(2)). See discussion
below on "Types of Velocities•· for .
explanation of root mean square
out of phase. c) TI1e correct velocity velocities (V RMs) and their
assumes the same hyperbola as the actual correspondence lo normal moveout
b events; the TNMO correction aligns the correction ("stacking") velocitie~

... '*'"""'"'
l"to
Velocity
Too Fast
to events in phase.

.,, TINO
'•, T,
c) Root Mean Square Velocities
R, R, R,

c
Velocity ~Ms(1}
Just Right to llm;~'7m:~77:m~i5m;~~W;;'7/'m'77./~
zl ~MS (2)

hyperbolas align horizontally. Upon stack.ing, primary reflections add in phase <.con-
structively), while different types of notse add out of phase (destructtvely), the
analysis thus yields stacking velocities.
tion, relative to lower stations. Time is added or subtracted .,to traces within CMP
gathers, according to 1) the estimated near-surface velocity; and 2) the source and
receiver elevations relative to a horizontal datum (Fig. 5. 13). After these statics cor-
rections are made, T NM 0 -corrected reflections should be more in phase.

3. Normal Moveout (TNMo) Correction Normal moveout c?rre~tions are
determined not just for one event, but for several prominent reflectiOns m a CMP
gather. For a given 1o and veloci.'Y· events originally falling along hyperb~las
(Fig. 5.11a) align after T NMO correcttons (Fig. 5.11b). Commonly, a deeper reflectton
is corrected forT NMO with a higher velocity [V RMs(2)) than that used for a shallower
event [VRMs(l)).
4. Mute At distance from the source, the tops of records commonly have
unwanted noise (direct P and S waves, refractions, events distorted .by T!'MO correc-
tions). with few or no reflections (Fig. 5.12a,b). Rath er than stack this no~se together
with reflections recorded near the source, a (commonly tnangular) region of CMP
gather traces are set to zero amplitude, or muted (~ig. 5.12c). On th~ tops of act~al
seismic reflection profiles, including many of those m Chapter 6, artifacts of ~utmg
can be seen as Y-shaped "valleys" in regions where only far offsets compnse the
stack traces.
6. Stack After undergoing TNMO• mute, and statics corrections (Fig. 5.14a),
CMP traces are added (stacked) together (Fig. 5.14b ). The fold of stack refers to the
num,ber of seismic traces that are combined to make one trace. Stacked traces are
displayed side-by-side to make an unmigrated time section (Fig. 5.14c). The display
mimics the situation that would result if each seismic trace were recorded at a com-
mon source/receiver position; thus, an unmigrated time section is also referred to as
a "normal incidence" section (Fig. 5.2).
7. Migration In two dimensions, a reflected event could have come from any
position along a semicircle through the event, centered about the common
source/receiver location (Chapter 6). Migration spreads events along the potential
locations on the semicircle; events on adjacent traces will add in phase at the true
position of the reflector, out of phase away from the true position. A migrated time
section (Fig. 5.14d) thus attempts to move events to their true horizontal positions,
relative to common source/receiver positions on the surface.

s. Statics Corrections On land, seismic source and receiver stat ions follow 8. Depth Conversion The relative positions of events are distorted on time
the topography. Corrections must be made for time delays at stations of high eleva- sections because of vertical and lateral changes in velocity (Chapter 6). If velocities
112 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis - Processing 113

FIGURE 5.13 £/evarion srarics

a) Before ~Mo b) After TNMo a) Surface Topography corrtcrions. a) Raypaths for a common
Correction Correction midpoint gather, with sources and
receivers laid o ut along the topography.
To correct to the datum for the trace
s, associated with s, and R,. the statics
R
Datum correction is (hs, + h"')Ve· Relative to
the datu m. h,_, is the elevation of s hot3
and hiU is the elevation of receiver 5: V e
lo(1) is the 3SSUmed velocity of the material
1- above the datum (elevation statics
velocity). b) CMP gather afterT~MO

~ corrections and mute (Fig. S.l2c), but

before statics corrections. Notice that, on
each trace, the upper and lower events
10 (2)
deviate from horizontal lines by
approximately the same amounts.
c) Elevation statics corrections applied to
b) Before Statics Corrections c) Aft_er Statics Corrections the record in (b). Note that events line up
S, S1 S, X S, S, S, X in phase, improving amplitudes when
R, R, R1 ~ R, R, R1 --<>
stacked.

t0 (1) .....................................................

.
·>
Lower Event
~ 3-Fold Stack
very shallow reflections. Deconvolution attempts to remove the reverberation ,
sharpening the reflected events.
Seismic signals are at tenuated as they pene trate the Earth for th ree reasons:
FIGURE 5.12 Mill<. a) CMP gather be for~ nor mal moveout corrections. showing a direct and refracted L) Spherical Divergence. Amplitude of seismic waves decrease with distance fro m
arrival. in addition to two renections. b) A fter normal moveout corrections. the direct and refracted events the sou rce. Like the thinning skin of an inflating balloon , the finite amount of seis-
align so as to interfe re destructively with the upper renection. Waveforms in the shaded region have also
bc~n d istorted ("'stretched'') as a result of the T ~<MO corrections. c) Setting the amplitude of traces in the
mic energy is spread out over a wavefront of increasing surface area. 2) Absorption.
shaded region to zero (muting) removes misaligned events from the records. Though comprised of o nly two As seismic particles vibrate, some of their energy is lost through friction. The ampli-
( non-zeroed) traces (2-fold).the upper renection will tune better than it would have without muting. tudes o f seismic waves decrease, as seismic energy changes to heat. 3) Reflection.
Energy that is reflected back is no longer available to be transmitted deeper into the
Earth as the primary wave front. The net effect of these three factors is that reflec-
are known well enough. the section can be converted from a vertical scale in two- tions from depth have amplitudes several orders of magnitude less than shallow
way travel time to a depth scale (Fig. 5.14e). reflections. Awomatic Gain Control (AGC) balances amplitudes along the length of
a seismic trace, generally amplifying the trace as time increases.
Other Processing Procedures
Types of Velocities
At various stages, other types o f processing may be done on seismic traces.
Various types of seismic velocities are reported on seismic profile legends and in
Frequency filtering keeps only a selected band of frequencies, deleting frequencies
reports of seismic processing and interpretation (Fig. 5.15).
outside that range. If the input seismic signal is 10-50Hz, it would not be possible to
have reflected signal outside that range ; removing frequencies below 10 Hz and Average Velocity (V••) The distance to an interface, divided by the one-way
above 50 Hz would therefore impr ove signal-to-noise ratio. travel time to that interface, is the average velocity for the material above the inter-
The signal that ge ts into the ground may not be a simple pulse, but rather face (Fig. 5.15a).
short-term multiples (or " reverbe r ation") from near-surface layering. In other
words, the input pulse is "convolved " into a closely-spaced series of overlapping,
v,. = z/t
 s, s, b FIGURE 5.14 Stack, migration, and Processing 11 S
R R depth conversion. a) CMP gather
(including random noise). aher velocity
analysis. T NMO• mute, and elevation statics a) Average Velocity
Reflections Add corrections. b) Th ree-fold, stacked seismic
.. """""'"'"""i~''PJ;~;;"'"""'"'"""'""""""" trace. The reflected events from (a) add
constructively (in phase). while the noise
adds with destructive interference (out of r~-~--
phase). c) The trace from (b) is one of ~~ ff

-~:
numerous s tacked traces tha t comprise
the tmmigrated time section. d) Migration.
Events from (c) are moved to their true
horizontal positions, relative to the mmwmmm;m, -·-
surface. e) Depth Conversion. The section
in (d) is convened 10 depth according to
velocities of materials above reflectors.
The result can be a truer perspective of
' depths to reOectors \\~thin the Earth, and
,, of thicknesses of materials between
/'
,.,... ~:.;;; ~.;; ~ reOectors.

-·
,~" ~ -~- . ·-
/

/7
~ 7' ~ ~
~ - .,
~

/
/
~~ -~-, c) Interval Velocity
,~~ -~ SurfaC8
'·
d) Migrated Time Section

; ~
r-.,
l./"'..c
•
t. ·--
:EC::::r~:
1J77»J;;;;;;;;;m;;;;Jn»?»»»»»»»JJ/J77J77.
::::::
-· ,.... !
-
"--· - FIGURE 5.15 Types of velocity. a) Left:The average velocity of the material above ah interface (V,.) is the depth to the
interface (z) dh~ded by the time (t) it takes a wave to travel venicall)' from the surface to the interface. Right: Hypothetical
reOection raypaths, assuming no bending due to Snell's Law. The average velocity is the same as if each ray traveled
vertically through each layer. b) Root mean square velocity. Raypatb be nding leads to disproponionally long paths in
high-velocity layers. For example, for the bold raypath, near-vertical tra vel in the low-velociry (V ) layer leads to a very
... 1
short ray segment: in the high-velocity (V3) layer, more horizontal travel leads to a long ray segment. The average velocity
along such a U-sbaped raypath is approxima ted by the root mean square velociry (V RMsl· c) The interval velocity (V;.,) for
a laye r is the thickness of the layer (tl.z) divided by the travel time spent in the layer (tl.t) .
I, .·
e) Migrated Depth Section where:

v, ,.- ~""""·
.. "=. V,v = average velocity above the interface
- -=" 10-- .- z = depth from the surface to the interface
t = one-way travel time from surface to interface.
V2
For a layered sequence above a reflector, the average velocity can be envisioned
!!"' ? '!"
-
... -:i? F.' :::>
r ;::> ... '!"
according to "V-shaped" rays that do not bend across interfaces; the average is time-
weighted according to:
v3 n
~ V;t;
v•• =~
2:
i•l
l;

114
116 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Processing 117

where: FIGURE 5.16 Determining interval

a) Before 1NMo b) After 1NMo velocities from seismic reflection surveys.
V1 = seismic velocity of the i'h layer Correction Correction T N\IO corrections applied to a CMP
t1 = vertical, two-way travel time within the i'h layer. gather (a) a re used to estimate stacking
s, s, velocities down to each of the two
R, R, reflectors (b).Assuming the stacking
Root Mean Square (RMS) Velocity (V RMs) Snell's Law describes bending as
velocities are root mean square velocities
rays refract across an interface separating different velocities (Fig. 3.22). Rays are (V R>tsl.the inte rval velocity between the
refracted so that they travel more horizontally along high-velocity layers, compared two reflectors (V,,.,.)is computed from
to more vertical travel through low-velocity layers (Fig. 5. 15b). Consequently. rays the Dix Equation (c).
spend proportionally more travel time in higher-velocity layers. The root mean
square (RMS) velocity is a weighted average; it accounts for the disproportionate
travel time in high-velocity layers by squaring the velocities in the V1t1 term, then
taking the square root of the averaged sum:

VRMS =
c) Interval Velocity from RMS Velocities
R, R, R,
where:
VR~ts = root mean square velocity
V1 = seismic velocity of the i'h layer
t1 = vertical. two.way travel time within the i'h layer. \1i...,s(2)

Stacking Velocity The stacking velocity is the velocity that best corrects an
event on a CMP gather for normal moveout (Fig. 5.10) . A stacking velocity is a
type of average fo r the material above the reflecting interface. Due to bending as
velocities change across interfaces, raypaths fo llow " U-shaped" paths (Fig. 5.15b ).
as opposed to straight, "V-shaped'' paths (Fig. 5.15a). A stacking veloci ty is there-
fore an approxi mation of the RMS veloci ty for the material above the reflecting
interface.
(nterval Velocity (V1.,) The interval velocity is the average velocity of the
material between two interfaces (Fig. 5. 15c):
vinl = 6.z/ 6.t
Multiples
where:
V1., = average velocity between two interfaces
6.z = thickness of laye r between the two interfaces
6.t = one·way travel time between the two interfaces.
Velocity info rmation from seismic reflection surveys is in the form of stacking
velocities determined during processing. The Dix Equation (p. 130 of Sheriff and
Geldart, 1995) computes the int~:rval velocity between reflecting interfaces by
assuming that the stacking velocities are RMS velocities (Fig. 5.16):
V. = fV/~- V/t 1
'"' v t2 - tt
where:
V1., = interva l velocity between upper and lower interface
V 1 = stacking ve locity fo r reflection from upper interface [V RMs( l )]
V 2 =stacking ve locity fo r reflection from lower interface [VRMs(2)]
tt = ve rtical, two-way travel time to upper interface [t0 (1 )]
t2 =vertical. two-way travel time to lower interface [t0 (2)].
Internal velocities determined fro m stacking ve locities may be used to infer rock
velocities, but only under ideal conditions of flat layers with no lateral velocity
changes.
Multiples (Fig. 5.8) are a common type of noise on seismic reflection profiles. A
long·path multiple arrives as a distinct event, some time after the primary event. An
example would be the reflection from an interface that reflects downward from the
surface, then rel1ects upward again from the same interface (Fig. 5.17a). Short-path
multiples arrive soon after the primary event, so that they interfere with the primary
event. An example is a " peg-leg" multiple that reverberates in a near-surface layer,
then reflects from deeper (Fig. 5.17b).
The processing sequence of normal moveout corrections then stacking can
attenuate multiples, particularly the long-path variety (Fig. 5. 18). A multiple may
arrive near the time of a primary reflection from a deeper interface (Fig. 5.18a). The
primary rel1ection, however, will lie along a reflection hyperbola representing
higher RMS-velocity than the steeper, lower-ve locity hyperbola of the multiple
(Fig. 5.18b). Carefu l selection of stacking velocities will line up the two primary
reflections, while the multiple will be out of phase (Fig. 5.18c).
If multiples are not adequately dealt with in processing, they will overprint
primary reflections on stacked sections. A surface multiple will have twice the travel
118 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisit ion, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Seismic Waveform 119

X ==C> a) Raypaths
a) Long-Path Multiple

X ==e> to

2t0
f-

~
b) Before TNMo Correction c) After TN~.~o Correction
X--<> x=-

X ==e>
b) Short-Path Multiple ~ ~

X ==e> to
~
"'......
PrimBJy Events
/ lnPhase

f- 2t0 -·- -·-· ·-· ·-·

~
Multiple

1T
1st Primary outot Phase
2nd Primary
, Multiple
FIGURE 5.18 Discrimirwtion of primary vs.multiplc reflections. a) R aypat h diagram of two primary
FIGURE 5.17 Raypath diagrams and shot point gathers for primary and multiple reflections. a) reflections and a surface multiple reflection from the shallower inte rlace. b) On the gathe red traces. the
Long-path (surface) multiple. resulting in an event distinct [rom the primary reOection. multiple has more normal movcout than the deep primary refl ection arriving at a bout the same time. .
b) Short-path ("peg·leg") multi ple. resulting in interference with the p rimary reflection. c) Proper stacking velocity selection will line up the two prima ry reflections in phase, while miss-aligning
the multiple.

time and twice the apparent dip as the primary event. An example is the water-
bouom mu!liple commonly observed on marine profiles (Fig. 5.19).
0
5km
SEISMIC WAVEFORM 1~
<b
Amplitudes and interference patterns (waveforms) observed on seismic traces pro-
vide clues to compositions and thicknesses of Earth materials. Seismic energy is 2~
reflected when a material of differing acoustical properties is encountered; a seismic -a;
trace resulting from a homogeneous medium would have no retlections (Fig. 5.20a),
while an interface separating vastly different materials would generate a strong
3 .._::~
reflection (Fig. 5.20b).
Factors that determine the appearance of an individual seismic trace are: 1) the
input seismic signal. dependent on the frequency and 'phase spectra of the source;
4l
6
2) changes in acoustic impedance within the Earth that are encountered by the seis- 5~
mic signal; and 3) noise of many varieties, introduced thro ugh the acquisition and
processing procedures as well as from cultural and other sources. 6
FIGURE 5.19 Water bouom multiple 011 stackt d seismic sectio11. The multiple was not completely re moved during
Input seismic signal processing. so that it overprints deepe r primary events. The water bottorv re n ection occurs at 2.5 sin the midd le of the
section, \\~th the multiple at twice the travel time. or 5.0 s. Similarly, on the lef t side o f the section the water botto m"is at
A lthough there are many kinds of artificial sources used to generate seismic energy,
2.25 s. the multi ple at 4.5 s. Unmigrated time section from Middle America Trench. From The Middle American Trench. by
two basic categories are represented on the final seismic section: 1) those that begin B. P. Collins and J. S. Watkins. p. 31. in Seismic Images of Modem Co11vrrge11t Margi11 Tecto11ic Structure. Studies in
as an abrupt pulse at the time of the reflected event (minimum phase); and 2) those Geology No. 26., ed. by R. von Huene. C> 1986. Reprinted by permission of the American Association of Pe troleum
that depict half of the pulse at the time of the event and half after (zero phase). Geologists. Tulsa. Oklahoma.
 120 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acqui~ition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Seismic Waveform 121

a) Homogeneous Medium FIGURE 5.20 Models and resulting

a) Vibroseis Sweep b) Vibroseis Sweep
seismic traces for: (a) a medium with
Model . Seismic Traces constant acoustic impedance (p1V1) : and Sent Into Ground

llllllll
(b) a m~dium with an interface
separating a layer of acoustic impedance Start of
(p1V 1) from a layer with different
acoustic impedance (p, V1) . p = density:
V = seismic velocity.
Low
Frequency
b) Strong Interface
Model Seismic Traces

~LLLU_j
ITTrrrr . High
Frequency

~ Amplitude ~(if'
FIGURE 5.21 Minimum phase uismic
pulse. c) Recorded Seismic d) After Vibroseis
Trace Correlation
Zero Phase
Time of Pulse
·-·-·-·-·-·-···-·-·-·-· -·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·~
·-·-=---
Event

Minimum Phase Pulse An explosive source, like dynamile on land or air

guns at sea, results in a burst of energy near the time of the event, followed by rever·
beration that diminishes with time (Fig. 5.21). FIGURE 5.22 Zero plras• seismic pulse. ~I< tal plate ~neath truck (a) sends a swoop of continu_ously
changing frequencies (b) into the ground. Beginning at the time of an ev~nt.thc _re~orded setsmtc
Zero Phase Pulse Instead of an abrupt explosion, vibrations can be sent in to trace (c) mimics the sweep. After a correlation is made to find the tnput stgnal 1v11htn the recorded
the ground as a "sweep" of continuously varying frequencies. In one technique, trace (Vibroseis correlation). a zero phase pulse (d) represents the event.
known as Vibroseis (trademark CONOCO, Inc.), a massive plate beneath a truck
(Fig. 5.22a) vibrates for a few seconds, first with low frequencies, then gradually V = seismic velocity
changing to higher ones (or vice versa; Fig. 5.22b). Computer processing (Vibroseis f = frequency
Correlation) of the resulting seismic trace (Fig. 5.22c) results in a waveform sym· A = wavelength.
metrical about the time of the event (Fig 5.22d).
The wavelength is thus:
Width of Seismic Pulse The scale of geologic layering that can be resolved A= V/f.
by the seismic reflection method depends on the frequency spectrum of the input
pulse. The width (or "wavelength") of pulse of a given freq uency can be found A typical reflection survey contains frequencies in the range of about LO to 50 Hz
through the relationship: ( L Hz= 1 cycle/s). For a frequency of 30Hz and seismic velocity of 3000 m/ s, the
wavelength is:
v= fA
A = 3000 m/s = 100 m
where:
30 - / s
 122 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Seismic Waveform 123

a) Model b) Acoustic c) Reflection FIGURE 5.24 a) Model of interface at

(09pth) lmpedBIIce Coefficient depth (h), separating material of density
-1 0 +1 (p1) and seismic velocity (V 1) from
·-·- ·-·----- · "----1:--......J material of densit y (r2) and vclocit)• (V ,).
b) Graph of change in acoustic ·
impedance. from 11 = p 1V 1 to 12 = p2V,,
across the interface in (a). c) Reflection
coefficient resulting from acoustic
impedance change in (b).

a Input
Seismic Signal b Model Acoustic Reflsction
(AmplittJde) (Two-Way Travel Time) lmped8.1'1C8 Coefficient
0 A; [!1 -1 0 +1
- -- ·--- ---..L....-1----L

T=
2h!Vt

FIGURE 5.25 a) Tite input seismic signal is a specific waveform with a certain amplitude (A;). b) The seismic response to an
interface has the same waveform as the input signal, scaled to the amplitude of !he reflection coefficient (A,); it appears at two-
way tra,·eJ time (T) dependent on the thickness (h) and velocity (\1 1) of the material above the interface.

FIGURE 5.23 Portion of typical seismic trace. superimposed on outcrop of sedimentary strata. From Principles of
Sedimenrary Basin Analysis, by A. D. Mia II, © 1984. Reprinted by permission of Springer- Verlag, New York.
Fig. 5.23 shows how layering in outcrop scale might compare to a portion o~ a seis-
mic trace. Note the numerous thin layers that Wgether encompass approximately
one half of a seismic wavelength; the reflectio~·in eth od thus responds to geologic
changes on a much larger scale than the layers in the photograph.
Acoustic Impedance and Reflect ion Coeffident
The amount of energy reflected back from an interface between two layers depends
on the difference in the acoustic impedance of the layers:
I = pV
where:
I = acoustic impedance
p =density
V = seismic velocity.
The reflection coefficient (Fig. 5.24) expresses the amplitude and polarity of
the wave reflected from an interface, relative to the incident wave. It depends on the
acoustic impedance of the two materials:
where:
RC = reflection coefficient of the interface between the two layers
11.I 2 = acoustic impedance of the layers above and below the interface
Pt· p 2 = density of the layers above and below the in terface
V 1• V2 =seismic velocity of the layers above and below the interface.
Reflection from Single Interface In the absence of noise, attenuation, or
othe'r seismic arrivals, a seismic trace can be viewed as the result of convolving the
input seismic signal with a series of reflection coefficients. For a single interface
buried at depth h (Fig. 5.25). the resulting seismic trace has:
T = 2h/ V 1
and
A, = (A;) (RC)
where:
T = travel time from the surface to the interface and back (two-way travel
time)
A ; = amplitude of the incident (input) seismic wave
A, = amplitude of the reflected seismic wave.

RC - - I,)
= -{12- (p2V2- p,V I)
- = -7-"_.___:......._'-" The time of the reflected wave is thus a function of the velocity above the interface
(I2 + I,) (p2V2 + PtVI) and the depth of the layer. The amp1itude of the reflected wave depends on the
 t
124 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Wavefo rm Analysis Seismic Waveform 125

Input Seismic Signal ('Pulse") Seismic Response (Minimum Phase) ·

a Minimum
Phase
Zero
Phase
a Input
Signal
Model
A bC
lmr;:/lance
-1
ReHecffon
Coefficient
0 +1 1st
Interfaces
2nd 3rd
Total Seismic
Trace
--....,.---· -·-·-·-·-'---+-......·-·- -·-·-·
~

+ 1st

2nd
P,V,

Pz~
+ +

·-·-·- -·-·-·-·-· ·-·-·---

~
Q)

~~
~

.. s:~
.a}j
3rd
b Model ArousUc Reflection Seismic Response
p4~ ~
f';;.
Impedance
(I • p V Increases)
Coefficient
(RC>O) Minimum Zero .·
-1 0 +1 Phase Phase Reflection Seismic Response (Minimum Phase)
b Input
Signal
Model Aodustic
Impedance
·1
CoeffiCient
0 +1 1st
Interfaces
2nd 3rd
Total Seismic
Trace

P,V, 1
1st
~~

c
2nd
P}j "'~
Model Acoustic Reflection Seismic Response 3rd
lmp9dance CaetriCiant
(/• p V Decreases) (RC < 0) Minimum Zero
p4~
-1 0 +1 Phase Phase
- · - ---~--- -·-·-·-·-·-·

It . FIGURE 5.27 Response or reflections from several interfaces with (a) lriglr frequency and (b) /uiV frequ<ncy input seismic signals.

-~-·- ~ -·-·-·-·-·-·-·-
P)~ /2
FIGURE 5.26 a) Input minimum phase and zero phase seismic signals. b) Seismic response for rencction
al interface wirh positive ren~ction co~rricicnt. c) Seismic response ror neg:uivc rcOection codridcnt.
amplitude of the incident wave and the strength of the reflection coefficient, which
depends on the difference in the acoustic impedance of the two laye rs.
Whether the reflected wave has the same or opposite polarity as the input seis-
mic signal (Fig. 5.26a) depends on whether the reflection coefficient is positive or
negative. If the acoustic impedance of the reflecting layer is greater than that of the
layer above (12 > It). the rellection coefficient will be positive (RC > 0). The result·
ing reflection has the same polari1y as the input signal (Fig. 5.26b). If the acoustic
impedance of the reflecting layer is smaller (1~ < 11), the reflection coefficient is nega-
tive (RC < 0).1l1e reflection is the opposite polarity of the input signal (Fig. 5.26c).
is broad relative to the time spacing of the renection cocfficients. the seismic trace
shows the interference pallcrn caused by the overlapping events (Fig. 5.27b).
Noise
Noise on a seismic reflection profile can be defined as the deflection of a seismic
trace caused by anything other than energy reflected once from nn interface. Noise
can be natural. cu ltural. or induced by the seismic method itself.
Natural Noise Seismic rece ive rs (geophones) can be shaken as the result of
natural phenomena. The IVind shakes trees. bushes. and othe r objects. causing vibra-
tions of the ground that are recorded by the geophones. Likewise, animals walking
near geophones, or wmer flowing in nearby strea ms can cause ground vibrations.
Wind, rain. and animals can also shake the cables connect ing geophones. causing the
geophones to vibrate.

Rellections fro m Several Interfaces When there is more than one rellecting Cultural Noise Activities of people can contribute to noise. Cars, trucks,
in terface the seismic trace is the sum of the responses for each interface. If the inter- trains, as well as people walking near the survey line. cause the ground to rallle.
faces are sufficiently far apart (compared to the width of the input signal). three dis- Electrical po1Ver lines cause a magnetic field which can interfere with electrical sys-
tinct events will appear on the seismic trace (Fig. 5.27a). If, however, the inpu t signal tems of a seismic survey.
126 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Seism ic Waveform 127

Noise Induced by Seismic Acquisition and Processing The seismic reflection

method attempts to image primary reflections (Figs. 5.5c. 5.8, 5.17). Other seismic
events, or phenomena introduced by acquisition or processing, interfere with the
primary reflections. Rayleigh waves (also referred to as groundroll, Fig. 5.5b) appear
a [!]
lnpv!
* IRC(t)l
Raf/9Cilon

~-;~~~
as low-frequency events cutting across the reflected arrivals. Direct waves, critically ModBf Seismic Trace
refracted waves, and diffractions (energy radiating from a point source) can also
arrive at the same time as reflections (Fig. 5.12a ).
Multiple reflections (energy reflected more than once from the same inter- Ptl-j
,. + + =
face) also interfere (Figs. 5.8b, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19). Seismic surveys best attenuate
noise when survey lines are straight and continuous. Surveys may have to skip or P}~ ~
go around areas with buildings, highways, rivers or other obstructions, causing
gaps or bends in the recorded data. Noise can also be introduced in the processing
p3~ ~
of data , through factors like over-migration or poor normal moveout corrections
p4~
(Fig. 5.10).

Total Seismic Trace

Convolution A seismic trace can be viewed as 1) the input seismic signal,
convolved with 2) a reflection coefficient time series (resulting from acoustic
impedance changes), with 3) noise superimposed (Fig. 5.28). Convolution means
b [!] * IRC(t)l + ~- ~
replacing each reflection coefficient with the input seismic signal, scaled to the Input RBfiBction
amplitude and polarity of the reflection coefficient (Fig. 5.28a). Mathematically, Model Slgn81 Coafficlant Noise Seismic TrB08

-:-~-:~-f. . --~~--0 .,
convolution of an input signal with a reflection coefficient series is (see p. 280 of
Sheriff and Geldart. 1995):

where:
l(t)
l(t) * RC(t) =

= amplitude of the input signal at timet

* = convolution operator
A(t)

__ _ .....
--------·----------------
_;;;...;..

~~ _._ ·-·-·-----·-------·-·-·-·-·
+

RC(t) = amplitude of the reflection coefficient at time t p4~

A(t) = amplitude of the seismic trace at timet.
Noise adds algebraically to the convolved seismic trace (Fig. 5.28b):
FIGURE 5.28 Convolution of reOection coefficients from three-laver model with a low-
(l (t) * RC(t)) + N(t) fo A(t) frequency input signal (Fig. 5.27b). a) Without noise. b) With noise.'

where:
.·
N(t) = amplitude of the noise at timet. Input Signal Seismic Traces FIGURE 5.29 Signal-to-noise ratio.

Signal to Noise Ratio The ability to see stratigraphic changes on seismic pro- a b
High Slgll61 to
c
L.oWflr S/gnsl to
a) Input seismic signal. b) Events
mimicking the input signal can be
recognized on seismic trace with high
files depends on the amplitude of reflections, relative to the level of noise (signal-to- signa l-tD-noise ratio. c) On a trace with
Nols9Ratio Nois9 Ratio
noise ratio, Fig. 5.29). Acquisition and processing techniques are designed to filter lo w signal-to-noise ratio, seismic events
out noise while keeping signals resulting from primary reflections, thus enhancing are hidden within the noise.
the signal-to-noise ratio. ·

Frequency and Phase Components of Seismic Trace

A continuous function, like a seismic trace represented as a time series, may be
expressed as the sum of sine wave freq uency components; each component has a
certain amplitude and degree of phase shift , relative to other frequency components.
The components can be expressed through a Fourier series (see Telford et al., 1976,
p. 371; Sheriff and Geldart, 1995, p. 531). For the portion of a seismic trace which
,_
 1.t6 Lhapter 5 Seismic Reflection : Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Ana lysis Seismic Waveform 129

exte nds from time 0 to time T, a Fourier series expansion of the trace ca n be

·-·~·-····
expressed as: a) Zero Phase
A(t) =
~

2: a.cos (2<ont/ T) + 2:
»

b.sin (2-rrnt/ T)
10-50Hz nme of Event

where: Frequency Spectrum Phase Spectrum

+180'.---..:.......:..:..:..:..:__ _!__ _ _ _ _,

A(t) = amplitude of the seismic trace at time t

a•. b. =coefficients that express the amplitude and phase shift of a given
+-120• ....... .;. . ..... ; . ................. ................ f"'' ..
frequency component. +60' . ..... :· ...

Visualization of the sine wave components of the input signal ca n help us 3ltXl o· --- ---•--· ......,........ , .......
understand the appearance of re nectcd eve nts on seismic traces. For example.
assume that the zero-phase pulse depicted in Fig. 5.22d has freq uencies from 10 to
a: -$)' • .... ....... ,....
~ .. .. ............ - ··
,_ ,

50 Hz. The Fourier series simply expresses that the sine wave components !;let wee n
-120'
10 and 50 Hz (Fig. S.JOa) can be added with equal amplitudes. in phase exactly at
the time of the event (Fig. 5.30b). Near the time of the event (''!" in Fig. 5.30b). -180' L - - - - - --'----:::----;:!
there is a central peak or trough, depending on the polarity of the retlection coeffi- ~ :! ~ ~ ~ ~ lil ~ § ~
cient (Fig. 5.26). Away from this ce ntral "lobe'' there are alternating troughs and Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
peaks, or "Sidelobes," resulting fro m the di fferen t freq uency components being in
and out of phase at va rious times ("2'' and ·'J" in Fig. 5.30b).

--t--- r::~:::;ecuum
Fig. 5.31 illustrates two 10- 50 Hz pulses. The frequency speclra show that only
frequencies of 10 ttl 50 cycles pe r second (or Hz) are represented. and that their
b) Minimum Phase
ampl itudes are equal. The phase speCira reveal how the central peaks of the fre- 10-50Hz
quency components for each pulse line up rela tive to one another. Fig. 5.3 la shows
that, for a ze ro-phase pu lse, each o f the fre quency components are exactly at their
peak amplitude at the time of the event, thus adding together constructively to give .....--:Fi......:r...:e2
q-=-ue.::..:n~cy:.:!_S_.!p_e_ct_r_u_m__, ., 80•
the central lobe. For the minimum-phase pulse (Fig. 5.3 l b), the components arc
+120" . .... .. .... ···; · ...
;

(\. .:
a -o.s b -0.1
/
~
~
:.::::
Cl. ·
.......... ..
i ,_:v ..

l
/

'
/ E:
/ ~
/ '
/ ' -0.05
-120'
/
/
3
' -t8trL---..,---:::---:::---;::--~
~ 2 1 ~ ~ ~ :! ~ ~
<!) 0 ~ ~
:i! :ii! ~
Frequency (Hz)
~ 2 Frequency (Hz)
FIGURE 5.3 1 Frequrncv 111111ph11se spectr11 fo r /0-50 f/: pulse. For bolh pulses ill ustrated, the frequ~ncy
'' 3 spectra show equal ampl-itudes for th~ 10 Hz 10 50 Hz ~omponcnls, zero "~plitude for frequencies ou1s1dc .
'
' '' that range. a) Zero-pl!ast p1tlse. The phase spc~trum shows tha l lhe 10 w )0 Hz frequency co mpone~ts arc m

J
0.05
phase, so thai the pulse is symmc1rical a bout the time ~f the event. b) Muumum-~has~ pulse. Frequency
'
'' components are phase-shifted relative 10 one another. m such a wa y Ihal the bulk of the pulse arn ves JUSI
a fter the time of the event.
0. 1
-1 0 1
Amplitude shifted in phase in such a way that they sum to ze ro before the time of the event,
FIGURE 5.30 a) Sine waves with frequcnc1es from 10 lo 50 cycles per second constilule a t0-50 l-Iz pulse: freq uencie s below reach a maximum value soon after the time of the event. the n gradually approach
10 l-Iz and above 50 Hz have zero ampliiUdc. b) Frequency componcnls ( thin lines) of a 10-50Hz. ze ro-phase pulse (bold line). zero amplitude (see Sheriff, 1978, 1984).
t. AI Ihe lime o f Ihe even! (I = 0), the frequency components add togethcr to give a central peak. 2. At about 1 = +O.ot 5 and Extreme cases are illustrated in Fig. 5.32. A 40 Hz pulse has only one fre-
-0.015 S. lhc individual frequency com ponents add 10 minima. g iving the negative sid clobcs. 3. At large r positive a nd negative quency component. producing a pure sine wave with no way to tell when the ~ve nt
times. t he com poncnls add 10 varying degrees. producing o ther (bu t smalle r ) s idclobcs.
occurred (Fig. 5.32a). In contrast. a wave that has all frequencies of equal amplitude
130 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform A nalysis Seismic Waveform

a) 40Hz Increasing Resolution . . ____ _ --,>

(Pure Sine Wave) . . _______,::>
Increasing Definition_
b) 10 -30Hz c) 10 -50Hz d) 10 · 70Hz
-C.t -C. 1 -C.t
I>
Frequency Spectrum Phase S ectrum
•1M' ,---..:..__,;...;:...:._.:.L - - ' - ' ----,,------,
-C.05 .{).05 ..... < ...
~
·"·:•• ,,,, ••• , ,.., • • ·••••I• •·······~··· ··•··· ·· ·:· · ··· ••• +1W ............:..........: ............. · ·······:············~···········

···:··· ·······:·· .... ·:·· ......... . ~· ······· ······ · ·····························<··········· i 0 t--::<~~

~ ~
~ o• .......... L .... .. ~ · · · ··!· · ······l··········:········ · 0.05 0.05 ...............<
< ..............
-8()• ············~········· .. ~···· ....... , ........... ..... •....... c
O.t ..__ _..__ _... 0.1..__ _,.__ _... O.t .__ _ ~ _ _...
....... ·: ················ . ····:··········· · 120' ......
·1 0 ·1 0 ·1 0
Amp/lnJdt Amp//rvd8 Amp/itvd•

c ~ ~
Frequency (Hz}
~ 2~~
.,[2]
~

~
· ·: - .
. ·:····;... :
' ~·· ·~··
i ..
. ··-:··· .··· .... .
b) 0 -oo Hz
.. li: ~ ~ i 8 !: 0
t ~ i i !! !!
(Spike) Frsquoocy (Hz) - Frequency (Hz)
·- ·-·- 77me of Event FIGURE 5.33 Change in form of zero-phase seismic pulse as more and more frequencies are adqed to the high end of the
spectrum. Both srismic re.<o/wio11 (content of high frequencies) and .<eismk deji11irio11 (bandwidth) improve from (a) to (d).
. '
Frequency Spectrum Phase Spectrum
•18 0 ' , - - - - - - - ' - - - - - - - ,
+120' .... The thickness of layering that can be distinguished on seismic profiles depends
on how well a seismic pulse can resolve those layers. An equally important quality.
however, is the ability of the pulse to define the presence of interfaces. Both resolu-
tion a nd defi nition are dependant on the frequency content of the pulse.
Fig. 5.33 illustrates two thi ngs that happen to a pulse as more and more fre-
quency components are added: 1) the time between the main lobe ("peak") and the
adjacent sidelobes ("troughs") becomes less and less as higher and higher frequen-
·120' ··•······
cies· are added (resolwion increases); and 2) the ratio of the amplitude of the main
•teo· '-----,:-----,:----::---,--::---,---;::--~ lobe to the adjacent sidelobes becomes greater as the bandwidth of frequencies
c ~ ~ ~ 2 ~~ c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ increases (definition increases).
Frequency (Hz} Frequency (Hz}
FIGURE 5.32 Seismic pulse. frequency spectrum. and phase spectrum for: a) only one frequency component Seismic Resolution Seismic resolution depends on having high enough fre-.
(40Hz): and b) all frequency components (0- x Hz) represented with equal amplitude. quencies to recognize closely spaced reflection coefficients. A pulse with only low
frequencies is very broad. with sidelobes far apart from the main pulse: it is not pos-
sible to resolve thin layering with such a pulse (Fig. 5.27b). When high frequencies
(zero to infin ite Hz) , results in zero amplitude everywhere, except at the time of the are present, the pulse is narrower, with sidelobes closer to the time of the main
event, where a discrete event ("spike") occurs (Fig. 5.32b). pulse: better resolution results (Fig. 5.27a). Higher resolut ion is possible with the
pulses in Figs. 5.33c and 5.33d, compared to the p ulses in Figs 5.33a and 5.33b.
Seismic Resolution and Definition
The ability to see stratigraphic changes on seismic profil es depends o n two fa cto rs: Seismic Definition Even if high frequencies are presen t, it may not be possi-
1) a high signal-to-noise ratio:and 2) a seismic p ulse with a broad bandwidth encom· ble to determine that layers are present. Seismic definitio n requires that there be a
passing both low and high frequencies. broad enough bandwidth of frequencies to detect that layering exists (Fig. 5.34). The
 132 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Seismic Waveform 133

Increasing Definition L,__---> a) One Octave Bandwidth

FIGURE 5.35 Improving seismic
de finition and resolution. Definitioll.
Pulses in (a) span one octave. because
a) 40 -40Hz b) 30-50Hz c) 20 - 60Hz d) 10- 70Hz 10 - 20 Hz 20 - 40 Hz 40 - 80 Hz their bandwidths represent doubling of
.().1 -C. 1 ~.1 ~.1
-C.1 -C.1 frequency. Ratios of s ide lobes ro central
}l }l
-C.05 ............... .. ... ~ . . .........l . .Q ~ ~ ~ ~
. ..... ~ ..
peaks for each of the three pulses are the
same. In (b) pulses span two octaves of
-C.05 -C.06 .... ~ ........ -e.05 .... ~ ...... ( ....... . ~ ....
-C.06 .().05
lc:::: (i) a: bandwidth, because rhe highest

(i)\~
(ij

~ [~=~====~====~ .... l-
1 -.--- \ \ \ ~ ~ \ frequencies are four times rhe lowest.

~o B~ jo e:=~~ 0 ~ 0 Compared to rhe pulses in (a) the pulses

~ t: in (b) have higher peak-to-sidelobe ratios

IC
~ and. hence. higher definition. Resolwio11.

0.05 ...... ....... ~ ............. .

0.06 ........................ . 0.05 .............. . 0.05 In (a) each of the pulses span one octave.
0.05
and rhus have the same defining power:
0.1 ...__ _ _ _ _ reso lution is higher going from left ro

~
0.1 1"C · ~ 0.1 L---...U.---' 0.1 L---.A..--..J
_, 0 0.1~---l~---1 0.1 ~--l:lo,..-......1
_, _, 0 ·I 0 -1 0
right, however. because higher
0 -I 0 0 Amplitude Ampituds ~ frequencies are involved. The same is
AmpOtude Amp/ltudtJ Amp//rude Amplllvd8 true for the 2-ocrave pulses in ( b).

. ·.:.:··:.::. :...:. .·::.·:.:·::..·.:..

.

im~
. : :
~
,e
~
~
.
.
.
i
~ ·.~·.. ;-
. :········
.
I• • • •;. • •' ~
.
·;

.
•; • •' •; '•
i oa~llag~
.

o~~QQg~ <>!l~Q Q 811: 0 ~~ ill8~ F~(Hz)

F/'9qU6()o/ (Hz) F~ (HZJ - FfJ~q~J6f>Cf (H;) •
FIGURE 5.34 lncrerui11g seismic dt{t11iti011. Th,e pulses have the same central frequency (40 Hz) and. hence. rhe same power
of resolution. 13andwidth increases from (a) ro (d). improving the potential to define interfaces. a) Single, 40 Hz pulse is a b) Two Octave Bandwidth
pure sine wave: side lobes have the same amplitude as the central peak (at Tome = 0 s). so that defining power is zero.
b) Compnred to the pulse in (a). a 30- 50Hz pulse spans the same rime (- 0.0125 s) between the main peak and adjacent
5 - 20Hz 10 - 40 Hz 20 - 80Hz
srdelobcs (troughs). The central peak has higher amplitude than adjacent troughs. so rhar rhe pulse is berrcr able ro define an -C. I -C.t }J
interface at Tome = 0. c.d) Peak·to-sidelobe amplitude ra tio increases as bandwidth broadens. improving seismic definition. ~
-C.05 ~.06 ~
"
bandwidth of a seismic pulse can be thought of in the same sense as octaves in music
(Fig. 5.35). Doubling the frequency steps up by one octave; four times the frequency
expands by two octaves. A pulse spanning only one octave will have sidelobes that 0.06 0.05
are comparable in size to those of the main pulse (Fig. 5.35a). Increasing the number
of octaves attenuates the sidelobes relative to the amplitude of the main pulse, mak-
0.1 1 - - -..U..--..J
ing it easier to define where an interface is present (Fig. 5.35b ). -1 0 -1 0

.i[Ej
. . . . . :..
Amp/itJJdB AmpOtude

Importance of High Frequencies and Broad Bandwidth Interpretation of fine

detail o f stratigraphy requires that the input pulse have both high frequencies and
broad bandwidth. Fig. 5.34 shows four pu lses, each with central frequency of 40 Hz,
~.·
......, . .: . : . .
· . :· ~: I
tU -~ .J
..
'. • ..... : • •
!rn
·:. . :. . .;
'§. . .'
and thus each with the same power o f resolution (compare the widths of the central
pulses). The pulses portray different definition, however, with the broad bandwidth,
:.. : : :·.. ;:. , .. ::.. ~· ~ .. . :::::.. :
10-70 Hz signal approaching a spike, and the no bandwidth (40-40 Hz) pulse <>lil~li!~82 <>lil~ili!~~ <>2~ii!~~
FrequiN>Cf (HZJ - Frequency (Hz) Frt~qUtN>CY (Hz)
revealing a p ure sine wave, with no ability to define that an interface might be
p resent.
Fig. 5.35a shows a comparison of pulses with poor definition, encompassing
only one octave (10-20Hz; 20 -40 Hz; 40-80Hz). Note that resolution improves Examples of Waveforms on Seismic Profile
with the higher frequency pulse, but definition rema ins the same. Fig. 5.35b illus- Fig. 5.36 shows a seismic reflection profile recorded a~ross the _Middle America
trates much better definition, because two octaves of bandwidth are represented Trench off Mexico. The profile reveals packages of varyrng seiSmic wave form that
(5-20Hz; 10-40Hz; 20-80Hz). Note that the 20-80Hz signal approaches a spike, can be used to interp ret gross stratigraphy. The ove rlying layer of water has constant
because it includes both high freque ncies and broad bandwidth. acoustic impedance and, hence, zero amplitude reflection coefficiems; a region o f
 134 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis Exercises 135

5.0
Surface ··"·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·- ·- ·-·-·-·

Shale Vp =2500; p = 2.2; h"' 1000

mJs.. gjcrrP m

Tight Sandstone Vp = 3800; p = 2.4; h = 50

6.0
Porous Sandstone Vp - 3000; p - 2.1; h - 50

Shale Vp = 2500; p =2.2; h = 1000

5.0

Model for Exercise 5-1

c) Draw well logs of seismic velocity. densily. acoustic impedance. and renee! ion coef-
ficient. wi1h lii'O·way /rave/rime as the vertical scale.
d) Convolve the reflection coefficient series with a zero-phase wavelet of 20 1080Hz
6.0 frequency ( ... 50 Hz cemer frequency) and plot the resulting seismic !race.
e) Convolve 1he reflection coefficient series with a zero-phasr wnve/e1 of 10 1040Hz
frequency ( .., 25 Hz cemer frequency) and p lot the resulting seismic trace.

FIGURE 5.36 Seismic waveform packages observed on a migrated depth section from the Middle America Trench
off Mexico (Line Mex-2: Moore and Shipley,l988). The top figure shows the seismic traces with no interpretation: the
same section is shown on the bottom. but with interpretations superimposed. Note that the uppermost 4.8 km of the 3 4 5 6 7
water column is not shown. Prominent reOection packages include the water layer (zero amplitude); trench turbidites
(high amplitude); hemipelagic sediments (low amplitude. "transparent" zone); deforrned turbidites on right side of
m m m m" m
section (''chaotic'' seismic expression): and oceanic crust ("chaotic"). From G. F. Moore and T. H. Shipley. Mechanisms
of sediment accretion in the Middle America Trench off Mexico. in Journal of GeophysiCal Research, v. 93. pp.S911-8927, V1 =2500mjs
1!:> J988. Redrawn with permission of the American Geophysical Union, Wash ington. D. C.
!////////////// ////)/'///)//////////////// /////////////)//////// /4
blank seismic traces results. O n the left side of the section, trench turbidites have V2 =3000m/s
much higher density and seismic velocity than tht;.water, leading to a strong water
Model for Exercise 5-2
bottom reflection. The tre nch turbidites have laye·r·s of contrasting acoustic imped-
ance, leading to a sequence of high-amplitude r·enections. Hemipelagic sediments
deposited on to p of the oceanic crust are much more homogeneous, leading to very S·& Given the simple. horizontally layered model above.
low amplitude reflections (a seismically "transparent " zone). Two regions of a) Plot a travel lime vs. diswnce graph for I he: i) direcl P; ii) direct Rayleigh; iii) crit i·
complex layering include the deformed trench turbidites on the right side of the sec· cally refracted P; iv) P primary reflection; v) first P multiple reflection.
tion, and the crystalline basement of the oceanic crust; those regions have a more b) Whal is the apparent veloci1y of each of these arrivals a1 a dis tance of zero m, 500 m,
random or "chaotic" seismic appearance. 2000 m, 6000 m, and 20,000 m from the source?
c) Repeat (a) and (b), but with the interface at 5000 m depth ins1ead of 500 m.
5·3 For the Exercise 5·2 model:
EXERCISES
a) Draw a stacking diagram for a series of shots at each of the locations I through 7.
5-1 The model on the following page shows compressional wave velocities (Vp). densities (p) moving the entire spread one shot in1erval to the right each time. What is the fold
and 1hicknesses (h) for layers of horizontal sedimentary strata. of swck f~r each resulting CM P point?
a) Calculate the acoustic impedance for each layer. b) Calculate a normal moveout correction for each of the events plotted in
b) Pretend a well is drilled to the bottom of the model. Draw well logs of seismic Exercise 5-2(a). assuming a stacking velocity of2500 m/s.
velocity, densit)~ acoustic impedance, and refleCiion coefficiem, with dep1h as the c) RepiOI the travel-t ime curve at the same scale as in S-2(a). Which events would
vertical scale. slack in phase. and which ow ofphase?

:
136 Chapter 5 Seismic Reflection: Acquisition, Processing, And Waveform Analysis
54 a) For the (shotpoint gather) record in Fig. 4.8. identify the primary and the first two
multiple reflections from the water bottom.
b) Compute the water depth based on the primary and two multiple reflections.
c) Draw raypaths illustrating the primary and the two muhiplcs. to a receiver 15 km
from the source.
. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPH Y
Anstey. N. A.. t977. Seism ic lmerpretation: The
P!tysiclll Aspects. llos1on: International Human
Resources Development Corpora lion. 625 pp.
lladley. M. E.. 1985. Practical Seismic lnterprewrion.
Boston: lnlc mational Human Resources Develop -
ment Corpora tion. 266 pp.
llally. A. W. (editor). 1983. Seism ic £.rpffssion of
Structural Stvles. American Association of
Pe1roleum Geologists. Studies in Geology Series 15.
(3 volume set).
llurger. H. R.. £rploration Geophysics of t!tr Shallow
Subsurfaa. t992. Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prenlice
Hall.lnc.. ~9 pp.
Collins. B. P.. and J. S. Walkins. 1986. The Middle
America Trench, in: Seismh: Images of ~Wodern
Com·ergcnt .'vlnrgi11 1i!ctanic Structure. R. von
Huenc (editor). Tulsa: American Association of
Petroleum Geologisls. SIUdies in Geology 26.
pp.J0-32.
Dobrin. :VI. B.. 1976. Introduction to Geophysical
Prv<pwing. (3rd cd.). New York: 1>kGraw-Hill.
-146 pp.
Do hr, G.. 1981. Applird G;,oph_vsics: lntroducticm to
Geop!tpiml Prospecting. Geology of Petroleum.
v. I. :-lew York: Halsled Press. 231 pp.
Halbouly. ~1. T. (edi1or). 1982. The Delibemte s~arch
fo r thr Subtle Trap, Tulsa: America n Associmion o r
Pe trokum Geologists. Memoir 32. 351 pp.
~!i:~ ll . A. D.. 198-1, Principles of Sedimenlllry 8asil1
Analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag. ~'JO pp.
Moore. G. F.. and T. H. Shiple y. 1988. Mechanis ms o f
sedimcnl accrelion in I he Midd le America Trench
off Mcxico.Joumal of Geophysical Research. v. 93.
pp. 8911-8927.
Oliver.J.. I986.A global perspective on seismic re n ee-
lion profiling or lhe conlinental crust. in:
Reflection Srismology: The Com inenwl Crust. M .
Barazangi and L llrown (ed itors). Tulsa:
American Association of Pe1roleum Gc:olog is ls.
Geodynamics Series 14. pp. 1-3.
Oliver. J.. 1996. Shocks om/ Rocks: Seismology i11 the
Plme TeCIOIIICS l<evolllliOII. n,.
Enrthquakes mul the Grem Scimce Revolwion of
Story of
the 1960s. Washington: American Geophysical
Union. 189 pp. .•
Payton. C. E. (editor). 1977. Seismic Stratigraphy:
A(JplicatiOIIS 10 flydrowrbvn Exp/ormion. Tulsa:
Am.:rican Association of Pctrokum Gcolo£ists.
Mcmoir 26.5t6pp.
Pe tty. 0. S.. 1976. Seismic Reflectiall.f. Houston:
Geosource.lnc.. Sl pp.
Robinson. E. S.. and C. Coruh. 19&1. Bnsic £xplormion
Geophysics. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
562 pp.
Ro binson. E. A .. and S. Trdtcl. 1\180. Geopltysicnl
Signnl A nalysis. Engl.:wood Clirrs. N.J .. Prentice
Hall. Inc .. ~66 pp.
Ryder. R. T.. :VI. W. Lee. and G. :-1. S mith. 1981. Seismic
Models of Smulstont Stratigraphic Traps i11 Rocky
1'vlowuain Basins. Tulsa: American Association of
Petroleum Geologists. :VIcthods in Exploration
Series. i7 pp.
Sengbush. R. L.. t9l!3. Stismic £rtJIOmtirm Methods.
Boston: International Human Resources Develop-
ment Corp.. 296 pp.
Sheriff. R. E.. 1978. A First Course in Geophysical
E:cploration anti /ltltrpr~tation. Boston: fnh.:r-
national Human Resources Development Corp..
3 13 pp.
Sheriff. R. E.. t9ll4. Encyclopedic Oictio11ary of
Exploration Geophysics (2nd ed.). Tulsa: Society
of Exploration Geophysicists. 323 pp.
Sheriff. R. E .. and L. P. Gddart. 19'J5. Explormion
Seismology (2nd cd.). Cambridge: Ca mbridge
University Press. 592 pp.
Telford. W. M.. L. P. Gddart. R. E. She riff. and D. A.
Keys. t976. Applird Geophysics. Cambridge:
C:~ mbridgc University Press. 860 pp.
CHAPTER 6
Structural And Tectonic
Interpretation Of Seismic
Reflection Profiles
seismic (si: mik') adj. ,(< Gr. sc:ismos.. till earthcJtwkc: < scicin.to
shake). rclming Ill 1111 earthquake or artificial shaking of tile Earth
refltct (ri flekt' ) >•i., I< Mfr. < L. < ,._.,back + tlecle rc. IV be111ll. 10
- b<tld bll<'k.
rrflutiOII (ri fl••k ' sh:>11) n., tile bet~tli11g l"'ck ufa wy ur wav. of lig/11.
lrt'at, ur suuml imu tlrt: m mt' mt•tfiwn. 11s it ~llt'tJllllft•rx a me-dium
w itlr tliffat:lll propatit:.(
inttrpr~t linwr' prit} vr.,{< :\I Fr.< L. intcrpr\!tari < intcrprcs.
nrgutiarurJ. tu t•:rplain tlrc.' mrwring of; tu gi\·;.• om::,· uwn
wulerstamling of
s tismic rtfltction itrttrprrtation (si: mik' ri j1ck 'sit.,, in wr 'pr;, ui '
sh;>~r ) n., tm t::rpfunutimr uf:mbsurface c:omlirions tlrtlf lc·d 10 tire
n•flt•t·riull af Sf!l:wnic: wavt's huck lu Eurtlr l· surface.
Seismic relkction profilt:s are used extensivt:ly to map geological structures in the
subsurface. They are especially useful when reflections can be tied to firm con-
straints provided by surface outcrop and drill ing (Fig. 1.8). Even whcn not strictly
constrained. reflection geometries provide information on gross st ructural form
within the crust. Seismic profiles arc thus valuable tools to unravel the tectonic his-
tory of a region. and to compare and contrast features associated with continen tal
margins and plate boundaries.
Though rese mbling geological cross sections. seismic reflection profiles must
be interpreted wise ly. with appreciation for both the utility and pitfalls of the
method.This chapter examines the seismic expression of different structural geome-
tries. then shows reflection patterns characte ristic of tectonic se1tings.
APPEARANCE OF STRUCTURES
ON REFLECTION PROFILES
Patterns of events on seismic re flection profiles provide constraints on subsurface
structure. Struct ural inte rpre tation first requires appreciation of how simple geome-
tries would appear on different types of se ismic section displays. A common display
is the unmigrated time section; the data may be processed further to yield migrated
time and migrated depth sections.
An unmigrated time section is an atte mpt to display reflection da ta as if th e
source and receiver for each seismic trace were 111 the same surface position (Fig. 6.L).
This situation requires that each seismic ray recorded at the surface be re tlected
no;mal (at a 90° angle) to an interface below the surface. An unmigrated seismic
section is thus referred to as a normal incidence section. A rellection (eve nt) appears
137
138 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismi c Reflection Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 139

a Source FIGURE 6.1 a) On a seismic trace, a

reflection from a dipping interface is
plotted vertically below the common
source/receiver position. h) Normal
incidence raypaths for dipping reflector,
to several common source/receiver
positions. c) The seismic reflection profile
resulting from (b) is an unmigrmed rime
sec1ion.
a
Vertical
FIGURE 6.2 a) A migrated time section
mimics the hypothetical situation of
vertical incidence raypaths. b) Migr01ed
rime section, illustrating how the event in
Incidence £ Fig. 6.1c moves from its normal incidence
0.
Raypaths (I)
(immigrated) position to a venical
0 incidence (migrated) position.

b
b >-E
a>
Normal co i=
Incidence
Raypaths -
.r::.
0. ""'
.. ·" I
,,,,.~
~
0
I
a>
~
~
a> .~ ...._
Q ~
1-
Migrated
c
Unmigrated
Time a
Cross-
mm m m m FIGURE 6.3 The average velocity of
material above a reflector (a) is used to
convert from a migrated time section
Section (Fig. 6.2b) to a migrmed depth section (b).
Section
Reflection
(Event)

directly below the position of the common source/receiver position, even if the
b Surface
Migrated
reflection was not from directly below. The event appears at the time it takes the ray
to travel to the reflecting interface, then back to the surface (rwo-way travel time).
Depth
Migration moves seismic events back to their true positions, as if each ray wem Section
straight down then back up (Fig. 6.2). A migrated time section is thus referred to as a
vertical incidence section. After migration the vertical scale can be converred from
two-way traveltime to depth, yielding a migrated qepth section (Fig. 6.3). For an aver-
age velocity (Y) above the interface, the conversion of a point from two-way travel
time (T) to depth (d) is:

Id = (T/2) x v. j
Fig. 6.4 shows the three section displays for a seismic profile of the Nankai
Trough, off Japan (Nasu et al., 1982; see also Moore et a l., 1990). The top of oceanic
basement is imaged just above 8 s, two. way travel -time, on. the unmigrated and
migrated sections. Overlying the basement and deep-marine sedimentary cover is
undeformed, trench fill material on the right side of the profiles. The left side of the
section shows trench-fill that is deformed into an accretionary wedge through
thrusting and fold ing. Notice that the distorted image of the water bottom on the
unmigrated section is clarified through migration. Likewise, fa ults that are not in
their proper positions before migration move to apparent offsets of strata within the
accretionary wedge on the migrated profile. The depth section shows that the water
layer, which is low-velocity material, encompasses far less.thickness than appears on
the time sections. The top of the basement, which looks horizontal on the time sec-
tions, dips gently to the left on the depth section, revealing a truer orientation of the
subducting plate.
Migration and depth conversion require accurate knowledge of the velocity
and travel paths of seismic energy. Thorough interpretation requires viewing not •
just migrated time and depth sections, but also seeing how events appear before
migration and depth conversion.
Four factors must be taken into account when viewing seismic profiles.
1. Geomecric effects are due to reflection s from interfaces that are not horizomal.
Migration of the data attempts to put the events back into their proper orienta-
tions. 2. Velocity effects cause rime shifts of SOf!le reflectors relative to others. A com-
mon example is "velocity pull up," whereby' events below high-velocity material
appear shallow on time sectio ns. Proper depth conversion removes velocity effects.
3. Raypath bending distortions occur as seismic waves penetrate complex struccures.
 Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 141
0.0
Time Section The bending is caused by changes in velocity across interfaces, according to Snell's
~
-...;;.. Law. 4. Three-dimensional effects produce distortions in geometry and travel time as
(1) events are reflected from out of the plane of the section. Such ··sideswipe" makes

-~
events appear deeper on seismic sections than they would appear if they originated
from directly beneath the survey line. The four effects are illustrated below. for
simple then more complex geometries. For effects l. 2. and 3, the discussions
~ assume two-dimensional structures. striking and extending infinitely in and out of
~
"$~ the page. ·

1. Geometric "Migration" Effects

I
An unmigrated section has events plotted directly below the common source/re-
~
!::::
ceiver position. even though the actual reflecting point might not have been directly
below (Fig. 6.1). The actual reflecting point could have been any point below the
sur face that is the sam<! travel time away from the receiv.:r. Thus. the event appearing
0.0
0.0
Time Section
~
-...;;..
FIGURE 6.5 a) Assuming constant
velocity mace rial and two-dim!!nsion;.ll
Q) struciUrc. an cvt:nl on an unmigratcc...l

~
-
seismic trace coulcJ have com~ rrom
Norma/Incidence anywhere along a semicircle drawn
Raypath th rough 1he event. b) Migration is
~ ~quival c nt to swinging circular arcs

5.0 ~
"~
a !
j-...__ Potential
Positions of
through the event. The migrated position
of the event is the line segment tangent
to each of the arcs. c) ~igration shallows.
/ ..A Reflecting
$: , \e
~'3-v- pomt. shortens. :lnd s1cepens an unmigra1ed
event. moving points in an updip
I 0
direction.
~ "- Actual
!:::: Reflecting Point

10.0 b
i \ '

c) Migrated Depth Section

0.0 '; \\ \
\ \
5 km CWatett----t \ \
Unmigraied
,, .... , .....
E' ~4 ' Migrated
~
..................... _ .

6.0
~

a}
I I I
Q
c ¢==J Downdip Updip c::::>

12.0
Ullie, Whole Earth Geophysics, Fig 6.4
FIGURE 6.4 Migration ami depth conver.tion of a seismic profile from the Nankai Trough, Japan. From N.i'lasu
and others. Multt·channel seismic re flection data across Nanki Tro ugh. I PO D, Japan Basic Oma Series #4, 19 1982.
Ocean Research Institute, University o iTokyo. Tokyo. Japan.
142 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflectio:1 Profiles 143

on the seismic trace could have been from anywhere on a hemisphere (semicircle a) Point Source Diffraction Model FIGURE 6. 7 Sdsmic expression of the
for two-dimensional structure) drawn through the event (Fig. 6.5a). top of a very small sphere is equivalent 10
a point source diffr•ction, producing a
Migration of a linear reflection segment can be envisioned as swinging arcs hyperbolic pall ern.
through po ints along the event. The migrated position of the segment is defined by
the line segment running tangent to each of the arcs (Fig. 6.5b). Notice relationships
of the unmigrated and migrated positions of the event (Fig. 6.5c): 1) each point of
the unmigrated event is downdip from the corresponding point of the migrated
event ; 2) unmigrated points are deeper than corresponding migrated points; 3) the
unmigrated event is Jess sleep than the migrated event: 4) the unmigrated event is
longer than the migrated event. Migrating a seismic profile thus tends to make
reflecting segments move updip, shallow, steepen, and become shorter.

Dipping Interface Connecting Two Horizontal Int erfaces TI1e normal inci-
dence raypaths in Fig. 6.6 illustrate that a dipping eve nt appears downdip from its
actual position. The unmigrated event is deeper in time than it should be, and it cuts
across horizontal events. ln the updip direction. there is a gap where the event has
moved away from the horizontal event it should touch. Migration shortens. steepens. c Unmigrated Time Section
and moves the event updip to where it belongs, connecting the horizontal interfaces.
Hyperbolic--......
Diffraction

FIGURE 6.6 Seismic expression of

a) Dipping Interface Model dipping interface (solid line) connecting

. /............. two horizontal interfaces (dashed lines) .

.............~~......../ ~ d) Migrated Time Section

/.
i
i
...............
i i I i i i
Diffraction Migrates
i
i s Back to Point
i
.~.J..J .•~.l ..~.l.J.J.• i•.
c5} ....
,.

.·
c) Unmigrated Time Secfjon
Very Small Sphere (Point-Source Diffractio n) A point in the subsurface can
be thought of as a very small sphere, leading to normal incidence reflections from its
upper surface (Fig. 6.7). Reflection of energy from such a point is known as diffrac-
lion. The unmigrated event has a hyperbolic pattern, depending on the depth of the •
point and the seismic velocity of the material above the point. Migration collapses
th e hyperbola back to a point.
d) Migrated Time Secfjon
/ ....•.......• Anticline _Refl ection from the top of an anticline is similar to that of a point-
source diffraction , but with the sphere too large t o be considered a point (Fig. 6.8).
Normal incidence raypaths enco unter the anqcline from large distances, so that the
.•...•.........•.•......./ unmigrated event is spread out, cutting across h orizontal events and extending to
large travel times. Migration collapses the anticline to its proper size and orientation
relative to other events (Fig. 6.9).
 144 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflectio n Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 145

FIGURE 6.8 S~ismic expression of a n FIGURE 6.9 Unmigrated and migrated

clj_ Anticline Model anticline (solid line) between two ANTICLINE seismic profiles showing an anticline.
horizontal r.Oec10rs (dashed lines).

· · ·~·-·-~-·-·····.1\····-·-·········-···· i
Unmigrated Time Section

b
!. !I
I
i i-£
··'
! I I I ! t
' ! . . . 1 Sl
!. ••• !. •••.:. ••• J. ••• .:. •••.t. .J••• .l•••• ~....••••• ~ •••• Q)
Q
.•

'Anticline Spread Out

Over Large Area
d) Migrated Time Section

·····················0-·-···········-·······
Migration Collapses Event
Back to Smaller Area

Syncline ('·Buried Focus," or "Bow Tie" Effect) On an unm igrated section,

events cross above the axis of a syncline (I ' and 2' in Fig. 6.10c). If the structure is
deep enough. normal incidence reflections from the bottom (concave-upward) por-
tion of the syncline will cross a t a point below the surface (Fig. 6.10b). The effect is a
diffraction that radiates from the crossing point, or buried focus; the diffraction is a
hyperbolic event beneath the syncline (3' in Fig. 6.10c). The two crossing events and
diffraction may resemble a bow tie. Migration inverts the diffraction back to con-
cave upward and moves the crossing eve nts to their prope r positions on the flanks
of the syncline (Figs. 6.l0d;6. ! 1).

Se ries of Anticlin es and Synclines An undulating, or ''hummocky,'' surface

shows effects si milar to a se ries of adjacent anticlines a nd syncl ines (Fig. 6.12a). The
spread-out events from the structural highs cross above buried-focus diffractions
from the lows (Fig. 6.12b). resulting in numerous bow tics (Fig. 6.12c). Migration
 146 Chapter 6 Structural A nd Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Prof iles Appearance of Structures on Reflect ion Profiles 147

FIGURE 6. 10 Seismic expression of FIGURE 6.11 Unmigrmed and migrmed

a) Syncline Model buried focus syncline. Solid line (3) shows BURIED FOCUS SYNCLINE seismir seCtions recorded ncross n :n,cline
the concave-upward pan of the structure in tire P01war Pla1eau of Pakistan. i>onio n
~1 that results in raypa ths focused on a
Unmigrated 1 km of line CW-13 (Lillie et al., 1987).
huried point: a hyperbolic dif(raction Published with permission of th< Oil and
1 2
·-·-············-
~ -·-.. . 0 '. . . . -·····-·-········ results (3 ').Dashed line portions of the
structure (1. 2) product crossing e vents
0.0 Gas Development Corporation. Pakistan.

(I', 2') that, toge the r with the diffraction,

appear as a ' bOW tie.''
1
~
~ 1.0 E::..~~~
i:::
' j
'l iI ~
' \ I \ I !
' .. \ .,.,\,.l .......... ..........
.. I
. ~ 2.0
'/I
s:6~ 3.0 r-'4~~~~~~~~:::.:;;;~
c) Unmigrated Time Section
~
"Bow Tie"
•• •••••••• •••••••-.,! I ~~·-·•••••••••••••••
... .... , ~·''"' 1 km
Diffraction ~ Migrated
from--,- 3' ._,_,
Buried Focus
d) Migrated Time Section
Migration Coflanses "Bow Tie" n.

. . . . .. . . . . . . . .0 . ·"' "'"'·· · · ······ ~ ~

Back to 'Synform ~ E

"~ j.;::

cures the bow ties so that structural highs and lows can be seen (Fig. 6.12d). Seismic
profiles from deep-sea trench es often reveal hummocky surfaces resulting from:
1) thrust faults offsetting the surface of the accretionary wedge; and 2) normal
faults that formed soon after oceanic basement was created at a mid-ocean ridge
(Fig. 6.13}.
2. Velocity Effects
Changes in velocities cause changes in the times that refl ections appear on seismic
sections. Vertical changes in velocity cause differences in the two-way travel times of
layers of equal thickness. while lateral velocity changes make eve nts appear to move
up or down on time sections.
Vertical Velocity Changes For the model in Fig. 6.14a, the middle layer has
higher velocity (V 2) than that of the upper layer (V 1). E ven though the layers are
of equal thickness. the middle layer occupies a shorter interval on a time section
(Fig. 6.14b). If velocities are known accurately. depth conversion restores thick-
n~sses to their proper perspeftive (Fig. 6.14c). On the lime section in Fig. 6.15, the
~uddle layer appea:s about 1 i times the thickness of the upper layer; the depth seZ-
tiOn suggests the m1ddle layer is actually three times the thickness of the upper.
Lateral Velocity Changes The model in Fig. 6.16 shows horizontal interfaces
below layers of lower (V 1) and higher (V2) velocity. Seismic waves take less time to
travel to the i~terf~ces beneath the left side of the diagram; the corresponding time
sh1ft of reflections ts referred to as velocity pullup . Seismic profiles from the Nankai
Trough (Fig. 6.17a) show velocity pullup. Notice that the refl ection from the iop of
oceamc basement appears nearly horizontal on the time section. The event is pulled
up to the left, however, because the accretionary wedge is higher velocity than the
 148 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 149

a) Model FIGURE 6. 12 Seismic exprtssion of""

undulating, or hummocky surface. Solid HUMMOCKY SURFACES
lines = synclinal ponions: dashed
Hummocky Surface
Vr (e.g., Top of Oceanic Crust)
lines = anticlinal ponions.
~----------------------------------~50
Unmigrated Time Section
... , ,.,-.,, ,. ,, ... ,, ,.
'·'-....,/~· V2 '·~~· .,'---"'... 10km

.·
0.0
Several "Bow Ties"
~--------------------------------~50
Migrated Time Section
10km

d) Migrated Time Section

10.0

FIGURE 6.13 Unmigratcd and migrated seismic renection profiles recorded across the deep sea trench (right)
and accretionary wedge (ldt) of the Barbados Ridge Complex. Hummocky surfaces are: I ) the water bou om at
the top of the accre tionary wedge: and 2) the top of the basement (oceanic layer 2: Figs. ~ .9. ~. 1 8). From N. L.
Bangs and G. K. Westbrook. Journal of Geophysical Research. vol. 96. pp. 3853-3866.© 1991. Redrawn with
permission of the American Geophysical Union. Washington. D.C.
 150 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 151

FIGURE 6.14 Effem of vertical changes

in velocity. 1l1e middle layer in {a). having Migrated Time Section
twice the velocily of the upper layer, 0.0
occupie! only half the two. way travel
time in (b). Proper depth conversion
(c) restores the true thickness. Low Velocity
Layer

b) Time Section
ft• t .Os
..............•,..............................................
f2- 0.5 s
. High Velocity
Layer

c) Depth Section
0 -:::--.. 4.0
12
..........•........•.........•...................•.......•... 1 . 0 :S~ 2km

~--------------1 2.0 ~ 0.0

Relatively
Thin
water fi lling the trench. Depth conversion shows that the basement actually d ips 2.0
from the trench region ben eath the accretion ary wedge (Fig. 6.17b).
~

3. Raypath Bending
4.0~
Rays change directio n (refract}, according to Snell 's Law, when they encoun ter Relatively -s
interfaces obliquely (Fig. 3.22). A horizon tal interface placed below the anticline of
Thick Q
at
Fig. 6.8 shows overlapping events (raypath bending effect} on an unmigrated time
section. in addition to velocity pu llup (Fig. 6.18}-:'Rays originating from oulside the 6.0
bounds of the anticline refract downward when they cross the interface separating
the layer with lower velocity (V 1} from the higher velocity layer (Y 2; Fig. 6.18b}. The
resulting, normal incidence renections from the ho rizontal interface below the anti- 8.0
cline are thus spread over a larger area, crossing horizontal events (Fig. 6.1 8c).
Most migration routines will not sufficiently account for the raypath-bending
effect (Fig. 6.18d), sometimes leading to erroneous interpretation of fau lting of hori-
zons that are continuous. Fig. 6.19b shows the results of a standard migration. with FIGURE 6. 15 Migrated time and migrated deptlr sections in a region of drastic difference in Ioyer
velociry. From K. Lamer. B. Gibson. and R. Chambers, Imaging beneath complex slructure.AAPG
the assumption that raypaths are not bent. A depth conversion still shows distortion
Studies in Geology Series. no. 15. vol. I. pp. 26-39. © 1983. Red rawn "~th permission of the American
of the lower event (Fig. 6.1 9c). A mo re sophisticated migration. which takes raypath Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.
bending in to account. produces the section in Fig. 6.19d; notice that the lower event
is more continuous. suggesting it may not be faulted.

Combinat ion of Effects 1, 2, and 3

A model that produces geometric, velocity, and raypath bending effects is shown in
Fig. 6.20.The unmigrated and migrated time sections h ave the foJlowing advantages
for understanding interpretation techniques and potential problems. 1) O nly primary
 152 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic lrlterpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Appearance of Structures on Reflection Profiles 153

a) Model of Lateral Velocity Change V > V. FIGURE 6.16 Effects of lateral dwnge in 0.0
0 ~
velocity. a) Model oi horizontal interfaces Migrated Time Section
beneath layers oi different velocity. b)
V1 =2.0km/s E Horizontal reflections on t he ldt side oi 5km
~mill};~l~;;~,t:t-!Jt;tzH~~,;~~~~;;r::.; 1.0~ 1he.timc section arrive c:nrly. relalive to
reOections on the righ t (they are ··pulled
~
2.0Q
up ..). c) Propcr depth conversion restores
the continuity and horizontal nature of
the interfaces. Low-Velocity
Water
b) Time Section ; Velocity Pullup Top of Oceanic
0
t2-0.6ls
···· ·· ·· ·· ··.::-·· ············../
~ f3- 0.5 s
/
ft- 1.0 s
..•...•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•
..•.•.•.....•.•...
Basement
Appears
l3 0.5 s .· Horizontal
10.0

0.0
c) Depth Section
0 ~
E
. .. ...... .................. .................................. . 1.0 ~
-s
~----------------------------~ 2.0Q~
renections are incorporated into the synthetically generated sections. 2) The unmi-
grated section was developed as if an actual seismic survey were recorded. including FIGURE 6.17 Seismic reflection profile of the trench (right) and toe of the nccretionary wedge (left) in the Nankai
generating renections for numerous shotpoint gathers, convolving with a zero- Trough. Japan. From N. :-oasu and o thers. :vtulti-channd seism1c reflection data across Nanki Trough./ POD. Japan Baste
Daw Series ;I.J, © 191!2. Ocean Research Institute, Universi ty ofTokyo.Tokyo. Ja pan. a) The top of oceanic basement
phase. 10-50 Hz pulse. and applying standard processing techniques
(layer 2) appears horizontal on thc time section. b) 'llle rclativel~ low-velocity water layer gradually thins from the right
(Figs. 5.9-5.14c): a 12-fold section was so generated. 3) No random or other noise to the left side of the secuon: depth conversion thus reveals that thc top oi bnsc mcnt dips downwa rd from right to left.
was put on tht: original, shotpoint gather traces. 4) Migration is precise. because
velocity at each part of the model is perfectly known.
noise. It may be ambiguous to determine how fa r the fa ult has propagated up
Model The model (Fig. 6.20a) is a si mple faul t ramp. resulting in an anticline th rough the right flank of the anticline (p 1). Below the structure, lateral velocity
("snakehead"
•
thrust fault). Selected raypaths are hiahliohted
0 0
for events that result changes and raypath bending effects make it difficult to realize that the lowermost
m geometric (g. f1, f1). velocity (v 1, v2) and raypath bending (rt, r2) effects. interface is completely nat and continuous (p1).

Unmigrated lime Section Geometric effects on the unmi grated time section
(Fig. 6.20b) include crossing events on the left and right nanks ~f the anticline (g),
and downdip displacement, shortening and lessening of dip of the reflection from
the dipping fa ult ramp (f1• f1). Lateral velocity changes result in pullup of horizontal
interfaces beneath the anticline (vt, compared to v1). Discontinuity and crossing of
events from continuous horizontal interfaces is due to raypath bending (r1, r2).
Migrated Time Section Migration of the time section (Fig. 6.20c) shows a
more proper perspective of the structure. The nanks of the anticline are. for the
most part, shown to be continuous (g' ). The dipping fault ramp renections have
moved to a position of offset stra ta (f;, f2). There are, however. still some problems
in interpretation. even under these ideal conditions of known velocities and no
4. Three-Dimensional ("Sideswipe") Effects
Seismic lines are commonly run pe rpendicular to the s trike of geologic structures, so
that renections are from within the plane of the section. If structures are oblique to
the line of section. renections can come from outside the plane: such events are
termed sideswipe.
Herman et al. (1982) illustrate three-dimensional effects encountered in seis-
mic p(ofiling. Their first model (Fig. 6.21a) shows a buried dome above two horizon-
tal interfaces. The bold lines are the surface locations of synthetic seismic profiles
shown in Fig. 6.2 1b. Line 101, over the ce nter of the dome, shows the true, unmi-
grated position for the dome relative to reflections from the upper and lower inter-
faces. Line 91 crosses the edge of the dome: it shows the domal event lower in time,
 154 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Ref lection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 155

FIGURE 6.18 Raypath bending. a) Deep,

a) Model (\lz > Vr ) horizontal interface ~dded to anticline
s) Unmigrsted Time Section 2 km c) Migrated Depth Section
model (Fig. 6.8). b) Rays refract toward
- o_o
\11 ..1'', .... ~,, the vertical when crossing the interface Antid ine
Causing
· (Bending
I ~ on top of the amicline, because v, is Not
Rsypath 2.0
.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•i \1:? i ......... .. .. .. ...... . greaterthan V 1• The portion of the
Bending
Account9d
horizontal interface d irectly below the For)
anticline is thus imaged over a broader ;[4_0
Vs
b) Norma/Incidence Raypaths
region (from point I to point 2).
c) Unmigrated time section shows
overlap in events from the horizontal
! 6.0
(Lower Interface Only} interface, in addition to velocity pullu p.
Distorted Lower
1 2 d) Migration may not accurately remove Lower Event
8.0
\ f\ ..
[. _L 1
"•l:- .L RJys Be~t
1 raypath bending effects. leaving artifacts Event Still
(distortion) that might be misinterpreted. Distorted
! ~~
if(sne!l's Law)

f
(For this same model. see profiles with
... ... .. ... ···1····,··t··r·· seismic tracts in Fig. 5. 14).
b) Migrated Time Section
0.0
(Bending
Accounted
Antidine 2.0
c) Unmigrated Time Section For)
(Both Interfaces)
1 2 l 4.0
..... ... Velocity Pul/up 1
···············"':~..... - 7 .•.•.~~.. t··············
,,•' ,,,
.... 6.0

"
Distorted Lower

~----~~·;--~~~~ ' Lower

Event 8 .0
Event

~·/ /~ .,,,_ More

Continuous
/ Raypath Bending Effect ' \., FIGURE 6.19 a) Distorted event below anticline on unmigrated time section. The distortion may be due to a combination of
/ ' velocity pull up and rayp~th bending (Fig. 6.1 8b,c). b) Standard migration of (a). TI1e continued distortion of the lower event may be
an artifact of the raypath bending distonion. c) Depth conversion after standard migration (b) still shows distortion o[ the lower
d) Migrated Time Section event. d) Migration accounting for raypath bending shows far less distortion. revealing a more continuous event aft er depth con-

......, version. From K. Larncr. B. Gibson, and R. Chambers, Imaging beneath complex structure. AAPG Sw di es In Geology Series. no. 15.

f-··················;; ,:,..
;;'
,..
' i
"lll.!' '":;;;·················
vol. 1, pp. 26-39, © 1983. Redrawn with permission of the American A ssociation of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA.

/ mi~rating all the info rmation in three dimen sions. The section in Fig. 6.22d, achieved
Distortion May Still Be
Present After Migration
because waves were refl ected from the dome slightly off to the side. Lines 81 and 61
show the event even d eeper on the time section; sideswipe from the dome was from
longer horizontal distances.
A more complicated model (Fig. 6.22a) illustrates a seismic profile run in the
vicinity of two domes and a fau lt escarpment. The bold line 108 represents the verti-
cal "shadow" of a seismic profile run on the surface. some distance above the struc-
tures. Note that the line crosses the side of the right dome, just misses the edge of the
left dome, and crosses the fa ult escarpment at an oblique angle. The synthetic seismic
profile (Fig. 6.22b) shows how complex and potentially erroneous interpretations
could be, if the three-dimensio nal nature of the p roblem is not recognized. Fig. 6.22c
is a standard, two-dimensional migration of that profile. while Fig. 6.22d was
achieved by computing 61 synthetic seismic profLles (lines 71-131 in Fig. 6.22a), then
at great expense of effort and computer time, is a close approximation of a time sec-
tion for the vertical plane beneath line 108. Comparison of the two migrated profil es
illustrates problems that arise if three-dimensional effects are not recognized and
accommodated. The fault escarpment reflection in Fig. 6.22c has not rrugrated to its
proper position, connecting segments of the upper retlector. The left dome still
·appears in the plane of the section; it should not be there, as illustrated by the three-
dimensional migration (Fig. 6.22d).
SEISMIC EXPRESSION OF TECTON IC SETTINGS
Structure and stratigraphy developed in different tectonic settings can result in
characteristic seismic reflection patterns. The illustrations and seismic sections pre-
sented below are a rough visualization of constraints on internal crustal structure
offered by reflection d ata; reflection patterns that are prominent and common are
shown, rather than the complete arr~y of features that are observed. The diagrams
a) "Snakehead" Thrust Fault Model
g Vt rt r2
2.7
3.4
"---+---....:.:..:----L-1
4.0 4.0
4.6

4.6

5.5 5.5 4
.•

Horizontal• Vertical Scale

b) Unmigrated Time Section

FIGURE 6.21 a) Three·dimensional model of buried dome above two horizontal interfaces. b) Synthetic. unmigrated
seismic profiles from lines highlighted in (a). Vertical scales are two·way travel times in seconds. (Note: For the zero· phase
pulse in these sections. positive amplitudes arc left white and negative amplitudes shaded black). Modified from A fast
three·dimcnsional modelling technique and fundamentals of 3·0 frequency domain migration. by A . Herman. R. Anania.
J. Chun. C. Jacewitz. and R. Pepper. Geophysics. vol. 47, pp. 1627-1644.© 1982. Redrawn with permission of the Society of
E.<ploration Geophysicists. Tulsa. Oklahoma. USA.

FIGURE 6.20 a) Hypothetical model with selected. normal incidence raypaths. showing geometric (g). velocity (v).
and raypa th bending (r) cfrects. Dashed lines arc interfaces representing drops in velocity (negative reflection
coefficients). The bold line with arrows above is the thrust fault; note the dipping segment (ramp) extending from r,
to f1 . b) Computer generated (synthetic). unmigrated time section from (a). Letters refe r to seismic e xpressions or
the effects in (a). Vertical scale is two.way travel time (s); horizontal scale is the same as in (a). c)Tome migration of
(b);g' illustrates some or the geometric effects from (b) that are resolved; f; and fi arc more proper positions or ends 157
of the fault ramp: p1 Md p, ;ore potential interpretation problems discussed in text.
 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tecton ic Settings 159
158 Chapter 6

normal fa ults; ductil~ extension and under platin g of the lower crust; forma tion of a
new Moho.

1, 2. No nrcllecfiwJ Upper Crust; Retlective.Lower Crust As a cominent rifts

apart, th ~ upp~r and lower . crusts thin, but through different mechanisms (brittle
and ducnle fa llure, respecuvely). Reflection profiles from the Basin and R ange
Provmce of the western U nited States (Fig. 2.15) reveal that the crystalline base-
ment of the upper crus~ is commonly transpa rent, due to structural c~mpl exity and
lack of large acousuc tmpedance contrasts (Fig. 6.24a). The lower crust is more
re.nective (6.24b), exhibiting short, discontinuous events, thought 10 be associated
wlth magmattsm, ductile extension, or to a combination of those processes
(Allmendinger et al., 1987: Poner et al., 1987).

Continental Rift Zone

a) Lithosphere Cross Section
<=== 1 ::: 50 - 500 km

Horsts
\

FIGURE 6.22 a) Model of two domes and two horizontal inte rfaces: the upper interface is offset by a fauh escarpment Interval " 35 km
,·clocities are th~ same as in Fig. 6.21. Lines represent vertical .. shadows.. of seismic profiles run along Earth's surface. some
distance above the model. b) Unmigrated time section resuhing from line 108 in (a). Vertical scale is two·way travel time in
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
~
seconds. As in Fig. 6.21 b. black shading is negati ve amplitude. c) Sta ndard two·dimensional migration of (b). d) Three·dimensional
migration involving 61 synthetic seismic profiles (lines 71 - 131 in a). Modified from A fast three·dimensional modelling technique
and funda mentals of 3·0 frequency domain migration, by A. He rman. R. Anania, J. Chun. C. Jacewitz. and R. Pepper, Geophysics, '---- ;:: 150 km
vol. 47. pp. I 627- 1644, Q 1982. Redrawn wi th permission of the Society of Exploration Geophysicists. Tulsa. Oklahoma. USA.
b) Reflection Signature

~;~:;;±~=~~~~=~~
are presented in the sequence of the "Wilson Cycle," whereby an ocean basin is
opened then closed (Wilson, 1966). As in Figs. 2.14·.to 2.18, the sequence begins with
continental rifting, forming an ocean basin as passive continental margins drift away
m m m
from a mid-ocean ridge. The ocean closes thro ugh subduction, eventually lea ding to
a collisional mountain range. . ..
The cross sections are d iagrammatic, in that characteristic reflection palterns
...··························································································· ·································
at different tectonic sellings are highlighted. Note that some pallerns carry from .. ··...
o ne setting to another: wedge-shaped sequences from strata in continental rift .· .·· ··...
..··
..··· •
grabens are seen beneath post-rift sediments o n passive margins; hyperbolic diffrac-
tions from the top of oceanic layer 2, developed at mid-ocean ridges, are observed .........................···· 1. Nonreflective (brittle) upper crust. ··········..........................
adjacent to passive margins and on the plate subducting beneath accretionary wedges. 2. Reflective (ductile) lower crust.
Appreciation of the entire sequence of cross sections and seismic profiles is therefore
useful in overall tectonic interpretation. 3. Horizontal Moho reflections.
Continental Rift Zone
4. Wedge-shaped sequences filling rift grabens.
The riftin g of a continental craton thins the crust as well as the entire lithospheric 5. Occasional fault-zone reflections.
plate (Figs. 2.13, 2.14, 6.23a). Patterns of reflections (reflection signatures) relate to FIGURE 6:23 a) Hypot~etical cross section of the lithosphere at a continental rift zone. b) Seismic renection patterns co mm 1,
observed 10 cont mc mal nrt zones. on l
features formed during rifting (Fig. 6.23b): strata deposited in grabens bounded by
 160 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tectonic Sett in~s 161

FIGURE 6.24 Seismic rcrlecrion profile High amplitude reflections observed from the graben fill are due to high
o~--~~~~~~~----- from rhe Basin and Range Province acoust ic impedance lava llows. in te rcalated with lower impedance, fluvial and lacus-
(Consonium for Conrinenral Reflection tria n sediments. A reflection-free zone is often observed in the region of the major
Profiling (COCO RP! Nevada line 1).
l'rom Crustal structure of western
bounding fault: that zone is interpreted as course. alluvial fan ma terial deposited
Nevada from COCORP deep seismic- across the fa ult scarp, thicken ing as the fa ult grows (Anderson et al.. 1983).
reflection data. by T. Hague. R.
Allmendinger. C. Caruso. E. Hauser. 5. Occasional Fault-Zone Reflections The nature of fault ing in rift grabens is
S. Klemperer. S. Updyke. C. Pouer. W. commonly interpreted fr9m the wedge geometry of synrift sedimentary and vol-
Sanford. L Brown. S. K:10fman and
J. Oliver. GSA Bulleti11. vol. 98.
canic filL In some places, however. reflections from actual fault zones are observed.
pp. 320-329.© 1987. Redrawn with Fault reflections could result from: l) acoustic impedance contrast of low-velocity,
5 permission of the Geological Society of
America. Boulder. Colorado. USA.
a) Below dipping reflections from
sedimentary and volcanic straw. the a 5km
crystalline basemomr of the upper crust
( - I to 4.5 s) lacks prominent reOccrions 0
(seismically "transparent"). b) From 4.5 ~
It)
10 10 s. prominent. horizontal rcnccrions
occur from the lower crust. c) Prominent
renecrio ns between about 9.5 and 10.5 s
~
arc intcrprctell :IS the! zone o( lransiuon ~ 2
from the crust to the mantle (Moho). ~
f.:;:
d ) '!be transparent zone below 10 s is the ;:....
~
uppermost mantle.
-~- --~:-__
~ 4
. ·- ~

··=··
.,-~: -·~·-·. ~ .
·; . ,. .. . .
_:_

.. . b
·. . .:· 0
15
10km ~
Q)

3. Horizontal Moh o Reflections The boundary between the reflective lower
crust and the non reflective mantle in the Basin and Range Province is revealed by a
zo:1e of relatively continuous and high-amplitude reflections (Kiemperer et at..
1986: Hague et at.. 1987; Potter et at.. !987). The zone comprises a band of events
about 0.15 to 0.3 s thick , lying between about 9.5 and 10.5 s. two-way travel time
(Fig. 6.2-lc). Similar reflections suggest that the Moho throughout most of the Basin
and Range Province is remarkably flat, lying between 29 and 32 krn depth. The flat-
ness and constant depth of the Moho suggest that it is a new boundary, for med in
association with rifting.
-t Wedge-Shaped Sequences Filling Rift Grabens Seismic profiles of the
upper crust in continental rift zones reveal wedge-shaped sequences of synrift sedi-
ments and volcanics filling asymmetric grabens (Anderson et at. , 1983; Serpa et at.,
l9X4). This "half-graben·· geometry (Fig. 6.25a) is due to the bounding fault zone on
one side having much larger offset than the normal faults on the other side; the
wedge-shaped sequences thus exhibit growth, thickening and dipping toward the
major fault zone.11te synrift fill is commonly a few, and can be up to eight, km thick.
~1
~
~
j-.:;:2
~
~I
a
~
3
FIGURE 6.25 Seismic profit-s frnm co11ti~~entnl rift :o11es. slwwi11g fault Wile reflectiOIIS a11d wedg<-sitaped sequences jilli11g
itnlf-grabms. a) COCORP Socorro lin~ lA. from the Rio Grande Rift of New Mexico (migrated rime section). From Cenozoic
normal fa ulting and the shallow structure of the Rio Grande rift near Socorro. New Mexico. by C. Cape. S. McGeary. and G.
Thompson. GSA Bulletin. voL 9~. pp. 3-14, © 1983. Redrawn with permission of the Geological Society of .'\ me rica. Boulder,
Colorado. USA. The rift graben wedge is rcrminurcd on irs west side by a prominent. east-dipping reOcction from the major
fault zone. b) COCORP seismic line from the Sevier Desert. Basin and Range Province. Utah. From Cenozoic and •"fcsozoic
structu re of the eastern Basin and Range province. Utah. from COCORP seismic reflection data. by R. Allmendinger. J. Sharp.
D. Von 1ish. L Serpa. L. Brown. S. K:oufman. J. O liver. and R. Smithson. Geology. vol. II. pp. 532-536. © 1983. Redrawn with
p~rmiss10n of the Gcologic:ol S<>Ckty of r\mcric:o. 13ouldcr. Colorado. US A.ll1c section shows a low-angle normal f:ou lr
detachment extending from 1.0 son the east to 3.0 son the west.
 162 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Ex pression of Tectonic Settings 163

low-density graben fill. abutled against crystalline basement; or 2) the development

of a suffici ently thick zone of acoustic impedance contrast within crystalline base- Mid-Ocean Ridge
ment (for example, from a mylonitic fault zone). Reflections illustrate that some a) Lithosphere Cross Section
major faul ts are curved (or lystric. meaning spoon-shaped), as in the Socorro region
of the Rio Grande Rift (Fig. 6.25a: Brown et al. , 1980: Cape et al., 1983). ln other tO's ·tOO's km
pl aces, faul t zones are planar; a remarkable example from the Sevier Desert area of
the Basin and R ange Province shows a low-angle detachment fault extending from
the surface to about 12 km depth (Fig. 6.25b).

Mid-Ocean Ridge
As a continent completely rifts apart, the fragments drift away as passive continen-
tal margins (Figs. 2.14 , 6.26). An ocean basin grows as new lithosphere is created s:: 12km
from partial melting of asthenosphere at a mid-ocean ridge (Figs. 2.7 , 2.24).
Prominent mid-ocean ridge reflections result from sedimentary deposits, block-
fault ed oceanic crust, the Moho, and (occasionally) magma chambers (Fig. 6.27).
b) Reflection Signature
I , 2. Transparent Water Layer; Sediments Covering Fault Blocks of Oceanic ······························2 ·························f ······························································································································································
Crust For the broad wavelengths used in seismic reflection surveys, ocean water is
homogenous, with no acoustic impedance contrast: the water is thus a reflection-free
zone. Below the water, a blocky topography occurs on top of oceanic crust, due to
~x:-~X A .~
················································································
A X~"X~3
............... . .......... .............................................~......................
:
normal faulting of layer 2 (Fig. 6.27a). Seismic profiles show that down-dropped val- ··..
leys are gradually filled with more and more sediments; at tens to hund reds of km
....... ··· ··..
..·· .......... •·····.....
·...
...···'
from the ridge axis, sediments completely cover the layer 2 topography (Fig. 6.28a). ..·· ·. · ······----::::::::.5_ _
··..
3. Hyperbolic E' •ents from Top of Oceanic Layer 2 On unmigrated seismic ..........····· ··· ....
sectio ns. the top of oceanic crust is prominent (Fig. 6.28b). The fault-block topogra- 1. Transparent water layer.
ph y of layer 2 results in a series of buried focus ("bow-tie .. ) effects (Figs. 6.10-6.12).
This characteristic signature allows mapping of the extent of undeformed oceanic 2. Sediments covering fault blocks of oceanic crust.
crust beneath passive continental margins and accre tionary wedges (Fig 6.1 3a). 3. Hyperbolic events (unmigrated) from top of oceanic layer 2.
4. Mid-crustal (axial magma chamber) reflections.
5. Horizontal Moho reflections.
FIGURE 6.27 . a) Hypothetical cross section of the lithosphere at a mid-ocean ridge. b) Seismic renection signatures commonl ,
observed at nud-ocean rrdges. l

<==========::~
FIGURE 6.26 Lirlrosplrerc srrucwrr of
ridge. and Fig. 6.29 for.<~ passive continental margin.
..
Away from mid-ocean ridge axes, reflection profiles sometimes reveal hori-
z~nt~l - events about 2 s (two-way travel time) beneath the top of oceanic layer 2
Ocean Basin ( M 10 fig. 6.28c). The events suggest a Moho discontinuity (or = 1 km thick
crust/mantle transition zone). beneath about 6 km of crystalline crust.
1OO's - 1OOO's km
Water Oceanic Crust Passive Continental Margin
After a continent rifts apar_t, pass_ive margins develop on the edges of the drifting
fragments (Fig. 6.26). Postnft sed1 ~1e?ts accumulate on the margins, covering fea-
tures formed duno g contmental nftmg and early mid-ocean ridge development
(Fig. 6.29a). Seismic reflection patterns suggest the type of crust beneath the sedi-
ments (3. 4. and 5 in Fig. 6.29b): rift graben "wedges" indicate continental crust
Asthenosphere extende~ during rifting; "seaward-dipping wedges" represent volcanic material
fe~;, basin. More detailed diagrams of structure are shown in Fig. 6.27 for a mid-ocean erupted 10 the zone separating continental from oceanic crust; hyperbolic events on
unmigrated sections indicate the top of oceanic crus t. Signatures of upper and lower
 164 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic interpret ation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 165

a West 10km East Passive Continental Margin

a) Lithosphere Cross Section
<==== :::50- 500 km c========>
Shelf Rise

-?~':"':-:-:':":":'":--::~~~== "' 5 km
::12 km

b) Reflection Signature

C ~~es~t---------======1=0=k=m====~--------~E~a~st 1. Transparent water layer.

2. Reflections from postrift sediments.
3. Rift graben wedges defining extended continental crust.
4. Seaward-dipping wedges at continent/ocean boundary.
5. Hyperbolic events (unmigrated) defining top of oceanic crust.
6. Nonreflective upper continental crust.
7. Reflective lower continental crust.
8. Horizontal Moho reflections.
FIGURE 6.29 a) Hypo1he1ical cross scc1ion or 1hc cruS! ala passive con1incn1al margin. b) RcOec1ion signawres charac1cris1ic or
cenain SlrUCIUre and Slraligraphy of a passive margin.

FlGURE 6.28 a) Seismic reOec1ion profile of Ihe Juan de Fuca Ridge. From R. Riddihough. M. Beck. R. Chase. E. Davis.
R. Hyndman. S. Johnson. and G. Rogers. Geutly11amics ofrirf! Easrem Pacific Regio11, Cari/Jbean a11d Scoria Arcs. AGU
Geodynamics Series. no. 9. pp. 5-21. '9 1983. Redrawn wilh permission or 1he American Ge ophysical Union. Washinglon. D.C. continental crust, and of the Moho, may be preserved from the continental rifting
'l11e waler is a rcneclion-frec zone above layered scdimenls and basemen!. The basemen! (oceanic layer 2) is cui by normal stage (Fig. 6.23).
[:lUlls: downdropped blocks fill wi1h deep-marine scdimcms. b) Unmigra1ed dcplh scclion from 1he nonh Allamic Ocean. The
1ranspa ren1 wa~er layer is abom5.3 km deep. covered by aboul 1.5 km of na~- lying sedimcms. Hyperbolic ("'bow 1ie cffecl")
reflcc1ions. abou1 7 km deep. revea l Ihe hummocky lop or oceanic basemen!. c) Migrn1ed lime sec1ion recorded across 1he axis 1., 2. Transparent Water Layer; Reflections from Postrift Sediments The
nr 1he Eas1 Pacific Rise. From E. Vera. J. Muuer. P. Buhl. J. O rcuu. A. Harding. M. Kappus. R. Dclrick. and T. Brochor.loumal of most prominent events on seismic profiles of passive continental margins are nearly
Gcop!rysical Researc!r. vol. 95.pp. 15529-15556.© 1991. Redrawn wilh permission of lhc American Geophysical Union. horizontal reflections from the postrift sediments, deposited after continental
Washinglon. D.C. AMC = axial magma chamber reOeclion: M = Moho relleclions.
breakup and during the drifting and subsidence of the margin (Fig. 6.30). The conti·
nental margin may have been above sea level for some time after rifting. so that a
 Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 167
a) Extended Continental Crust

~~t~O~k~m~!~~~~~~~~i
postrift (or breakup} unconformity separates the postrift sediments from the under-
0 lying rocks (prerift and synrift sediments; crystalline basement). The post rift uncon-
Northwest
formity is often flat, suggesting that horst blocks were eroded prior to subsidence of
the margin below sea level.

3. Rift G raben Wedges Defining Extended Continental Crust The strata that
fill rift grabens (sediments intercalated with volcanics) display strong contrasts in
acoustic impedance. Wedge-shaped events observed beneath postrift sediments in
coastal plain and continental shelf areas thus indicate continental basement that
was extended during rifting (Fig. 6.30a; Schlee et al.,1976; Grow et al.,l979; Costain
and <;:oruh, 1989). Passive margins are often portrayed with normal faults dipping
p redominately seaward; refl ection profiles, however, show half-grabens consistent
with major normal fa ults dipping either toward or away from the ocean basin, with
no dominate direction.

4. "Seaward-Dipping Wedges" at Continent/Ocean Boundary On some pas-

b) Continent/Ocean Boundary sive margins, the zone between extended continental crust and true oceanic crust
displays prominent reflections from beneath the postrift sediments (Fig. 6.30b ).
Those reflections always dip toward the ocean basin and are overall wedge-shaped,
spanning about two s of two-way travel time; individual reflections have a convex
upward appearance (Mutter et al., 1982). Drilling of the upper parts of these "sea-
~ ward-dipping wedges," off the coasts of Norway and east Greenland, reveals that
<I>
the wedges are almost entirely basalt that was erupted on land. The sequences are
~ interpreted to have formed during the initial development of oceanic layer 2; flu id
~ 2 basalts spread laterally over tens of kilometers, when the "mid-ocean ridge" was
~ above sea level (Mutter et al. , 1984).
~
~

~
5. Hyperbolic El'ents Defining Top of Oceanic Crust The top of basement
beneath continental rise areas commonly reveals the same seismic expression as the
block-faulted, oceanic layer 2 formed at mid-ocean ridges tFigs. 6.27; 6.28b). The
4 characteristic, hyperbolic events o n unmigrated sections can therefore be used to
map the extent of true oceanic crust beneath continental slope and shelf regions
(Fig. 6.30c).

6, 7, 8. NonreOecti\'e Upper Crust; Reflective Lower Crust, Moho R efl ections

Seimtic reflection profiles from some passive margins show crustal reflectivity inher-
ited from the continental rifting stage (Figs. 6.23, 6.24). Around the British Isles, a
nonreflective upper crust, reflective lower crust, and Moho reflections are especially

FIGURE 6.30 Sri.<mic reflection profiles from passive colllinemal margins. Each profile shows
prominem horizontal reOcctions from the postrifl sedimentary section. Deeper reflection pauerns
suggest the type of crystalline basement. a) Rift gmbcn wedge indicating continental crust extended
tlur111g riftmg. U.S.G.S. line 25 from Offshore Cape Cod: part of the conlme.nlal s~elf off the east
coast of the United States. The transparent water layer JS above 0.2 s. Postnfl sedJments he from
FIGURE 6.30 (continued) 0.2 to about 2 son the northwest. down to 3.5 son the southeast. The
post rift unconformity separates those sediments from older rocks. including crystalline basement
and a prominent rift graben. The major bounding fault zone dips nonhwestward, toward the
continent. b) "Seaward-dipping wedge" indicating continental/oceanic crustal boundary. Seismic
reflection proftle from the Vpring Plateau off the Atlantic coast of Norway. From K. Hinz, Line
BFB {24-fold stack) from the Norwegian continental margin/outer Vpring Plateau, AAPG Studies
In Geology Series, no. 15, vol. 2, pp. 2.2.3.39-2.2.3.40. ~ 1983. Redrawn with permission of the
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Tulsa, Oklahoma. USA. Seaward-dipping wedge
lies below the sediment· basall interface, from 2.5 to abou! 4.5 s. Note the upward convexity and
increase in d ip with depth of individual reOectors within the wedge. (Ignore nearly horizontal
multi ples beginning at about 4.0 s). c) Hyperbolic diffractions indicating oceanic crust. Unruigrated
time section from the east coast of the United States (U.S.G.S. line 25. offsh ore Cape Cod).
Hyperbolic events at about 8 s represent the lop of oceanic basement {layer 2).
168 Chapter 6 Str uctural And_Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seism ic Expression of Tectonic Settings 169

50km
Subduction Zone
a) Lithosphere Cross Section
<:== 100. 500 km ==::>
#

.-s 35km

Asthenosphere
,.
/
·"
/ •"·"
·" . ~" .
b) Crustal Cross SectJOn

c=== Accretionary Wedge ==~

Outer Arc High
FIGURE 6.3 1 Seismic reflection profile from the west coast of Ireland. Modified from A deep seismic
reflection transect across the Irish Caledonides. by S. Klcmp<rer. P. R ya n, and D. Snyder, Journal of tire
Geological Society, London, vol. 148. pp. 149-164. © 1991. Redrawn with permission of the Geological
Soctety of London. a ) Nonreflecti ve upper crust extends 10 a boutS s. b) Reflective lowe r crust from about
5 IO 10 s. c) Moho reflections occur al about 10 s.d) Transparent upper mantle. Compare wi th continental
ri ft profile, Fig. 6.24. ·

well displayed (Fig. 6.31; Petty and Hobbs, 1987; R eston. 1990; KJemperer et al.,
1991).
FIGURE 6.32
of Fig. 6.33.
Subduction Zone
At a subduction zone, a lithospheric plate capped with thin ocea nic crust extends
beneath a plate with thicker. island arc or continental crust (Figs. 2.16, 6.32). The
seismic expression of features developed at and away from a mid-ocean ridge
(hemipelagic sediments; hummocky top of oceanic crust; horizontal Moho) is often
imaged beneath trench-fill sediments at the toe of the accretionary wedge (Fig. 6.33).
Farther toward the volcanic arc, deformed accretionary wedge sediments and base-
ment display a more chaotic seismic expression; fla t-lying or deformed sediments in
the forea rc basin may also be imaged.
1, 2. Transparent Water Layer; Trench-Fill Sedimen ts As oceanic crust
approaches a subduction zone, it is covered by terrigenous sediments (turbidites)
deposited in a trench (Fig. 6.34a); these undeformed sediments result in nearly hori-
zontal reflectio ns. At the toe of the accretionary wedge, where deformation is slight,
it is often possible to image thr ust structu res.
Mantle
H ypothetical lithospheric (a) and crustal (b) cross sections of a subduction zone. Dashed rectangle in (b) is the region
3. Deep Ocean Basin Sediments Before reaching th_e vicinity of the trench,
the basalt of oceanic layer 2 is normally covered wtth a thtn layer of deep-man ne
(hemipelagic) sediments (Fig. 6.34a). Th_e zone of thrust detachment (or decoll~­
ment) commonly lies within the trench fill sedtments, so that the hemtpelagtc sedt-
ments are imaged beneath the toe of the accretionary wedge (Moore, 1975; Moore
and Shipley, 1988a, 1988b). Farther arcward, many styles of d~forma uon are
observed (Scho ll et al., 1980); the decollement may cut downsect10n, so that the
hemipelagic sediments and oceanic basement are mcorporated mto the accre-
tionary wedge (Fig. 6.33).
4. Flexu ral no rmal faults o ffsett ing basement and sediments A subdu~t~ng
lithospheric plate bends as it is weighted by topography developed on the overn_dmg
plate. A convex-upward shape results, producing a fl exural bulge seaw~rd of the
trench (Fig. 6.32b). The upper part of the bulge undergoes extension, producmg normal
 170 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profil_es Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 171

a) Crustal Cross Section of Outer Forearc Region faults (Fig. 6.33). This younger set of normal fau lts differs from the older normal faults
........................................................................................................... that were produced soon after oceanic crust formed at a mid-ocean ridge: mid-ocean
Accretionary Wedge ridge faults cut the oceanic basement and are generaUy covered by hemipelagic sedi-
ments (Figs. 6.27, 6.28a); l.lexural faults offset the oceanic basement, hemipelagic sedi-
ments, and some of the trench-fill sediments (Figs.·6.33a, 6.34a ).

5. Hyperbolic Events Defining Top of Oceanic Crust In addition to migrated

sections, it is useful to look at unmigrated seismic profil es from accretionary wedges.
The characteristic expression of h ummocky, oceanic layer 2, developed at a mid-
ocean ridge (Figs. 6.27, 6.28b), can often be traced beneath at least the toe areas of
wedges. In some instances, like the Barbados Ridge Complex (Moore et al., 1982;
Westbrook and Smith, 1983; Westbrook et al., 1988; Bangs and Westbrook, 1991 ; Fig.
6.34b) and the Nankai Trough (Nasu et al. , 1982; Fig. 6.4a) , the top of oceanic crust
Normal Faults: can be traced laterally for tens of km beneath the accretionary wedge.
~ Trench-fill Sediments / Fonn9d at Mid-Ocean Ridge
tM:'WM Hemipelagic Sediments / Fonn9d or Enhanced at Flexurs/ Bulge 6. Flat-lying Moho Reflections O n reflection profiles across newly-formed
oceanic crust, Moho events are approximately 2 s (two-way travel time) beneath the
b) Reflection Signature top of oceanic layer 2 (Fig. 6.28c). Reflection profiles from some deep-sea
r-... . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . .... ..... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ...... . . . . . . . . .. . . .... ... .... .. . . .. . .. . . . . . ::::::::::::::::; ::::::::1 trench/accretionary wedge regions show fl at-lying reflections, also about 2 s beneath
the top of oceanic basement, indicating the position of the Moho (Fig. 6.34c) .
..· -
1................. .3. . . ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ·. . . ............ . . . . . . . . :. . .: . :.:::.::.:~:: . l';:;~::;::~::i::~::~":···, \ . . .: . · ··.~ I 7. Chaotic Expression of Deformed A ccretionary Wedge Sediments and
; 1 ....... ..~~·,, "~~ ;
--~'""·~'~ '· ·.; Basement At some distance within the accretionary wedge, commonly tens of km
i,~ ...-= 2~~~S3 \..''\.\\· . ~~~\:::: . . . .~~ \ ' -"' . . .j fro m the trench axis, materials dewater and are structuraUy deformed. Seismic
~
... ,........
5~~~"\· \ · \'\.'- \ \ \- _: ; I' \ '\ ~ \ "~
. ::... .~~. ~'\··::. "~ \ -: :-_ I/"\;::- \ ''- ~ I - ~ velocity and density contrasts become less prono unced·than they were at the toe of

~ ~-- -=-~===-==~'' ~:'~~~~~~\;~~~::':~J

the wedge, leading to less contrast in acoustic impedance. Boundaries are also
steeper and less contin uous than they were at the toe, so that reflections are chaotic;
it is therefore difficult to image the complex structure in the rearward portions of
accretionary wedges (right side, Fig. 6.33b). Offsets of trench strata and thrust faults
are often well imaged in the toe regions of accretionary ~edges (right side, Fig.
1. Transparent water layer. 6.4b). Farther arcward, however, more intense deformation leads to poor seismic
resolution (left side, Fig. 6.4b).
2. Trench-fill sediments (undeformed and deformed).
3. Hemipelagic sediments from deep-ocean basin. 8. Forearc Basin Sediments Fig. 6.32a shows that two parallel mountain
4. Flexural normal faults offsetting b.asement and sediments ranges commonly form o n top of a subduction zone, one structural (accretionary
wedge) and o ne volcanic (arc). The low region that accumulates sediments between
(in "a" above). the_lwo ranges is the forea rc basin (Fig. 6.32b).Acoustic impedance contrasts within
5. Hyperbolic events (unmigrated) from top of oceanic layer 2. forearc basin strata (sometimes undeformed but often deformed) can lead to strong
6. Flat-lying Moho reflections. refl ections.
7. Chaotic expression of highly deformed accretionary wedge. Collisional Mountain Range
8. Forearc basin sediments (previous figure). Reflectio ns from collisional mountain ranges span a wide variety because structural•
FIGURE 6.33 Cross section (a) and rcnection sequences (b) commonly observed in the outer forearc region of a styles change during collisio n (Figs. 6.35, 6.36). Key reflection signatures, nonethe-
subduction zone (Fig. 6.32b). less, are characteristic of a traverse from the craton of the down going plate ("fore-
land "), across the mountains ("hi nterland").
Erosion of the mountains results in deposition of clastic ("synorogenic")
strata over the approaching continental margin, as deep-marine flysch in the early
stages of collision, then as molasse as the region uplifts above sea level (Fig. 6.35a, b).
A basin forms in the foreland, initially because deposition is on relatively thin,
oceanic o r transitional crust (Stockmal et al., 1986). As the craton approaches, the
 a) Ocean Basin Closes During Subduction
a West '·1 km
Ocean Basin Ad!ve Ccntfnental MBI'gln
4.5

~ 5
-..;:.

-s Asthenosphere
a}
Q 5.5
b) Initial Underthrusting of Passive Margin
6 Decollement F~:~i~d Thick Flysch/Molasse

.·
b West 10km

~
~<b
~~ c) Continental Basement Involved in Thrusting
~'"qj Fold-and- .
f:::_ ::.. Thrust Belt Massif
~1

c West East
4.-------------------------------------~~

5km
6

10 FIGURE 6.35 Lirhospheric cross secrions illusrraring swges of ocean basin closure and conrinenral collision. Rectangle in (d) is
region portrayed in Fig. 6.36.

FIGURE 6.34 Seismic reflection prufiles across deep-seu trenches. a) Migrated depth section from the Middle America Trench
oif Mexico ( Line Mex-_12). From G. Moore and T. Shipley.Jouma/ uf Geophysical Research, vol. 93. pp. 8911-8927. © 19118.
Redrawn With permiSSIOn or the American Geophysical Union. Washington. D.C. Water layer is transparent zone from surface
to nearly 5 km depth. Trench tu r bidites are nat lying a t t rench axis. but deformed at toe of accretionary w~dgc. on the right.
H~nupclag1c sed1men1s (transparent zone beneath trench tu r bidites) extend beneath the thrust ddcollcmcnl al the toe of the
accre tiunary ~edge. Flexural normal faults offset hemipelagic sediments and tOp of oceanic b;~scmcnl. Uplhrown normal fault
blocks"".' as ng1d basement buuress. causing ramping of th r ust decollement. b) Unmigrated time section from Barbados ridge
complex'" the Canbbcan Sea. From Long cJccollcmenls and mud volcanoes; Evidence irom the Barbados Ridge Complex for
FIGURE 6.34 (continued ) the role of high pore-nuid pressure in the development of an accr~lionary wedge. by G.
Westbrook and M. Smith. Geology, vol. 11, pp. 279-283. © 1983. Redrawn with permission of the Geolog1cal Soc1e1y of
America, Boulder. Colorado. USA. Hyper bolic diffraction paltern representing the top of oceanic layer 2 extends from
about 8.5 son east, to 9.5 son west. A dtcollemenl surface thai separates defom1ed accretionary wedge_ sediments fro~
hemipelagic sediments (oceanic layer\) lies about 0.5 s above the d iffractions. c) Unm1grated time section f~om Nank1
Trough orr Japan (Line NSS-1 ). From N. Nasu and others. Multi-channel seismic renection data across Nank1 Trough, .
/POD, Japan Ottsic Darn Series o4, © 1982, Ocean Research Institute, U~iversity orTokyo,Tokyo.Japan. Moho reOectlons
lie aboul2 s below the hyperbolic pattern representing the top or oceamc layer 2.
 174 Chapter 6 Structural And Tecton ic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tect onic Settings 175

fvr(; lau d basin is maintained because tl •.:. ;·i~i d . downgoing plate is flexe<: by t:·•.:.
Coiiisional Mountain Range (Advanced) weight of the mountains (Karner and Wam. 1983; see Chapter 8). The fl exural bulge
a) Crustal Cross Section results in normal faults offsetting the basement and cover strata (Fig. 6.36a), similar
to the normal faults at subduction zones (Figs. 6.33a, 6.34a).
Sedimentary strata are deformed an d p ushed toward the craton, as the accre-
Flexural tionary wedge evolves into a foreland fold-and-rlfrust belt (Fig. 6.35a-c). Near the
Bulge deformation front, the thrust decollement is normally within synorogenic strata,
similar to the decollement at the toe of an accretionary wedge (Figs. 6.33, 6.34).
P reorogenic strata and structures remain intact beneath the decollement, where
they may be imaged seismically (Fig. 6.35b). Toward the hinterland, the decollement
steps downward, cutting older strata. Deformation of crystalline rocks commonly
occurs where the top of basement deepens to more than 10 to 15 km (Figs. 6.35c,d;
6.36a). Structures or strata in the zone of su turing between the two continents may
Mantle also be imaged, as well as Moho reflections (Fig. 6.36b ). Reflections in the mid-crust
of active collision zones may be caused by the p onding of partial melts.

1. Foreland Basin Strata During initial stages of collision, sediments in the

b) Reflection Signature foreland basin can be thick, because deposition is still on the thin oceanic or transi-
tional crust of the passive margin (Fig. 6.35b ). Seismic reflection profiles suggest
Foreland Hinterland that deformed flysch strata are at least 12 km thick in the foreland basins of the
Carpathian Mountains of Slovakia (Tomek ~t_ al. , 1987), and the Ouachita
Mountains of Arkansas (Nelson et al., 1982; Lillie et al., 1983); undeformed molasse
and passive margin strata are at least 10 km thick in front of the Sulaiman Range in
western Pakistan (Humayon et al., 1991;Jadoon et a1.,'1994; Fig. 6.37a).
As collision continues, the buoyancy of the thicker crust of the continental cra-
ton limits the thickness of foreland basin strata (Fig. 6.35c,d) . Seismic profiles show
less than 7 km thickness for the Molasse Basin in fron t of. the A lps (Bachmann et al. ,
1982) and Jess than 5 km for the Himalayan foreland in Pakistan and India (Lillie
et al. , 1987; Raiverman, et a!., 1994; Powers et a!., 1998).

1. Foreland basin strata. 2. Flex"Ural Normal Faults Beneath the foreland of the- Ouachita Mountains
2. Flexural normal faults. in Arkansas, drilling and reflecti on profiles reveal normal fa ults offsetting continen-
tal basement, preorogenic strata, and synorogenic mo lasse (VanArsdale and
3. Foreland fold-and-thrust belt. Schweig, 1990; Fig. 6.37b). Only the synorogenic strata show growth across the
4. Underthrusted strata and structyres (previous figure). faults, distinguishing them from older faults formed during passive margin develop-
5. Basement involved structures (previous figure). ment. The young normal faults are interpreted as d ue to lithospheric flexure, active
6. Thrust decollement. during the advance of thrust sheets. Flexural nonnal faults are also interpreted from
refl~·ction profiles of the foreland in the incipient collision at the Banda Arc
7. Suture zone reflections. (Montecci, 1979), as well as advanced collisions in the Alps (Bachmann et al., 1982)
B. Moho reflections. and Himalayas (Lillie and Yousuf, 1986). If the thrust decollement is near the base
9. Ponded partial melt. of synorogenic strata, a normal fault may act as a buttress, causing thrust fault ramp-
ing (Lillie et al., 1987; Baker et al., 1988; Jaume and Lillie, 1988; see similar ramping
FIGURE 6.36 Crustal scale cross section (a) and prominent reflection sequences (b) observed at an advanced stage of
continental collision. ·'
beneath accretionary wedge, Fig. 6.34a). · •

3. Foreland Fold-and-Thrust Belt Commonly (although with exceptions),

the frontal portions of forela nd fold-and-thrust b elts involve deformation of only
synorogenic strat'!. Basement and o lder sedimentary cover remain undeformed fo r
some distance beneath a gently-dipping decollement zone (Fig. 6.37c). As with
accretionary wedges (Fig. 6.32b), this decoupling surface commonly steps down-
sectiol), so that older and older rocks are involved in the deformation toward' the
 '-IIO~lt!f 0
>tructural And Tectontc lnterpr,etation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles
Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 177

hinterland. Reflection pro files reveal a great variety of structures within the over-
thrust wedge of strata (see Bally et al., 1966).

4. Underthrusted Strata and Structures Near the deformation fron t of a col-

lisional mountain range, strata and structures from the continental margin may be
intact beneath overthrust rocks (Fig. 6.35b,c). In the southern Appalachian fo re-
land, reflection data show that shelf strata extend for more than 100 km beneath
sedimentary rocks of the Valley and Ridge Province (foreland fold-and-thrust belt);
the shelf s trata extend even fartner, beneath crystalline rocks of the Blue Ridge and
Inner Piedmont (Cook et al., 1979, 1981). Dipping, wedge-shaped reflections
(Fig. 6.37d), completely beneath the shelf strata, are interpreted as due to rift-
graben fill from the Late Proterozoic/Early Cambrian passive margin (Harris et al.,
1981; Lillie, l984; Hubbard et al.,1991).

5. Basement Involved Structures Seismic reflection profiles suggest that con-

tinental basement begins to be defonned when the top of the underthrusting base-
ment reaches 10 to 15 km depth. Along the Appalachian/Ouachita orogenic belt,
lines reveal large, basement-cored structures, including the Notre Dame
c Anticlinorium in Quebec (St. Julien et al., 1983; Stewart et al.. 1986), the Green
Mountains in Vennont (Ando et al., 1983). the Benton Uplift in the Ouachita
Mountains of Arkansas (Nelson et al., 1982: Lillie et al., 1983). and the Waco and
De vils River uplifts in Texas (Nicholas and Rozendal, 1975); seismic profiles of the
A lps reveal the antiformal nature of the basement-cored, Aar Massif (Fig. 6.38).

6. T hrust Decollement A decollement is a gently dipping zone separati ng

overthrust from unde rthrust materials. Seismic re nection profi les suggest a decolle-
ment in the southern Appalachian Mountains extends for considerable distance
(more than 100 km) beneath crystalline rocks (Cook et a!. , 1979; see Fig. 6.37d).
Recent data from Tibet suggest that the decolleme nt zone near the top o f the Indian
craton extends completely beneath crystalline rocks of the Lesser and High
= Foreland
d Northwest 10km Hinterland=
Southeast
Himalaya (Fig. 6.39).

7. Suture Zone Reflections The suturing of continents involves a zone of

deformation of sedimentary strata and crystalline rocks (Fig. 6.36a). Dipping renee-
lions beneath the southern Appalachians in Georgia (Cook et al. , 1979; 1981;
Iverson and Smithson, 1982: Nelson et al., 1985) have been interpreted to mark the
zone of suturing of the African continent to North America in the late Paleozoic
(Fig. 6.36b ). Similar reflectio ns are interpreted to mark suture zones beneath the

Lillie, Whole Earth Geophysics, Fig 6. 37
FIGURE 6.37 Seism ic reflection profiles from tire foreland f .
Sula tman foredeep, on the western edge of th I d' b o ~nowttam ranges. a ) Interpreted re ncction profile from the
Tec~onics, vol. 10, pp. 229-324, © 1991. Redra,:n ~vi',~" seur~~~i~~ent in Pakist~n. FromM. Humayon. R. Lillie. and R. Lawrence,
Sedtmentary strata are more than 10 km tht'ck (' s t p . of the Amcncan Geophystcal Union, Washington D.C
" wo-way travel time) beca . th . , . © 1991. Redrawn with permission of the American Geophysical Union, Washington. D.C. Note underthrusted s helf s trata,
an ear Iy stage of collision (Fig. 6.35b). Eocene and older rocks are a .. ' use ey rest on thtn, transitional o r oceanic crust at
post nit sequence o n a passtve continental margin (Fig. 6.29);
FIG URE 6.37 (continued) Miocene and younger molasse is a superimposed foreland basin deposit. b) Fle.ural normal faults
on migrated time section from the Arkoma Basin in the southern United States. From R. VanArsdale and E. Schweig, III,
Subsurface structure of the eastern Arkoma Basin,AAPG Bullecin, vol. 74, pp. 1030-1037, © 1990. Redrawn with perm ission of
the American Association of Petroleum Geologis ts, Tulsa. Oklahoma, USA. The flexural faults are overridden by thrust faults of
the Ouachita o rogen. c) Interpreted. migrated time section from the Valley and Ridge Province, the foreland fold-and-thrust belt
of the southern Appalachian Mountains. From Three-d imensional geometry a nd kinematic evolution of the Pine Mountain
thrust system, southern Appalachians. by S. Mitra, GSA Bulletin, vol. 100. pp. 72- 99, © 1988. Redraw n wit h permission of the
Geological Society of America, Boulder. Colorado, USA. The basal decollement. at 0.6 son the northwest, cuts downsection to 1.5 s
on the southeast. Note undeformed s trata beneath the decollement on the northwest. The top o[ Precambrian crystalline
baseme nt, at 1.6 son the northwest. is offset by a fle xu ral normal fault. d) Portion of seismic profile from the Blue Ridge region
ot the southern Appalachian Mountains in Georgia. From S. Hubbard. C. <;oruh. and J. Costain. Tectonics. vol. 10. pp. 141-170,
overlying top of Precambrian basement at 2.0 son northwest. 2.6 son southeast. Southeastward dipping reflections beneath shelf
strata are interpreted as due to rift graben fill (Figs. 6.25: 6.30a). associated wi th the late Precambrian passive continental margin.
 178 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles Seismic Expression of Tectonic Settings 179

a as
- = Foreland Hinterland ===>
H>gh Tethyan N
Ganga Basin Lesser
Himalaya Himalaya Himalaya
MBT

~ ~--
-<>-
10 TIBETAN

-
--
INDIAN CRUST
20 CONTINENTAL
30 CRUST
40
so
~ ...... n
---MHT

-Moho

NO VERTICAL EXAGGERATION llNDEPTHj

; 100
I
3 /
/
/
/
/
/
b South North
,/

b
km
0

10 Sima no

FIGURE 6.38 a) ReOeclion profile across nonhcrn limb of Aar Massif in ea$lern Swilzerland (Schwcizcrischc Arbeilsgruppe
tor ReOexionsseismik. 1988). The lop of basemen! is al 2.8 son Ihe norlh side of Ihe sec1ion. II rises soulhward 10ward lhe
ccnler of 1he massif. b) ln1erpre1a1ion of longer rcOeclionlraverse reveals Ihal Ihe crys1alline basemen! becomes involved in
1hrus1ing when il cxlcnds soulhward from Ihe Molasse Basin 10 abom 10 km deplh. From 0. Piffner. W. Frci. P. Yalased. M.
S1auble. L. Levmo. L. DuBois. S. Schmid. and S. Smi1hson. Tectonics. vol. 9. pp. 1327-1355. «:> 1990. Redrawn wilh pern1ission
of 1he American Geophvsical Union. Washinglon. D.C. Box shows approximl~~ posilion of seismic profile in (a).

northern Appalachians (Ando et al., 1983), the Alps (Pfiffner et al.. 1990). and the
British Caledonides (Beamish and Smythe. 1986). :.

8. Moho Reflections The crust/mantle boundary is difficult to image beneath
collisional mountain ranges, because of the great thickness of the crust and the
problems of resolving reflectors beneath complex structure (Figs. 6.18-6.20).
Seismic profiles. nonetheless, reveal reflections from _!'v1oho depths beneath portions
of collisional mountain ranges. including the Appalachians (Cook et al. , 1979, 1981;
Nelson et al.. 1985), the Alps. and the Himalayas (Zhao. et al. , 1993: Fig. 6.39).
FIGURE 6.39 a) Cross sec1ion showing posilion of INDEPTH seismic reflection profile. relalive 10 model
of underlhrusling Indian cominen1al crust b) INDEPTH profile in sou1hern 1ibe1. The MHT is 1he Main
Himalayan Thrusl, believed 10 be lhe d~coUemenl separaling lhe undenhrusling Indian craton from Ihe
overriding Himalaya. Nme deep reOeclions a1 aboul 22 s 1wo-way Iravel lime (TWf), in1erpre1ed 10
image the Moho. From Deep seismic reneclion evidence for continenlal undenhruSiing benealh soulhern
1ibe1, by W. Zhao. K. Nelson, and lNDEPTH leam, Nature, vol. 366, pp. 557-559, Q 1993. Redrawn wilh
permission of Macmillan Magazines. Lid., London.

9. Partial Melt Where the crust becomes nearly twice normal continental
thickness. granitic rocks may become hot enough to melt partially (Fig. 6.36a).
Reflection profiles from the Tibetan Plateau reveal strong reflections that may indi-
cate the ponding of molten material at mid-crustal levels (Fig. 6.36b; Makovsky
et al., 1996).
180 Chapter 6 Selected Bibliography 18 1
Structural And Tectonic Interpretation Of Seism ic Reflection Profiles

EXERCISES 6-3 For the two-dimensional model below, calculate and draw:
a) Normal incidence raypaths (to both reflectors) for several source/receiver positions
6-1 :me model below shows a two-dimensional structure, with seismic velocities between on the surface.
m terfaces. ' b) The gene ral appearance of an unmigrated time section.
a) Sketch no~mal inci~ence raypaths (to both reflectors) for several common c) The general appearance of a migrated time section.
source/rece1ver pos1110ns on the surface. (Hint: A normal incidence raypath follo ws
the same path upward as do~vnward. For the lower reflector, it is easiest to trace ray-
paths upward. Start by drawmg a vertical line from the lower interface to the dipping tOOOm
segment of the upper reflector. Then calculate how tire ray refracts into tire upper
Surfaee

~=2~0m% ~
layer, accordmg to Snell's Law).

.fl~fJ.tt9.!.Clr.L~.•.•.•.•...•.•.~.
b) Change the vertical scale t~ two-w~y travel time, then compute and draw the gen-
eral a ppearance of an unmtgrated ume section.
c) Compute and draw the general a ppea rance of a migrated time section. .
d) Draw the migrated deprh section.
V2 =4000 m/s
1000 m Reflector 2
Surface
E: Model for Exercise 6-3
E:
~ =4000mjs §
§ .......
6-4 Interpret the unmigrated and migrated sections in Fig. 6.11. The profile is from an area
where the crystalline basement is overlain by an incompetent unit. Above the incom-
~
petent unit is a thin (approximately one km thick) section of competent rocks, ove rlain
E: by a t hick section of clastic sediments.
E: g a) Overlay the sections with tracing paper and draw your interpretation with colored

§....... ' \12 = 2500 mjs ~ pencils.

b) Make some assumptions about the velocities of the rocks and sketch a migrated
depth section.
c) Draw a possible geologic interpretation (that is, a structural cross section), with all
Model for Exercise 6- 1
units identified.
d) Discuss a possible geologic history responsible for the formation of the structure.
6-2 G iven .the following model of a synformal structure (Reflector I) underlain by a hori-
6-5 a) Draw cross section B-B ' from Ex. 2-2 at a crustal scale.
zontal mterface (Reflector 2):
b) Directly on your cross section, sketch different seismic signawres that might be
a) Ora~ normal incidence raypaths for both in terfaces. to several source/receiver
observed at various places.
posrtrons on the surface.
6-6 Discuss the resolwion of the following types of geophysical data: seismic refraction;
b) Draw the unmigrated time section which results from the model.
earthquake seismic; gravity; seismic reflection.
c) Draw the migrated time section,overlain on exactly the same plot as in (b).
a) Be specific about: i) the size and geometry of bodies that can be resolved wi th the
d) Repeat (a), (b) and (c), but with each reflector 3000 m deeper. method; ii) zones of the Earth that can be studied with each method.
b) Discuss how the four methods might be used together to study the structure of the
1000 m e ntire lithosphere/asthenosphere system at a continental rift zone.
Surface
E:
SE LECTE D BIBLIOGRAPHY
Reflector 1
................... . . ... ...._,._, Vt = 2500 mjs §
........................
Allmendinger, R. W., J. W. Sharp, D. Von Tis h. L. Serpa. of an orogenic belt. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, v. 98, pp. 308-319 .

-, ~~
..-·-·
,~
E:
L Brown. S. Kaufman, J. Oliver, and R. B.
Smilhson, 1983. Cenozoic and Mesozoic srruclure
of rhe eastern Basin and Range province. Utah,
Anderson. R. E.. M. L. Zoback. and G. A . Thompson.
1983, lmplicalions of selected subsurface dala on
·~~· from COCORP seismic reflecrion dara, Geology. lhe slrucrural fonn and evolulion of some basins

Reflector 2 V2 = 4000 m/s §....... v. II. pp. 532-536.

Allmendinger, R. W., T. A. Hague, E. C. Hauser, C. J.
Poner. S. L. Klemperer, K. D. Nelson. P. Knu~pfer,
and J. Oliver, 1987, Overview of lhe COCORP
Model tor Exercise 6-2 40• N 1ransec1. wesrern Unircd Stares: The fabric
in lhe northern Basin and Range province, Nevada
and Ulah, Geological Society of America Bulletin.
v. 94, pp. 1055-1 on.
Ando. C. J.. F. A. Cook. J. E. Oliver. L. D. Brown. and
S. Kaufman. 1983, Crustal geome1ry of the
1 82 Chapter 6 Structural And Tectonic Inter pretation Of Seismic Reflection Profiles
Appalachian orogen from seismic reflection scud·
ies, in: Contributions to the Tectonics and
Geophysics of Moulllain Chains, edited by R. D.
Hatcher, H. Williams, and 1. Zietz, Boulder,
Colorado: Geological Society of America, Memoir
158, pp. 113-124.
Bachmann, G. H., G. Dohr, and M. Muller, 1982,
Exploration in a classic thruSI belt and its fore-
land: Bavarian Alps, Germany, American
Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, v. 66,
pp. 2529-2542.
Baker. D. M., R. J. Lillie, R. S. Years. G. D. Johnson, and
M. Yousuf, 1988, Development of the Himalayan
frontal thrust zone: Salt Range, Pakistan, Geology,
v.16. pp. 57-70.
Bally, A . W. (editor), 1983, Seismic Expression of
Strucwral Sryles, Tulsa: American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Geology Series
15 (3 volume set).
Bally, A. W., P. L. Gordy and G. A. Stewan, 1966,
Structure, seismic data and orogenic evolution of
southern Canadian Rockies, Bulletin of Cat~adian
Petroleum Geology, v. 14, pp. 33i-381.
Bangs, N. L. B.. and G. K. Westbrook, 1991, Seismic
modelling of the d~collement zone at the base of
the Barbados Ridge accretionary complex,Joumal
of Geophysical Rtu arch, v. 96, pp.3853-3866.
Barazangi, M., and L. Brown (editors), 1986,
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CH A PTER 7
Earthquake Seismology
Earth ('~rtlr ) n., (OE. corthe], / . 1he pla11et we live on 2./a11d, as
distinguished from sea or sky.
quake (kwllk) vi, (0£. cwacian], to tremble or shake.
earrh quake ('~rthkwiik) TL, vibrmio11s within the Earth caused by the
rupture and sudden moveme11t of rocks that have been Slrai11ed
beyond their elastic limit.
seismo- (siz mo), ( < Gr. seismos, a11'eanhquake < seidn. to shake],
a combining form , prrtain ing to vibrmions.
-logy (loje), (ult. <Gr., logos!. a combining form, meani11g tire
scientific study of ·
seismology (siz miil' Jji!) n., [SEISMti:+·LOGY], tire study of
vibratioi!S that move as waves through tire Earth.
earthquake seism ology ('~rt!rkwak siz miil' ~ jii) TL, tire study of
vibrations witlrin lht! Earth causetl by tir e swi<ien movement along
faullS or ocher twwral processes.
The study o f earthquakes is importan t for scientific, social, and economic reasons.
Earthquakes attest to the fact that dynamic forces are oper ating within the Earth.
Stress builds up thro ugh time, s toring strain energy; earthq uakes represent sudden
release of the strain energy.
Plate tectonic theory relies heavily o n observations fro m earthquakes. Most
tectonic activity occurs d ue to in te ractio n be twee n pla tes; the d istribution of
earthquakes th us dramatically ou tlines lithospheric plate bounda ries. Locatio ns
of earthquakes in three dimensions reveal the depths o f str esses built up as a
result of p late interaction . There ar e o nly shallow earthq u akes at divergent and
transform plate bou ndaries, but earthq uakes occur over a broad range from shal-
low to deep whe re plates converge. The type of earthquake fa ulting shows rela-
tive mot ion between plates; rocks are generally subjected to norma l faul ting at
d ivergent plate boundaries, strike-slip faulting at transform boundaries, and
reverse faul ting (with significant normal and strike-slip fa ulting) at convergen t
boundaries.
Earthquakes also provide crucial data o n the deep interior of the Earth ,
because seismic waves travel thro ugh the entire Earth and are recorded by a world-
wide network of seismometers. I nterpretations o f the thickness, structure and com-
position of the crust, man tle, and core can be made fro m the types and speeds o f
waves that travel through each zone.
Earthquakes are important from a human and economic point of view. In
some years, earthquakes ki ll thousands of people and cause damage totalling bil·
lions of dollars. I t is useful to understand how earthquakes occur, where they are
likely to occur, and when they might occur. We can minimize earthquake effects by
mapping hazardous regions, predicting the time and place o f future earthquakes,
designing buildings that will withstand earthquakes, and by not building in areas
prone to intense shaking.
185
 186 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Characteristics of Earthquakes 187

CHARACTEt~ISTICS OF EARTHQUAKES Location of Earthquake:.

Focus and Epicenter The location of an earthquake can be described by
Elastic Rebound Theory the latitude , longitude, and depth of the zone of rupture (Fig. 7.2). The focus (or
hypocenter) is the actual '·point" (relatively small volume) within the Earth
When Earth material is stressed beyond its elastic limit, failure could be through
where the earthquake energy is released. The epicen ter is the point on Earth's
ductile fl ow or brittle fra cture (Figs. 3.1, 3.2). The latter situation results in earth-
surface d irectly above the focu s. The focal depth is the distance from th e epicen-
q uakes. For earthquakes to occur, two factors are thus necessary: 1) there mus: be
ter to the focus.
some sort of movement that will stress the material beyond its elastic limit; and
2) the material must fail by brittle fracture.
Focal Depth Earthq uakes occur in the upper 700 km of the E arth, because
The region of the Earth that fits the above criteria is the lithosphere. Other
they are confined to the rigid lithosphere, which can undergo brittle failure. Focal
regions, such as the asthenosphere and outer core, behave ductilly and fluidly,
depths are normally related to the type of plate boundary (Fig. 7.3). Most earth·
respectively, when large stresses are applied over long periods of time. The lower
quakes are shallow focus, from the surface to 70 km depth; shallow focus earth-
mantle (mesosphere) and th e inner core are solid, but they are not subjected to
quakes occur at all types of plate boundaries.
large differential stresses. E arthquakes are, therefore, almost exclusively confined to
Most intermediate focus (70 to 300 km depth) and virtually all deep focus
the moving, rigid lithosphere, particularly where stresses are concentrated near the
earthquakes occur in convergent (subduction) settings, where lithosphere extends
boundaries of plates.
deeply through the asthenosphere (Fig. 7.3c).
Elastic rebound theory states that rock can be stressed, obeying Hooke's Law,
until it reaches its elastic limit (Fig. 3.lc). If the rock fails in a brittle fashion, it
rebounds (snaps) into a new posi tion as the stored strain energy is released
(Fig. 7.1). The sudden release of strain energy is an earthquake, which sends off a) Divergent Plate Boundary b) Transform Plate Boundary
vibrations as seismic waves. Crust Crust

s) Undeformed Rocks b) Stressed to Elastic Umit c) Rebound to Relieve Stress

~ Fault
- Asthenosphere

-
---.Ji l l~
- u----- c) Convergent Plate Boundary
Crust

FIGURE 7.1 Elastic rel>ound. Figure can represent either map view of a strike-slip fault. or cross-sectional view of a
dip·slip (normal or reverse) fault. a) Sequence of rocks in undeformed state. b) Rocks initially behave elastically as
stress is applied (Fig. 3.1 b). c) Elastic limit of the rocks is reached (Fig. 3.lc). If brittle fa ilure occurs, stored energy is
released as an eanhquake. The rocks rebound to new positions across the1ault. as seismic waves radiate from the
rupture zone (eanhquake focus). ·

FIGURE 7.2 Cross section of a

rupturing fault. illustrating terminology
used to describe the location and dept h
of an eanhquake.
Earth's
Surface

Focus FIGURE 7.3 Positions and depths to eanhquakes (black dors) along different rypes ofplate bowuiories a) Only crust and uppermost
mantle are cold and brittle enough to produce eanhquakes along divergent boundaries. b) Eanhquakes occur in th~ upper (cold) part
of the lithosphere at transform boundaries. c) At convergent boundaries. shallow eanhquakes occur in the upper plate due to
compression. A zone of shaUow to deep eanhq uakes (Wadati-Benioff Zone) occurs in the upper (cold) portion of the downgoing plate.
 188 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Characteristics of Earthquakes 189

Location of Epi.c~~ter The initial compressional waves from an earthquake The epicenter for a local, shallow earthquake can be d etermined by using
travel faster than the tmtlal shear waves; P-waves therefore arrive at seismic stations Ts- T p times to calculate the distances (X) from the earthquake to three o r more
some time before the S-waves (Fig. 7.4a). The amount of time that elapses between stations (Fig. 7.4b). Circles are drawn on a map around each sta tio n; the radius of
the P and S arrivals (Ts- Tp) is a function of the distance between the epicenter each circle represents the epicentral distance (X; Fig. 7.4c}. The intersection of the
and station: circles approximates the location of the epicenter.
T5 - Tp = X / V5 - X / Yp
Strength of an Ea rthquake
I T5 - Tp = X(l/ V5 - 1/ Yp), There are two terms used to describe the strength of an earthquake: magniwde is
quantitative, related to the ainounc of energy released by the earthquake; intensity is
•where: qualitative, describing the severity of ground motion at a given location.
T 5 = arrival time of initial S-wave
Tp =arrival time of initial P-wave Magnitude Magnitude is based on pn:cise measurements of the amplitude of
seismic waves, at known distances from the epicenter, using se ismographs. It is
X =distance from earthquake to station (epicentral distance)
V5 = S-wave velocity .· expressed according to a logarithmic scale, whereby an increase in magnitude by
VP = P-wave velocity. o ne unit corresponds to a 10-fold increase in ampliwde of the se ismic waves. For
example, consider a magnitude 6 earthquake, compared to a magnitude 8 earth-
quake , occurring in exactly the ·same place (Fig. 7.5). At the same seismic s tatio n, the

a b
ground moves up and down 100 times as high for the magnitude 8 event as it d id
during the magnitude 6 (lOS/106 = 10 2 = lOX 10 = 100).

) a) Magnitude 6
p s R A

i ~
~g
....
.....
b) Magnitude 7 ·-·-·- __ _ _:._:::::f10 A
~ 0.. j
~ ~~
C\1
c:
~ ~
(')
c: I
(/) gs gs
c I

l _....-100 A

I
I
I
I
c) Magnitude 8

FIGURE 7.'4 Location ofearthquake epicenter. a) Seismograms from three stations, showing arrivals of
c?mpresstonal (P) and shear (S) waves. b) Graph or arrival times of P and S waves, plotted as a function of
dts tance fro~ the eanhquake e~icenter, for the region of the earthquake. The T 5 - T P time gets longer with
'
I1
tncreasmg dtstan~e from the eptcenter.For each of the three seismograms in (a), theT5 - T, times are fi t to the FIGURE 7.5 Seismograms reco rded at the sam e station, for tltrtt different tartltquakes radiati11g from
~wo curv~ ; the dtstance from e~ch s ta tiOn. to the epicenter (epkentral distance) is thus appro~imated. c) The
~ntcrsectton of c1tcles representmg th~ eptcentral dtstance for each station approximates the epicenter. (Note:This
IS an overstmphfied example. In practice there are numerous stations, a nd th ree dimensional effects of focal depth
and Earth's spherical shape are taken into accoun t. Nonetheless. the concept is illustrated).
r the same focus. a) A magnitude 6 earthquake causes the ground surface to move wi th an amplitude
(A). b) A magnitude 7 earthqua ke causes ten times t he ampli1udc as the magnitude 6
(A x 10 = lOA). c) Amplitude for a magnitude 8 earthquake is len times again the magnitude 7,
equivalent to tOO times the magnitude 6 amplitude (A X 10 X 10 = 100A).
190 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Characterist ics of Earthq ua kes 191

There are different ways to determine the magnitude of an earthquake,

depending on whether body or surface waves are used. Bo dy wave magniwde TABLE 7.1 Worldwide n um ber of earth quak es p er year for differe/11 magniwde
depends on the amplitude of a particular compressional or shear wave arrival: ranges, tvith com pilations of energy released. a) Magnitude range. b) Approximate
number of ea rthquakes per year within range (after Gutenberg and R ichter, 1954).
m = /og 10(A/T) +a c) Comp utatio n of approximate energy released fo r one earthquake in magnitude
ra nge (8.5 used for >8; 7.5 for 7-7.9:6.5 fo r 6 -6.9. etc.), using E = 1 0~·24 x JOL" M•
Jo ules. d) Approximate energy released per year for earthquakes in range (column b x
where:
column c). e) Percentage of total energy per year released by magnitude range.
m = body wave magnitude
A =ground displacement in microns (10- 6 m) (a) (b) (c) (d ) (e)
T = period of selected (P or S) wave in seconds E a rthquake Number of Energy (Joules) Total E nergy Percent
a = factor correcting for e picentral distance, focal depth, and type of wave. Magnitude Earthquakes Rel eased by per Year for of Yearly
Correction factors can be read from published tables (for example, Range per Year 1 Earthquake Magnitude R ange Total
p. 35 of Gutenberg, 1945}. 8 3.0 1017 X 10 14
2: l.1 X 3300 55.9%
The Richter scale. popular in news media reports of earthquake magnitude, is based 7-7.9 18 1.1 X 1016 2000 X JO'• 33.2%
on P-wave amplitudes. 6 -6.9 120 4.0 x 1o'• 480 X 10
14
8.0%
].5 X 101:' 14
S11r[ace wave magnitude is a fu nction of the observed amplit ude of Rayleigh 5-5.9 800 120 X 10 2.0%
waves: 4-4.9 6.200 5.3 X 10 11 33 x Jo '• 0.6%
3 - 3.9 49.000 1.9 X 10 10 9.3 X 10
14
0.2%
M5 = log 10A + 1.656/og 10t:. + 1.818 2-2.9 300.000 6.9 X Hf 2.1 X 10
14
< 0.1 %

where:
Ms = surface wave magnitude
A = amplitude of horizontal component of 20 s period Rayleigh wave I Mw = [{IOEJv M 0)/ L5] - 10.73 1
!:J. = epicentral distance in degrees.
where:
Body and surface wave magnitudes correspond approximately as:
Mw = moment magnitude
I m ""' 0.56M5 + 2.9 I M 0 =seismic moment = (A )(u)( f.l) ,
A = area of fault that ruptures during earthquake
The energy released by an earthq11ake (E, in units of Joules) relates approxi· u = average displacement across the fau lt during earthq uake
mately to the surface wave magnitude as: f.l = shear modulus (rigidity) of the rock.

log 10E = 5.24 + 1.44 Ms The equation illustrates that the larger the a re a of r upture and fa ult displacement.
the larger the earthquake. Magnitudes for very large earthquakes (that is. those with
E = IOS.2H 1.44MI
large fault areas and displacements ) can be expressed as mo ment magnitudes by

I M
·I
E = 10S.24 X 101•44
exa mining ampli tudes of low frequency (long period) seismic waves (Lay and
Wallace.J995).

The factor 101.'-' = 27.54. This means that each unit increase in surface wave magni-
tude represents about a 27.5-fold increase in energy. In other words, to make the
ground amplitude increase by a factor of 10, the energy released by the earthquake
must increase approximately 27 1h times. It would therefore take about 750 magni-
tude 6 earthquakes to produce the same amount of seismic energy as the magnitude
8 earthquake in Fig. 7.5 (27.58127.56 = 27.5 2 = 27.5 X 27.5 ""' 750). This r eveals that,
although there are thousands of times more small earthquakes each year than large
ones. m o re than half of all the seismic energy is released by a few great earthquakes
(M5 2: 8); about 90% of the energy comes from earthquakes of magnitude 7 and
above (Table 7.1).
For very large earthquakes, body and surface wave magnitudes saturate; that
is, amplitudes cease to increase dramatically with increasing energy. lt is therefore
more useful to consider moment magnitude:
Intensity Intensity of an earthquake is based on effects at the swface, as wit-
nessed by people. For a given locatio n. intensity is reported as Roman N u me r~ s
acco rding to the Mercalli Scale (Table 7 .2). Three factors that tend to increase imen-
sity at a given location are: I ) magnitude of the earthquake: 2) proximity to the
earthquake fo cus: and 3) loose soil as opposed to firm bedrock. A large magnitude
earthquake would have higher intensities eve·r ywhere. compared to a small one. For
a given magnitude. there is an approximate maximum intensity that might be
expected (Ta ble 7.3).
Immediately after an earthquake. su rvey form s are circulated to resi d~ nts of
the affected region to determine what people actually observed during and afler the
quake. Based on those surveys. in tensities can be inferred for specific areas. Contour
maps are drawn showing the observed intensity relative to the location of the earth-
quake e picenter (Fig. 7.6). Seismic wa ve ampli tudes get smaller with increasing
192 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology ·- Characterist ics of Earthquakes 193

TABLE 7.2 Merca//i Scale of earthquake inrensity. From Earth's Dynamic Systems, FIGURE 7.6 Contour map of observf!d
intensities in the region of an earthquake.
7th ed. by W. K. Hamblin and E. H. Christiansen,© 1995. Reprinted by permission Intensities generally decrease with
of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. , distance from the earthquake focus
(epicenter in this map view).
Intensity Observed Effects Intensity Anomalously high intensities on the

Not felt except by very few people, under special conditions. Detected Localized in northeast corner of the map may be
associated with loose surficial material.
mostly by instruments. Sediment-Filled such as sedimentary deposits o r landfill.
II Felt by a few people, especially those on upper floors of buildings. Valley
Suspended objects may swing.
Ill Felt noticeably indoors. Standing automobiles may rock slightly.
IV Felt by many people indoors, by a few outdoors. At night, some are awak·
ened. Dishes, windows, and doors rattle.
v Felt by nearly everyone. Many are awakened. Some dishes and windows

VI
are broken. Unstable objects are overturned.
Felt by everyone. Many people become frightened and run outdoors.
tl
VII
Some heavy furniture is moved. Some plaster falls.
Most people are in alarm and run outside. Damage is negligible in build·
ings of good construction. l
]
VIII Damage is slight in specially designed structures, considerable in ordinary
buildings, great in poorly built structures. Heavy furni ture is overturned.
IX Damage is considerable in specially designed structures. Buildings shift
from their foundations and partly wllapse. Underground pipes are broken.
X Some well built wooden structures are destroyed. Most masonry struc· distance from the <!arthquake source, so that inte nsities generally decrease wit h dis·
tures are destroyed. The ground is badly cracked. Considerable landslides ~I tance from the focus. Exceptions occur due to local ground conditions. Seismic
occur on steep slopes. waves are amplified in areas where there is unconsolidated sediments or landfill,
XI

XII
Few, if any, masonry structures remain standing. Rails are bent. Broad fis·
su res appear in the ground.
Virtually total destruction. Waves are seen on the ground surface. Objects
li\. locally increasing the intensity.
For a given earthquake, there is only one magnitude: a ce rtain amount of
energy was released by the earthquake, expressed by the magnitude. Measurements
are thrown in the air. at different seismic stations around the world should yield approximately the same

TAB LE 7.3 Highest intensity expected for different

earthquake magnitudes. From The Dynamic Earth: An
Introduction To Physical Geology, 3rd ed. by B. J.
Skinner and S.C. Porter,© 1995. Used with permission
of Joh n Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
'I
magnitude. For the same earthquake, however, there is a range of intensities
observed (Fig. 7.6). The intensity observed at a given location depends on the three
fac tors listed above; one must be specific about where rhe effects were observed
when discussing intensities.

Effects of Earthquakes People often report hearing a rumble just prior to

the violent shaking of the ground during an earthquake. They are initially hearing
and feeling the effects of the compressional (P) waves. which commonly have
smaller amplitudes and less severe ground motion than the later shea r (S) and sur-
Earthquake Maximum face waves (Fig. 7.7). The S-waves ca n be la rge amplitude. shearing the ground back
Magnitude Range Intensi ty and forth (Fig. 3.8), causing more damage. Likewise, surface waves can be large with
~ 8 XII a shearing (Love) or rolling (Rayleigh) motion tha t can be destructive (Fig. 3.12).
7.4-7.9 XI Violent shaking in moderate earthquakes (magnitude 6 to 7) generally lasts
7.0-7.3 X for only a few seconds, but large (magnitude 8) earthquakes can last up to 3 or
6.2-6.9 VII- IX 4 minutes. causing buildings and bridges to shear and collapse, dams to break, etc.
5.5- 6.1- VI- VII Areas of loose soil, landfill, or sediment are especially vulnerable. as those materials
4.9-5.4 v can amplify seismic waves, localizing high intensity (Fig. 7.6). Unless reinforced, the
4.3-4.8 IV more rigid and massive the building mate rial, the more likely a structure will col·
3.5-4.2 I I - Ill lapse during an earthquake. For example, he avy concrete buildings and freeway
:S 3.4 I overpasses break rather than be nding, while light-weight wood houses are flexible
and more likely to survive an ea rthquake.
 Characteristics of Earthquakes 195
194 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology

FIGURE 7.7 £ffrcts of ground motion

a Seismic
Station
from t•arthquakr waves. a) Wavcfronts of
l'. S. and surf•ce waves radiatmg from a) Small Amplitude b) Wave Grows as
focus toward scismoc station. b) Higher
in Deep Ocean Water Bottom Shallows
; _____ H1H i amplitudeS and surface waves. arri,·ing

~ .. jS P
after the initiall'-waves. arc commonly
more violent. Surface wave energy is

\
·~
~Earthquake
,, Focus dispersed (Fig. 3.17). prolongin~ the
violent shaking during large earthquakes.
-............... '

b Time ==C> Earthquake

Focus
FIGURE 7.S T.!ltnnmi. a) Abr upt offset of seafloor during earthquake causes water wave: Wave is low amplitu~e (a few
. d b) Interaction with sea boll om in shallow area channels energy anto than ncr "ater layer. Wa e
em ) m cep ocean. . . . . ..
a mph tude grows considerably. rapidly (and often voolcntly) anundatang coastal areas.

I
i
i
i a) Before Earthquake
i
! Surface i
~ WBV8S
li (Dispersed)
A
\a

Secondary effects of ea rthquakes often cause more damllge and loss of life
than the shaking itself. Fires from the breaking of gas and electrical li nes can cause
large portions of cities to burn. A low-cost and effective sol ution is to install
switches and cut-off va lves th at automatically shut down the electrici ty and gas
when a building starts to shake. Sometimes earthquake fault ing uplift s or down-
warps large sections of the seanoor very abruptly (Fig. 7.8a). generating a water
c) Before Earthquake d) After Earthquake
wave traveling at about 1000 km/ hr. taking several hours to cross the ocean. TI1ese
Uplifted BS Downdropped as
twnamis (sometimes mistakenly ca lled "tidal waves") have low amplitudes (a few Stress Released
em) in deep ocean wa ter. but amplitudes can grow to several m in shallow water Stress Builds
approaching beaches (Fig. 7.8b).
Elastic rebound during an earthquake can cause tilting. uplifting. or down-
dropping of the land surface or sea bottom. Uplift can turn marshes and shallow
hays into dry ground: downdropping causes sinking and nooding of coastal lowlands
(Fig. 7.9 a.b). A special case involves a lithospheric plate that is nexed during sub-
duction (Fig. 7.9c). Elastic strain ca uses hulging of the plate in the forearc region:
sudden rebound of strain during an ea rthquake relaxes the nexure. raising or lower-
ing coastal regions (Fig. 7.9d). FIGURE 7.9 Elfrcts of tilting due tn tlnstic rclrormd during cartltqunkc. a)Configuration of sea bollom
and land surface hefore earthquake. h) Rebound during ca:thquake may loft some :reas out of t~e sea a nd
submer~e other"- c) Bulge in flexed plate uplifts coastal regoon above sea level. d) I late suddenl) unOexed
Earthquake Seismograms
during ~a rthquake. d ownd ropping and flooding region.
Seismic stations typica lly have at least three seismometers. each sensitive to a dif-
ferent di rection of ground motion (Fig. 7.10). The directions are perpendicular to
one another (ort hogonal). responding to vert ical. north-south, and east-west
motions.
196 Cha pter 7 Ea rthquake Seismology Cha racteristics of Earthquakes 197

a NNW~

p S R
b RrstMolion i Only Rayleigh
up -.........·
Vertical (Z)
Component

FIGURE 7.10 Seismographs measuring the three o rthogonal componems of ground motion at a Interference of Love snd Rayleigh
seismic station.
East-West (E) ---w~-iiiN
Component /i
RrstMooon i
WBst i
FIGURE 7. 12 a) 13ody and surface wave paths from an eanhquake IO<:ated south-southeast
o£ a station. b) S\!ismograms from each of thc thrc!c sdsmomc!tcrs. responding to itrrivals u (
the body (P =comp ressional.$= shear) and surface (L = Love, R =Rayleigh) waves.

Rayleigh wave (Fig. 7. 12b). Love waves travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves. so
that only Love waves appear initially on the north-south and east-west components.
The later surface wave pattern is more complex. due to interference between Love
FIGURE 7.11 Simplified particle motions for surface and body waves (sec also Figs. 3.8. 3. t2).
and Rayleigh waves.
S = shear wave: SV = venicat shear wave: SH = horizomat shear wave; P =compressional wave.
Earthquake Focal Mechanisms
When an earthquake occurs. P-waves radiate outward from the focus. In a given
Fig. 7.11 shows a simplified view of the particle motions of body and surface direction. the wave might first compress ma terial in front (compression), fo llowed
waves explained in Chapter 3. The three seismometers respond diffe rently as seis- by stretching apart of the material (dilatation). In another direction, the wave might
mic waves arrive at the station, due to the different paths taken by waves from the stretch and then compress. The fi rst P-waves coming out from the Earth at a station
focus to the sta tion, as well as the di ffe rent particle motions. For an earthquake thus make the ground move either upward (compression) or downward (dilatation)
occurring south-southeast of the station, record ings (seismogra ms) fo r the three (Fig. 7. 13).
seismometers would show the patterns illustrated in Fig. 7.12. The ini tial response The pattern of initial compressions and dila tations (firs/ mo1iorrs) character-
(first motion) on the Z-component is upward, revealing that the P-wave came ou t of izes the nature of fault movement that produced the earthquake. Fig. 7.14a shows
the ground as a compression , pushing the ground upward. First motions of the the pattern of co mpressions and dilatations radia ting from a reverse fault. The seis-
P-wave on the N-S and E-W components show that the compression pushed the mograph at station I would initially move downward. at station 2 upward, and at
ground more northward than westward; the wave therefore must have come from a station 3 downward. Seismograms recorded at the three stations would have fi rst
SSE direction. motions consistent with the radiation pattern shown in Fig 7.14b.
Notice that there is no up-down motion (no Z-component) for Love waves A shallow earthquake occurring along the San Andreas Fault in California
(Fig. 3.12); the only type of surface wave appearing on the Z-componenr is the (a rigfu-/a~eral. strike-slip fau lt) would be recorded by seismic stations in the pattern
 198 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 199

FIGURE 7. 13 lnilinl gro11nd mo1ions and

a Z -componcm .fmsmograms for P-wove
arriving m a seismic Slation . (a) I nitial
a b
FIGURE 7.15 a) Map view of radia1ion
pauern for riglu-/mera/, slrike -s lip fauh
occurring along I he San Andreas
arrival as a compression pushes Ihe 1ransform plale boundary (Fig. 2.20).
ground up: Ihe Z-componenl sho ws an b) Firs1-mo1ion mformalion for arrival al
upward frrs1 mo1ion. (b) lnilial arrival as a s1a1io ns indica led in (a). planed as a focal
- . '·
C' I
P-Wave
.,.-:=a._ •
'.~-~-~·_,..,.
.~-~,
dila1a1ion pulls Ihe ground down: Ihe
2.-componenl shows a downward fi rs1
mechanism solulion. c) Auxiliary fauh
in1erpre1a1ion of 1he firs1 -mo1ion
rOCUS 't . ~~ -~- ~-~ .
motion. informa1ion in (a), showing thai Ihe same
lnitiBJ
Compression radia l ion pattern could have resulted
....... o ......::::...... from a /cfl·inlerot fa uh. d) Focal
D ····~· ..P. ......D mechanism solulion for (c) is cxaclly I he
Black • Compr9ssion
c - ComprBsslon D same as Ihal resuhi ng from 1hc righ1:
b D~ Dilatation
WhltB - Dllstation laleral fauh in (a).

,_ P-Wsve . c ...P. .. D d
Foeus ~-~-~·+·~-~-~

~
lnlt!BJ
Dil atation

North

a Ground Ground b Rrst Motion

Moves Down Moves Down ....._

1~
./ .......
/ " ~
D

First Motion

2~
.,.,., Arst Motion
Down
Compression ''·,,,
'•
3~
FIGURE 7.1 4 lniliol P-wnv• radi01i011 pollem from on eorthq11oke occ11rring on!' reverse fnllil. a) Waves radiale oulward in
quad ra ms of compression and diln1a1ion. b) 'Inc Z-compone m seismograms for lhc lhree s1a1ions highliglned in (a).
shown on map view in Fig. 7J5a. The first-motion information can be synthesized by
plotting arrivals from the stations on a circle. with quadrants of compression and
dilatation represented by black and white, respectively (Fig. 7.15b ).
Note that the observed pattern in Fig. 7.15a d oes no t uniquely determine the
nature of the fa ult that caused the earthquake. A fault perpendicular to the actual
one (auxiliary fault plane: in this case a left-lateral. strike-slip fault) also could have
been responsible (Fig. 7.15c).
Diagrams depicting quadrants of compression and dilatation are called focal
mechanism solutions. For vertical. strike-slip faults. they are simply a map view of
the initial arrivals at seismic stations (Fig. 7.15b.d). For faults that have dip-slip
motion (normal and reverse fau lts). q uadrants of compressio n and dilatation can be
visualized by drawing a circle (foca l sphere) around a cross section of the earth-
quake focus and fau lt (Fig. 7.1 6a).
First arrivals at stations on the surface make a compression/dilatation pattern
that r elates to the dip angle and sense of movement (normal or reverse) on the fault
(Fig. 7.16b). Focal mechanism solutions for dip-slip fault~depict a view of the lower
half of the focal sphere that a bird would see (Fig. 7.16c). The focal mechanism solu-
tion for a reverse fa ult has compression surrounded by regions of dilatation
(Fig. 7.17a): the opposite pattern re presents a normal fault (Fig. 7.17b) .
For such projections. Fig. 7.18 ill ustrates that: 1) the angle encompassed by the
inside portion of the diagram equals 90°: 2) the distances (in degrees) from the
edges to the inside portion of the diagram indicate the angles of dip of the fault and
-auxi liary planes: and 3) the trend of the inside portion of the diagram indicates the
strike of the earthquake fa ult plane. Fig. 7.19 shows examples of focal mechanism
solutions, along with cross sections of the earthquake and auxiliary faults, for nor-
mal, reverse, and strike-slip fa ults.
EARTHQUAKES AND PLATE TECTONICS
Fig. 7.20 shows that most seismic activity is associated with plate boundaries.
Ear thquake foca l depths reveal the configuration of relatively cold. brittle material
comprising the upper part of the lithosphere (Figs. 2.7. 2.8, 7.3).
Divergent and Transform Plate Boundaries
Only shallow focus earthquakes occur at divergent (Fig. 7.3a) and transform (Fig. 7.3b)
boundaries. because the brittle part of the lithosphere remains shallow (Figs. 2.11; 2.22).
A t diverj!ent boundaries earthqua!;es are typically of small to moderate magnitude (up
 200 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Ea rthq uakes and Plate Tectonics 201

a FIGURE 7. 18 Focal mechanism solution.

illuslfating s1rike and dip ofeaflhquake
and muiliary fault planes. Fc:arures I. 2.
Ellffh's
and 3 discussed in 1ex1.

2.
2. Angle of
Dip of Fault or
Angle of
Dip of Fault or Auxiliary Plane
Auxiliary Plane • 35°
- 55°

c Inside Portion
-goo

FIGURE 7. 1~ a) C ross sec lion of re vcr.;c faull. carrhquake focus. and quadran1s or compression and dilar:uion.
b) Firs1 moltons observed all he surface reveal panernsQ( compression and dila1a1ion. The pan ems depend on
whclher rays IcC! Ihe rcg1on of Ihe focus from quadrants of compression or of di la1a1io n. c) ll1c focal mechanism
solurion fo r a raul! is commonly a lower [neal sphere projcclion. For a dip·slip fauh. rhis projccrion is equivalcn!IO
Ihe compression/dilara rion radial ion pancrn viewed by ;a bird Oying over rhc ear1hquakc focus.
Olack = compression: while = dila1a1ion.
a) Reverse Fault b) Normal Fault
FIGURE 7 · I_7 Cron· sections of lower focal sphere and fo calnli!Cillmism solwions for dip·slip faults. C = compression.
D = dli:u:n•on. The focal m.echanism solmion for a reverse fault (a) has compression (black) in 1hc inside ponion o f rhe circle.
Converg ent Plat e Boundaries
surrounded by rcg• ons of dJiara uo n (while): lhc opposile pancro is observed fo r a normal (aull (b).
to about 7.5). because the sha llow asthenosphere keeps the region hot (Figs. 2.13. 2.14).
At mid-ocean ridges. earthquakes commonly coincide: with the narrow zone following
the ridge cnes and adjoining cramform faults (Fig. 7.21). The two types of boundaries
can be distinguished on the basis or fault motions. At ridge: axes (spreading centers).
normal fault earthquakes occur as crustal blocks are downdropped during extension.
Strike-slip fau lt earthquakes occur at transform offsets due to shearing as plates slide
past one another. Most earthquakes occu r along the active tra nsform segments
between the ridges. B.: yond the ridge axes, on inactive fracture zones. plates are locked
together; almost no earthquakes occur there.
The utility of focal mechanism solutions is illustrated in the: map view of a
fault connecting two mid-ocean ridge segments (Fig. 7.22). Prior to the 1960's ridge
segments were interpreted to have moved apart from one another along transcur-
rent faults (Fig. 7.22a). According to this concept. seismicity would be as follows:
I) strike-slip earthquakes occur between the: ridges and on the frac ture zones
extending beyond the ridges: 2) no earthquakes occur on the ridges axes: 3) fo r the
specific example, earthquakes on the transcurrent fault have right-lateral motions.
The advent of plate tectonic theory led to the idea or new lithosphere created
at ridge axes that are nearly stationary relative to nearby ridge axis segments
(Fig. 7.22b). The ridge segments are connected by transform faulcs. This model
<!xhibits a different pattern of seismicity: I) strike-slip earthquakes occur only
be tween the ridge segments. not on the fracture zones beyond the ridge segments:
2) normal fa ult earthquakes occur on the ridges axes; J) for the specific e.~ample, the
strike-slip earthquakes on the transform fault have lefc-lareral motions. Sykes (1967)
showed that the observed distribution or earthquakes (Figs. 7.20, 7.2 1) and their
focal mechanisms (Fig. 7.22b) are consistent with the transform fault hypothesis.
Convergent plate boundaries are places where moving, brittle material descends to
significant depths within the Earth. Shallow. intermediate and deep earthquakes occur
at subduction zones (Fig 7.20). because the lithosphere extends from the surface to as
202 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics 203

a) Normal Fault ..
•
•'
S60° W
...
0
Strike: N30°W
..... ..' ,,
I

..• .. I
•
$

,'1',

. ,~,
I
•
If$

•• I •
I 61 I
M

, .
"• .
.
••'•• ••
• •1

Dip: 55° S 60° W •'I

' :•
.• •
..•
I
,
.,.•,•.,• • •... •,
a
Earthquake Foest Depths: s -Shallow{< 70 km) M- Intermediate (70- 300 km) D - Deep {>300 km)

Strike: N75oE
Dip: 55° S 15oE

c) Strike-Slip Fault
N 45° W S 45°E
X e

Strike: N45oE
Dip: 90°
FIGURE 7.19 Cmss secrioiiS and focal mechanism solwion.<for tltrr~ types offaults. a) Normal fault
striking nonh 30• wes1. dipping 55• toward the southwesl. b ) Reverse fault striking nonh 75• eas1.
dipping 55' toward the south. c) Vert ical. ri~ht -latcral strike-shp fault striking north 45' casl. Block on
b •
the left side of the fault mo,·in~ awa y from the reader is indicated hy the ··x:· "Dot" shows other hlock
moving toward the reader. ·
Plate Boundaries: Divergent \ Convergent ~ o:=:.,~ Transfonn ,

FIGURE 7.20 Lnr~:r cnrthqunkc.< rernrd~d m•rr n fivr-ycnr period. From Eorth s Dynnmir Systems. 7/ E by W. K. Hamhlin and
E. H. Christiansen. © 1995. Used with permisston of Prentice-Hall. Inc.. Upper Saddle River. NJ. a) Epicenters and focal
depths. plolled without an~· geographic reference. TI>c hound:lfies of major lithospheric pla tes arc revealed (sec Bara7.•mgi
and Dorman. J969). b) Same information as in (a). superimposed on outlines of continents and plate boundaries (Fig. 2.9).
There arc o nly shallow earthquakes at divergent and transform hciundarics: shallow. intermediate. and deep earthquakes
occur where plates con"ergc.
4v... '-'ldf.Jl~r 1 tan:nqua ke Sersmo logy
Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 205

FIGURE 7.2 1 £ arthqttakes at mid-ocetm FIGURE 7.23 Positions and ryp.s of

ridge system. Compare wich chree- earthquakes Of.:curri11g m a subduction
dimensional views in Fig. 2.22. Along zone. a) Excension ac flexural bulge:
ridge axes, very shallo w ( < 10 km depch) b) Release of mess buill up in zone
earlh quakes are caused by normal where places lock togeche r. c) Exccnsion
fa ulcing durjng e xcension of che brinle. or compression in intermediate to
u pper pan of !he newly-formed deep pore ion of subduccing place.
lichosphere. Allra nsform offsecs d) Compression as descending place
connecling ridge-axis segmencs, encounccrs mesosphere. e) Compression
e a nhqua kes resull from shearing scresses or shearing in shallow pore ion of
a long scrike-slip faulls. overriding plate. f) Earchquakes
associated with magma migrating
benealh volconic arc.

Asthenosphere_
.·

FIGURE 7.22 Predicted earthquake

distribwions mul foca l mechanism
solwions for two different interp retations
of11 mid-ocean ridge offset. The cwo
places in each case are ill usc raced by lighc
a nd dark shading. a ) Transcurrent fault.
The rid ge segmencs a re inaccive. moving
away from each ocher. Righl-la ce ral.
scrike-slip focal mechanism solucions
would be o bserved beewee n and bevo nd Mesosphere
!he ridge segmencs. b) Transform fa;lit.
Normal faulling accompanies c reation of
o Extensional • Compressional
lithosphere acche ridge axes. The cwo Earthquakes: o Extensional or Compressional
places slide by one anoc he r on che
lransform faulc bee ween !he ridge
segmencs. producing lefc-laceral. scrike·
slip eanhq uakes. Few o r no earthquakes
occur o n fraccure zones beyond !he ridge varies with position along the subduction zone. Seaward of the trench, normal faul t
segmcncs. where chere is no plate earthquakes sometimes occur due to tension o n the upper part of the lithosphere as
boundary.
it tlexes upward (Fig. 7.23a). Just landw·ard of the trench, reverse fa ulting occurs due
to frict ion along the plate boundary (Fig. 7.23b). Intermediate depth eart hquakes
occur beneath and beyond the volcanic arc due to e.xtension if tht! plate sinks into
the astht!nosphe re, or compression if the mantle resists downward motion of the
plate (Fig. 7.23c). At great depth beyond the arc, there may be compression as the
descendi ng plate encounters the mesosphere (Fig. 7.23d).
Earthquakes can also occur within the overriding plate at convergent plate
boundaries. In the crust of the fo rearc region (accretionary wedge, forearc basin),
much as 700 km depth (Fig. 7.3c). All magnitudes of earthquakes can occur at subduc- tht!re may be reverse or strike-slip faulting as the plates converge (Fig. 7.2Je).
tion zones, up to the largest ever recorded (Mw ""' 9.5). In a continental collision, thick, Stresses of all types occur during crustal readjustments as magma migrates be neath
buoyant crust on the downgoing plate may inhibit deep subduction of lithosphere the volcanic arc (Fig. 7.23f).
(Fcg. 2. 18); earthquake foci are thus limited to shallow and intermediate depths, as
observed in the Himalayan-Alpine collision zone in Fig 7.20.
At a subduction zone, one lithospheric plate dips beneath the other, resulting SEISMIC WAVES AS PROBES OF EARTH'S INTERIOR
in a wide zone of epicenters from just seaward of the trench to beyond the volcan ic
Most of the knowledge we have about Earth 's deep in terior comes from the fac t
arc (Fig. 7.20). A zone of ea rthquakes fo llows the upper portion of the downgoing,
that seismic waves penetrate the Earth and are recorded on the other side
contorting plate (Wadati-Benioff zone; Fig. 7.23). The type of earthquake faulting
(Fig. 1.10). Years of stud y of travel times from earthquakes to stations at various
 206 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology
Seismic W aves as Probes of Earth's Interior 207
distance~ sug?ests the speeds at which P- and S-waves traverse different regions of
Earth 's mtenor. These seismic velocities, along with density distributions from
gravity data, can be used to interpret the physical stat e of reoions of the Earth
according to the eq uations discussed in Chapter 3: "' '

VP = /k+ 4/ 3 f.1.
\ p

and:

X==C>

In other words. if the compressional and shear-wave velocities (V 1, and Vs) and the
de nslly (p) are kn~wn for a point within the Earth , the bu lk modulus (k) and rigidit y
(fl.) ca n he dete rmmcd from the equat ions.

Travel-Time Curves for Earthquakes

Flat La~·cr Case The refraction theory developed in Chapter 4 can be used as
a startin.g point to analyze the travel of earthquake body waves. A travel-time graph
for hon zontal layers shows refrac,ing segments with slopes that indicate the
in~~ease in velocity with depth (Fig. 7.24a). When there are many, very thin layers.
cnt1cally refracted rays emerge at steeper angles for deeper. highe r velocity inter-
faces (Fig. 7.24b). Each angle of emergence relates to the velocity the rav t~aveled
horizontally at the top of the critically refract ing layer (Figs. 3.33. 3.34). The inverse
of the slope for any of the line segments on the travel-time graph is thus a function of
the velocity the wave encountered on the deepest part of its pill h. TI1e first arriva ls
c
converge on a convex-upwa rd curve. indicating increasing velocit y with depth.
The layers may he so thin that velocities can be described as a funct ion of
depth. V(z). As in Figs. 7.24a.b. waves bottom out (travel horizontall y) with the V(z)

ve locity at depth z (Fig. 7.24c). lnstead of discrete line segmen ts. the travel-time
graph is a smooth curve, grad ually decreasing in slope with distance from the
source. The inverse of the slope of the curve at ·any point thus signifies the velocity
that the wave encountered at its deepest point:
Curved Earth Surface The models and tra.vel-time graphs in Fig. 7.24 repre-
sent a Oat Earth. For longer travel paths of earthquake waves. Earth's curved sur-
face must he tak en into account. 1l1e models in Fig. 7.25 illustrate the effects of
curvat ure as well as increasing velocity with depth. Travel times are plotted accord-
ing to angular distance measured from the earthquake epicenter to recording sta-
tions on the surface. • angles result in c hanging apparent vclocily. evidem as ch~ngrng slope on Ihe t~avet-umc g~aph: (Note. e Jrave -lime grap s rn
lf the Earth had constant velocity, body waves would foll ow linear raypaths
(Fig. 7.25a). The resulting travel-time graph would be curved, because measure-
ments are along Earth's curved surface. Notice how apparent velocity (i nverse
slope) changes with angular distance. Near the epicenter (ll "" 0°) the inverse slope
represents the true velocity. On the opposite side of the Earth (ll = 180°) rays
emerge vertically. resulting in a slope of zero on the travel-time graph; infin ite
apparent velocity is thus recorded.
If the velocity gradually increases downward. all the way to the center of the
Earth (Fig. 7.25b). the raypaths wou ld bend outward, according to Snell's Law
~
- - - Raypaths .•.•••••.•. Wavefronts
FIGURE 7.24 Modrls and /ral'e/·timr graplrs of direct und critically refracted rays fro".' horizontal imcr~accs UP_arating layer.\ that
incrcasr in 1·rlocity with depth. a) Fairly Ihick layers resuh in dislincl event~ on Iravel-urn~ gra~h. b) Sene~ o~ thrn layers r~suhs rn
Ihat emerge at steeper angles with incrcasrng deplh. Slopes of firsl a rnvals change wnh drstance. rndrcaung the changrng
~:i~ities with depth. c) Nume rous layers so thin thai the changing velocity wilh depth is modeled as a funclion V(z). Deep-
. "ravs. havin£ encountered faster vclocnies. emerge a1 sleeper angles 1han1he shallower rays. The changrng 'O<avcfrom
pcnc! ra I rn~ . _ . . ·Th 1• h ·
Ihis chapter ploltimc (T) increasing upwnrd.lhe convcnuon commonly used rn carlhquake setsmology).
(Fig. 3.23c). The travel-time graph would curve more abruptly than for the constant
velocity case. .
For an Earth with increasing V and V, with depth, the travel-t1me graphs for
P. S. and surface waves would have fhe forms shown in Fig. 7.25c. 1l1e travel-time
graphs for the body waves are curved, convex-upward, for two reasons: 1~ Earth's
surface is curved (Fig. 7.25a): and 2) seismic velocities generally mcrease w1th depth
(Fig. 7.25b). TI1e surface wave travel-time graph is linear because the angular dis-
ta nce axis (6) follows Earth's curved surface.
 Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 209

~ FIGURE 7.26 Selected r"ypatlo for .

I
,·ompress ional wave penetrnling the major
: ones of the Earth. According to Snell's
Law. sinO;/V; = sinO,/V,. where
v , ~ velocity of incident ray:

~
V, = velocity of refracted ray: 8; = angle
of incidence: e, = angle of refraction.

~
Within each of the three layers. the
seismic velocity increases with depth. so
f.... f--------.-----~ that the ray benus away from the vertical
o· 90• tso• (outward). Velocity drops abruptly at the
<I (Angular Distance h-om Earthquake)==C> mantle/outer core boundary. refracting
the rny inward. Ahrupt omward bcnuing
results from velocity increase between

~
the outer core ancJ inner core.

.·
0'
~
f
i ""-v Increasing with Depth

~ f------.-----~
f....
o· 90• tso•
<I (An(fU)ar Distance h-om Eart.hquaka) ==C>

o· 90• teo·
• <I (.Angular Distance h-om EarthquaJco) ==C>
F~GURE 7.25 flypothetic"l velocity models of the [{lrth . Travel times ploucd according to the angular
do~ta~ce ~A) ~rom the earthquake.epicenter to seismic stations on the surface. a) Earth with constant
seosmo~ v~locuy. V. Raypaths arc Ioncar because no refraction occurs. The convex-upward form of the
graph os somply because measurements arc alo ng Earth's curved surface. b) Earth model with a grad · I
oncrease on velocity with depth. V(z). Rays bend away from the vertical. leading to steeper em~rge~c~·'
angles (hence. hogher ap~arent velocities) lhao~ for the constant velocity case in (a). Likewise. more
curvature o~ the travel-tome graph ondocates hogher apparent velocity rh"n in (a). c) Selected ra ypaths
and lravel-ume curves for body (I'. S) and surfaces waves. As in (b). seismic velocities increase with
depth. .I
Complex Earth Ea rthquake raypaths and arrival ti mes are more complex
than illustrated in Fig. 7.25. because veloci ty in the Earth does not simply increase
with depth. Fig. 7.26 shows relative compressional wave velocities for Earth's major
divisions (see Figs. 2.3 to 2.5). According to Snell's Law (Fig. 3.23). ra ys bend
abruptly inward at the mantle/outer core boundary (sharp veloci ty decrease) and
outward at the ou ter core/inner core boundary (sharp velocity increase ). With in lay-
ers. velocities generally increase downward , bending rays away from the vert ical on
their downward journey; velocity generally decreases upward in layers. so that rays
bend toward the vertical as they tra vel out of the Earth.
Particular arrivals of seismic energy, known as phases, arc identified acco rdi ng
to the following conventions:
P = compressional wave through the mantle;
K = compressional wave through the outer core:
I = compressional wave through the inner core:
S = shear wave through the mantle;
J = shear wave through the inner core:
L = Love wave (somet imes called LQ):
R = Rayleigh wave (sometimes called LR);
c = reflection of the wave ot'f the top of the outer core.
Examples of raypaths for some common phases are illustrated in Fig. 7.27. Travel-
time curves have been developed from observations of earthquakes occurring over
a period of several years by plotting, accord ing to epicentral distance. the average
times of phases arriving at a worldwide network of se ismic stations (Fig. 7.28).

208
 210 Chapter 7 · Earthquake Seismolog)' Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 211

Major Divisions of Crust, Mantle and Core

Based on travel-time curves (Fig. 7.28), compressional and shear wave velocities
have been determined from the surface to the center of the Earth (Fig. 7.29a). When
combined with approximations of density (Fig. 7.29b), the elastic properties (bulk
modulus [k) and shear modulus [JL)) can be determined for the gross layers of the
Earth by using th e \1 ra nd \1 5 equations pr esented above.
Three criteria help to interpret the gross nature of the Earth from seismic
PK/KP observations.
PeP
b 1) Transmission of seismic waves. The ability of materials to transmit seismic waves
tells us about the physical state of the material. In order for an S-wave to
travel through a material. for example, the material must be able to resist
shearing (the shea r modulus, JL. must not be zero). Fluids cannot resist shear-
ing (J.l. = 0), therefore they cannot transmit shear waves. The observation that
S-waves don't travel through Earth's outer core (V, = 0) thus tells us that the
outer core is fluid (Fig. 7.30a).
2) Velociry of seismic waves. Seismic waves travel more slowly through soft (low JL)
than through stiff (high !l) material. The observation that waves slow down as
they encounter the asthenosphere thus suggests that the region is soft
ScS ( Fig. 7.30h).

c 3) Bending of seismic waves. Upon encountering changes in velocity, seismic waves

are bent accordi ng to Sncll"s Law. much as rays of light passing through a glass
prism. The observation that waves are bent abruptly (refracted) suggests that
there arc drastic changes in seism ic velocity across discominuiries. Three
notable examples arc the crust/mantle boundary (or "Moho"), the
mantle/outer core boundary, and the outer- core/inner core boundary
(Fig. 7.3 1). Within layers. raypaths curve because of gradually changing veloc-
ity (Fig. 7.26).

FIGURE 7.27 (opposite) £arthquakr phases.

a) Raypaths for selected compressional-wave phases.
P = P-wavc refracted through the mantle.
PP = 1'-wave refracted through the mantle. reOcctcd at Earth's surface. then refracted again.
PPP = P-wavc rcOected twice at the surface.
PKP = P-wave refracted from the mantle. through the outer core. then back through the mantle.
PKIKP = P-w:ive refracted from the mantle. through the outer core. inner core and back out.
Mantle PeP = P-wave reOected off the outer core.
h) R;typaths for selected shear-wave phases.
S = S-wave refracted through the mantle.

...,J
SS = S-wave refracted through the mantle. reOected at Earth's surface. then refracted again.
SSS z S-wavc reOected twice at the surface.
.
PKJKP = W.-•e refracted through the mantle and outer core asP-energy. convened to S-energy through the inner core,

d 0... :----- ·---------- ----------------------------------~ ·

!I
i
ex:•
j·-·---·--- -- ·----------------------- ·-·--------7·
then back to P-energy to the surface.
SKIKS = Wave refracted through the mantle as S·energy. convened toP-energy through the outer core. inner core. and
back into outer core. then as S-cncrgy to the surface.
i i ScS = S·wave reOcctcd off the omer core.
I
I c) Raypaths for selected surface wave phases.
R = Rayleigh wa"c following Earth's surface.
L = Love wave following Earth's surface.
d) Schematic illustration or seismogram showing some or the phases depicted in (a). (b). and (c).

·.
212 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 213

w-,------------------~~~-----------, a) Velocity (km/s}

0 5 10 15
-
45

1,000
S-Wave
Shadow
Zone p
2,000

:: : ::: : ::: : ::::: : : :: : ::::~; · :: : : ::::5,150

P-Wave
Shadow
Zone
5 6,000 . .. ... .. .. ... .. .... . .. . . .... .

~--------~::::~370
.>
FIG URE 7.29 a) Volocilics of compressional ( V and shear (V.) waves. from !he surface 10 1he cenlcr of !he Earth. Curves based
on forward modding of !ravel-lime curves. like lhoso in Fig. 7.28. b) Profile of gross densily (p) of Ihe Earth (from De Bremaocker.
o· 20° 40• 5o· so· 1oo· 120· 140° 160° 180
1985: a he r Dziewonski a nd A nde rson. 1981 ).

Ll (Epicentral Distance) ==e>

FIGURE 7.28 Travel·lllne curves for selecred earrhquake phases. See Fig. 7.27 for phase
abbrevialions and Fig. 7.35 for discussion of shadow zones.
 214 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Seismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 215

b Classical Modern
(Physical State)
d$fAC10~1~

Crust
FIGURE 7.30 E ffects of rigidily ( ~). " ' TrmiSiuissinu. S·wavcs l ravcllhrough I he crus1 and manlk hccausc 1hey have r igidi1~·
( 11 " 0). No S·waves 1ravcl1hrough lht ou1cr core hccat"c i1 is a liquid. wilh no ri~idi1)· (~ = 0). b) Vrlocity. Scismoc waves slow
down when ~ravelin g from 1hc manllc pan of 1he lilhosphcrc 10 I he HSlhe nosphcrc (~decreases).

FIGURE 7.32 Classical divisions of Earth were based on gross P·wave vclocily (V ' r· in km/ s). showing increase at
crusllmantlc houndary and decrease at manllc/corc boundary. Refined seismic ohservalions led 10 modern divisions,
based on decrease on V r across lilhosphcrc/asthcnosphcrc lransi tion. abrupt incrca•c al lhe top of Ihe mesosphere.
abrupl decrease a1 mesosphcrc/ouler core boundary. a nd increase from 1hc ou1cr core 10 1he inner core.

'about 35 and 2900 km depth, Fig. 7.31 ). three major zones of the Earth were recog-
FIGURE 7.31 Abrupt bendmJ! of ray pnths or discontinwrics. a) Crusrlmamlr bowodary (Mnlto}. Rays bend
toward Ihe horizonwl because of Ihe abrupl increase in vclocily. b) Lower mtmtlrlout<•r corr bowodory.
Abrupt decrease in velocity causes rays to bend t ow~rd the vertical. c) Ower cnrclim1rr corl' IJmmrlnry.
Velocity increase causes bending away from l hc vertical.
Based on velocities derived from travel-time curves (Fig. 7.29) and considera·
!ions of raypaths (especially the observatio ns that seismic waves bend a bruptly at
nized in the early 20th century (Fig. 2.3). These classical divisions are thought to cor-
respond to changes in chemical composirion. especially the amount of silica (Si0; 2):
1) m tsr. predominately silicates (50%-70% silica): 2) mamle, si licates high in iron
and magnesium (peridotite, 30% silica); 3) core, heavy m etals (iron and nick~!) .
Refined seismic observati ons led to modem divisions based on physical :;rare
(Fig. 2.4): I) Li1hosphere. hard solid (relatively high J.J.): II) Aslhenosphere. softer
solid (relatively low J.J.): III) Mesosphere, somewhat h ard solid (relatively high J.J.);
*
I V) Oilier Core. liquid (JJ. = O): V) Inner Core, solid (JJ. 0). Fig. 7.32 shows the clas·
sica! and modern divisions according to gross P-wave velocities.

Lithosphere The rigid lithospheric plates contain three components (Fig. 7.33).
The crusr hasP-wave velocities generally below 7 km/s. In many areas the crust con-
sists of sedimentary rock with velocities from about 2 to 5 km/ s. underlain by igneous
and metamorphic rocks with velocities slightly greater than 6 km/s. The Mohorovicic
Discominuiry (or ·•Moho.. ) separates the crus1 from tbe mantle. Across the Moho.
 216 Chap ter 7 Earthquake Se ism ology . Se ismic Waves as Probes of Earth's Interior 217

a) Oceanic Crust b) Continental Crust P-wave velocities increase abruptly, from 6-7 km/ s to about 8 km/s. The Moho is
about 10 km deep beneath oceans, but much deeper (20 to 70 km) under continents.
10km The uppermosr ma111ie (or mantle lithosphere), with P-wave velocities just over 8 km/ s,
extends from the base of the crust down to LOO to 200 km depth.
Asthenosphere The asthenosphere is a soft, " plastic" solid. It can be broken
100 km into two parts. In the upper part (about LOO to 300 km depth) , P and S wave veloci-
ties are about 6% lower than fo r the overlying lithosphere and underlying material.
::: 150km This low-velociry zone may be partially melted (1% to 10%; Fig. 2.7). The upper
:~:~)R~ 7·3_3?) ~ighid lilhospheric plales in regions of (a) oceanic and (b) conlinenaal crus1. Three componems of Ihe lilhosphere asthenosphere is thus a soft substratum (relatively low IJ.). over which the more rigid
• c usl.- . o o. separalong crus1 fro·m man ale: and .3) uppcrmos1 man ale. lithospheric plates ride. In the lower part of the asthenosphere (about 300 to 700 km
depth), P and S wave velocities gradually increase, suggesiing an increase in shear
screngrlr (Figs. 2.7, 2.8).

a 1 FIGURE 7.34 Sti.smic tleluy·time method

for mapping lithospheric thickness .
a) Rcla1ivc 10 regions of nonnallilho·
The thickness of lithospheric plates can be mapped by analyzing arrival times
of seismic waves from the other side of the Earth (Fig. 7.34). If waves arrive late
(posi tive delay time), they. encountered an excess of low velocity material
sphere lhickncss ( I ). waves 1ha1 arrive
early (ncgalivc delay-lime) encoun1ered
(asthenosphere?). suggestiirg that the lithosphere is thin. Early arriving waves (neg-
Vp .,. 7.8 km/s Ihick (high-vdo.:i1y) lilhOspherc (2). La1e ative delay time) suggest a thick lithosphere.
arriving waves (posi1ivc delay-lime)
sognify a lhin lilhosphen: (3) 1ha1 is Mesosphere Compared to the asthenosphere. the lower mantle (or meso-
Delay Times: underlain by an c.<cess of low.vclociay sphe re) is a more rigid solid. At the top (about 700 km depth) there is an abrupt
aslhcnosphcrc. b) Lilhospheric !hick ness increase in velocity: pressure is so great ( Fig. 2 .7) that the mantle reverts back to a
1 Normal Time
map of ccmral Europe (Lillie cl al., 1994; harder solid (higher f.L). Through the depth range of 700 to 2900 km. there is a gradual
2 Early Arrival af1cr Babuska cl al., 19111!). Typical
3 LiJte Arrival li1hospheric lhickness in !he region is
increase in p. and S-wave velocities (Fig.7.29), as the shear and bulk moduli increase.
abou1 140 km. Earlv arrivals in Ihe
Eas1em Alps sugge~l a !hick lilhospheric
Outer Core The outer core extends from about 2900 to 5100 km depth. A
roo! for 1he young collisional moun lain region where no initial $-waves arc recorded extends beyond l03° angular distance
r~ng(. Lace arrivals in I he Pannonian (Figs. 7.28. 7.35a); this "shadow zone" is evidence that S-waves are not transmitted
Basin indicale lhin li1hosphere (shallow through the outer core, implying it is nuid (f.L = 0) . At the mantle/core boundary
aslhcnosphcrc) in a young cominen1al P-wave velocity drops from l3.5 to 8 km/ s (Fig. 7.29). A P-wave shadow zone devel-
rir1 zone.
ops between l03° and l43° due to abrupt. inward bending of seismic rays (Fig. 7.3Sb).
b az-
Uthosphere Thickness in Ce ntral Europe
~ ~· 18' ur 20" zz- 24' 28' 28' a) No S Arrival Beyond 103 • b) No P or PKP Between 103" and 143•

FIGURE 7.35 Sluuloov zo11es provide evide11cc for a liquid 011tcr core. a) lni1ial $-waves ~XI end conainuously from !he ~anhquakc
10 103" ~ngular disaance, where lhey no longer appear ( Fig. 7.28). b) P·waves b~nd abrupaly inward due 10 !he veloci1y drop across
1:.. :-:-::: j < 120 km Wi111> 180 km ahe manllclcore inlerface. rcsulling in a shac.Jow zone between IOJ• and 143".
 218 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Exercises 219

Inner Core Some weak P-waves arrive on the other sid e of the Earth earlier
than expected ("PKlKP'' phase in Figs. 7.27 and 7.28), suggesting an abrupt increase
in velocity at about SJOO km depth (Fig. 7.36). This h igher velocity suggests that the
inner core is solid (f.l -:fo 0). Some weak arrivals have been interpreted as waves that
travel thro ugh the inner core as (converted) S-wave energy (''PKJKP" phase in
Fig. 7 .27). The inner core has the same chemical composition as the o uter core, but is
solid because it is under greater pressure. The phase change from the liquid o uter
core to the solid inner core is thus analogous to the change o f phase from the rela-
tively soft asthen osphere to the stiffer mesophere (Figs. 2.7. 2.8).

Map for Exercise 7-2

7-3 An earthquake occurs on one side of the Earth and is recorded by a seismograph on
FIGURE 7.36 E••idmrr fora .<Oiitl innrrcorc.a)The PKIKP phase arrives sooner than expec ted (compared to the PKP phase.
fig. 7.28). hccausc the "I" portion is through solid material. b) The PKJ KP phase travels as compressional wa•·c energy through
the ma ntle and outer core (" P" and "K"). is partially con•·erted to shear wave ener£y (Fig. 3.19) thro ugh the solid inner core
("J"). then returns to the surface ;ts compressional wa•·e energy(" K" and "P" 3!!ain ). TI1c SKJ KS phase travels as S-wave e nergy
111 hoth the mantle a nd in ner core.
the other stde (sec dtagram). The seismograph can detect compressional and shear
wave arrivals. Compute tra vel times and sketch what seismograms would look like if:
a) the Earth were entirely liquid: h) the E anh were the, same ma terial as in (a), but in a
sohd state; c) the Earth were solid. but with a liquid core start ing halfway to the center.
For parts (b) and (c). be sure your arrival times compare correctly. relative to arrival
times for part (a).

EXERCISES
7-1 An earthquake of magnitude 4 occurs in Turkey and is recorded in London. A month
lmer. a magnitude 8 earthquake. with the same type of fault motion. occurs in exactly
the same place. ·
a) How much larger will the waves recorded in London be for the second event com·
pared to the first?
b) A magnitude 8 earthquake would be equivalent to how many magnitude 4 earth-
quakes occurring simultaneously?
7-2 An earthquake occurs along the San Andreas fauit , directly south of a seismic station
in Bend. Oregon (map. next page). ll1e origin time is 6:00 GMT (Greenwich Mean * Earthquake ~ Seismograph
Time), and the distance from Bend to the epicenter is 1000 km. On the map. illustrate:
a) the sense of offset alonp. the fault: b) the corresponding quadrants of compression Diagram for Exercise 7-3
and dilatat ion: c) the focal mechanism solut ion for the fault. Draw Z. N-S and E-W
seismograms portraying (only) the following arrivals: d) fi rst P-wavc: c) firstS-wave: f)
Love wave: g) Rayleigh wave. Be sure your seismograms include the origin time. esti- i-4 An earthquake is recorded in New York City. 7,500 km (rom the epicenter. Seismic
mates of arrival time for each of the four phases, correct fi rst motions for the P arrival waves are traveling due east when they arrive at a station. The P-phnse arrives as a
on all three seismograms. and a port rayal of dispersion of the surface waves. compression.
220 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology Selected Bibliography 221

a) Sketch the general appearance of waves recorded on the Z. N-S, and £-W seismo-
grams. Include only P. PeP, PP. S, Love am/ Rayleigh phases. Use a time scale start-
ing at the time of the earthquake (origin tim e), and be precise about the arrival
time for each phase. Assume a shallow focal depth. Be sure to show the correct first
motions for the initial P-wave arrival. and dispersions fo r the mrface waves.
b) What was the latitude and longiwde of the earthquake? (Don't use any mathemati-
cal equations to solve this one. Simply use a globe and string).
7-5 1l1e graphs in Fig. 7.29 show body wave velocities and densities from the surface to the
center or the Eart h.
a) Using the equations relating seismic velocities, densities, and elastic constants. com-
pute the bulk and shear moduli from the surface to the center of the Earth. Draw
graphs of those two properties using the same vertical scale as in Fig. 7.29.
b) From the V rand V 5 equations and the graphs developed in (a), explain the follow-
ing observations/interpretations. Be specific about chemical and/or phase changes
across boundaries. and how they relate to changes in physical properties (p. k. and
IJ.). i) The sharp increase in velocities across the crust/mantle boundary ( Moho).
ii) The lower seismic velocities in the upper part of the asthenosphere compared to
the mantle part of the lithosphere. iii) The dramatic change in both P- and S-wave
velocities across the mantle/core boundary. iv) llte interpretation that the inne r
core is solid.
7 -6 Sketch foCii?'medwnism soluriom for the following faults. Next to each of the sketches.
draw geologic cross sections illustrating the earthqtwke faulr and the complimemar.v
frwlr that would produce the same focal mechanism solut ion.
a) Reverse fault. Dip 75• E. strike N30° W.
h) Normal fiwlr. Dip so• W, strike N-S.
Divergent \
c) Overrhmsr. Dip Js• W.strikc NJO• W. Plate Boundaries: Convergent
d) Rigltt-lateml srrike-slip fiwlr. Dip 90•. strike N20• W.
c) Leji-lmeml srrike-slip faulr. Dip 90°, strike N20° E. Transform
7-7 a) Using Figs. 4.17 and 7.34. draw a cross section along 47• N latitude. illustrating the
Map for Exercise 7-9
crust/mantle and lithosphere/asthenosphere boundaries.
h) Draw in expcctt:d P-wave and S-wave velocities along the cross section.
c) 13ased on t.:ctonic evolution, explain the changes in crustal and lithospheric thic k- SE LE CTE D BIBLIOGRAPHY
ness on your cross section.
Babuska. V.. J. Plomerov:l. amJ P. Pajuusak. 19Mll. De Bremacckcr. J.. 1985. Geophysi<'s: The Earth's
7-8 Note on the travel-time curves ( Fig. 7.28) that: I ) the P phase arrives until 103• dis- Lithosphere-asthenosphere in central Europe: Interior. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 3~2 pp.
tance from the epicenter: 2) the PKP phase first appears at 143°; and 3) the PKIKP Models derived from P resid uals. In: Prucretlin.~s Dzicwonski. A. :>-1.. and D. L. Anderson. 19!11.
phase first appears at 110•. Draw an Earth model and sketch raypaths illustrating of the .ftlr EGT \Vorkshup: Tire Upper Mamie. Preliminary reference Earth model. Physics of rlre
Commission of the European Communities. Earth and l'lmwary lmeriors. v. 25. pp. 297- 356.
those three a rrivals. Include seismic velocities and accu rate portrayals of raypath
Euro pean Science Foundation. pp. 37-~8 .
bending within layers and across discon tinuities. Francis. T. J. G.. 196S. Seismicity of mid·occ:rnic ridges
Babuska. V.. J. Plomerov:i. and M. Granet. 1990. ll1e and its relat ion to properties oi the upper mantle
7-9 Draw cross sections along the lines of section A-A', B-B', and C-C' shown on the map. dee p lithosphere in the Alps: A model inkrred and crust. Nature. v. 220. pp.899-90t.
from P residuals. Tectonophysics. v. t 76:
a) Include a portrayal of how the depths to the following boundaries change along the Garland. G. D.. 1979. Introduction to Geophysics
pp. 137- 165.
length of the cross section: i) the topography and bathymetry; ii) the crustlmantle (2nd cd.). Toronto: W. B. Saunders Company. ~94 pp.
Barazangi. M.. and J. Dorman. 1969. World seismicity
boundary: iii) the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary. map compiled from ESSA Coast and Geodetic Griffiths. D. H.. and R. F. King. 198 t. tlpplierl
Survey epicenter data. 1961- 1967. Seismological Ceoplrysi<'s for Geologists 11111/ Engineers
h) Put a series of X's on the cross section to represent zones where earthquakes would (2nd cd.). New York: Pergamon Press. 230 pp.
be e.xpected to occur. Society of Amerka Bulletin. v. 59. pp. 369-380.
Boll. B. A .. 19l!l!. Eurtlrquake.<. New York: W. H. Gutenberg. 0 .. 19~5. Amplitudes of P. PI' and Sand
c) In c ritical places. draw·expected foca l mechanis m solutions fo r earthquakes. Freeman a nd Company. 282 pp. magnitudes of sh:~llow earthquakes. Bullerin
d) Put ..\ ·s o n the cross section to represent where volcanoes would be expected to Seismological Sudety ofllmerim. v. J5. pp. 57-69.
Brya n. C. J.. and C. E. Johnson. 1991. Block tectomcs
occur. of the island of Hawaii from a foc:~l mechanism Gutenberg. 0 .. and C. F. Richter. 195~.Sei.mricity of tire
anal ysis of basal slip. 8ulleti11 SeismtJiogicul Earth am/ t\ssot:Wtt!d Ph<•IIOmt•tw. Princeton. ~cw
Society of America. v. St. pp. 491-507. Jcro;cy: Princc.:1on University f>n.:ss.
Bullen. K. E.. 1 9~5 . 1111 llltroductioll lfJ the 1'ltt•ory of Hamhlin. W. K.. and E. H. Christiansen. 1995. Earth;·
Seismology (3rd ed.). Caml> ridge: C:~mbri tlge Dynamic Systems (7th cd.). Englewood Cliifs. N.J.:
University Press.3Sl pp. Prentice Hall. Inc.. 710 pp.
222 Chapter 7 Earthquake Seismology
Herrin. E.. and J. Taggart, 1962. Regional ,-ariations in
Pn \'clocil\· and the ir dfect on the location of epi·
centers. u;,llflin Scismoto~:icnl Society of Amrrica.
v.52.p.IO~i .
Humphreys. E.. R. W. Cla~1on. and B. H. Hager. 1984.
A tomographiC im:ogc of mantle structure beneath
southern Califorma . G•·ophy.<ical Research Lcucrs.
v. II. pp. 62:'-627.
Isaacs. D.. J. Oli\'cr. and L R. Sykes. 1968. Seismology
and the nc" global tectonics. Joumal of
Geophysical Re>enrch. ,._ 73. pp. 5855-5899.
Jeffreys. H .. 1976. The £orrh (6th ed.). Cambridge:
Camhridgl' Univcrsi1y Press.
Kinsler. L. E.. A. R. Frey. A. £l. Coppens. and J. V.
Sanders. 19S2. Frm dnml'lllals of Acmwics (3rd.
cd.). New York: Jo hn Wiley and Sons. Kcw York.
480 pp.
La)'. T .. and T. C. Wallace. 1995. Modem Global
Sci.wrnlo~:.r. International Geo physics Series
Number 58. New York: Ac.1dcmic Press. 521 pp.
Lilloe. R. J.. M. lliclik. V. Babu<ka. and J. Plomcnwa.
1994 Gra-11\ modelin2 of the lithosphere in the
East~rn Alpine-Wcst~rn Carpathian-Pannonian
Uasin rc~1on. T,•cwnophysics. \', 23 pp. 2 J5-235.
Molnar. 1'.. and L. R. S"kcs. 1969. Tectonics of the
Moddlc America regions from focal seismicity.
Grolot:icnl Strcirry of Amrricn Bullrrin. ,._ 80.
pp. l639-16."l.
Pajdu\rok. P.. J. Plomcrovro. and V. Da~u s ka. 1989. A
model of the lithosphere thockncss or. the rcgoon of
the Carpathians. S111dics of Geophysics and C H APTER 8
Geode.\')'.,._33. pp. 11-21.
Plomerov:\, J.. V. Dabuska. M. Dobrath. and R. Lillie.
1993. Struct ure of the lithosphere beneath the
Cameroon Rift from seismic delay time analysis.
Groplrysical Jmmwl. "· 115. pp. 381-390.
Gravity and Isostasy
Skinner. B. J.. and S. C. Porter. 1995, Tilt Dynamic
Earth: An lmrnduclion 10 !'hysical Geology (3rd.
ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. 567 pp. grt~~·iry (gra~·' :>rf) n., I < L. gravis. lrcavy). / . tlrt' force of0/lrnclion
Smith. R. 13 .. R. T. Shucv. Jr. R. Pelion. and J.P. Bailey. bctwun masses 2. llrr force tlrm rends 10 droll' bodies in Earth :s
1977. Yellowstone l~otspot: Comcmporary tecton- sphtrt toward Eanh S ccmcr.
ic. and cru~ta1 properties from earthquake a nd isostasy ( i sii sl:>' .1i:) n., I < Gr. isos. rqual; < Gr. stasis. s1mrding). n
aeromagne tic da ta. Joumal of Geoplrysical stmr of balanrt whereby columns nf material CA'I.TI equal pressure at
llr.<cnrcir. \', 82. pp. 3665-3676. and below a compcnsminR tlrplh.
gra •·ity and isostasy (grm·' ~ tl! :>llt/1 sii .v1:J sf:) n.• 1hr .rmdy of spminl
S)'kcs. L. R.. 1967. Mechanism o f earthqua kes and
l'arimions in EarthS gravitmional ficltl tmd their nolauonthip 10 th r
nat ure of faulti ng on the mid-ocean ridge s.Jouma/ distrihwion of mass within tht' Earth.
of Gcoplrysicoll/cscnrdr. ,._ 72. pp. 2131 - 2153.
Telford. W. M .. L. P. Gcldart. R. E. Sheriff. and D. A.
l'c\'S. 1976. ApflliNI Grnt•lryJics. Cambrid ge:
C:o;nhridgc U niversity Prcss.~60 pp. Earth's gravity and magnetic fo rces are potential fields that provide information on
Yc:o". R . S.. 1C Sich. and C. R. Allen. 1997. Tlrr the nature of malerials within lhc Earth. Po1ential fields are those in which the
Gt·alog)' of £arrlrquakc.<. New York: Oxford
University Press. 568 p p. st renglh and direction of the field depend on the position of observation within the
field: the strength of a polcntial fie ld decreases with distance from the source.
Compared to the magnc1ic field. Earth's g ravily fie ld is simple. Lines of force for the
gravity field arc directed toward the center of the Eanh. while magnetic field
sl rength and direction depend on Eanh ·s positive and negative poles (Fig. 8.1 ).
a) Gravity Field b) Magnetic Field
s
FIGURE 8. t Etmlr porrmial fields. a) The gra,·ity field is symmetri c. Force vectors (arrows) have approximately equal magnitude
and point towa rd the center of the Eanh. b) The magni tude <ond d irection of the magnetic field is governed by positive (south ) and
negative (north ) poles. Magnitude varies hy a facto r of two from equat or to pole.
223
224 ChapJer 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Anomalies 225

EARTH'S GRAVITY FIELD

Gravity is the attraction on one body due to the mass of another body. The fo rce of
one body acting on another is given by New ton's Law of Gravitation (Fig. 8.2a):

Lowg

where:
F = force of attraction betwee n the two objects (N)
G = Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67 x 10- 11 Nm 2/ kg2)
m1, m2 = mass of the two objects (kg)
r = distance between the ce nters of mass of the objects (m):'
The force (F) exerted on the object with mass m1 by the body with mass m2• is FIGURE 8.3 a)The mass (M) of th~ Earth and radius ( R) to Earth's center d~ tem1in~ the gravitational
given by Newto11 s Second Law of t'v!otion (Fig. 8.2b): acceleration (g) of ohjects at and abov~ E~nh 's surface. b) The accdcration is the sam~ (g). regardless of the
mass ol the obj~ct. c) Objects at Earth's surface (radius R1) have greater acceleration than objects some distance
abo•c the surface (radius R!).
where:
a = acceleration of object of mass mt due to the gravitational attraction
of the object with mass m2 (m/s1). The above t:quation illustrates two fundamental properties of gravity. l) Acceleration
Solving for the acceleration. then combining the two equations (Fig. 8.2c): due to gravi ty (g) does not depend on the mass (m 1) attracted to the Earth (Fig.
S.Jb); in the absence of ai r resistance, a small mass (feather) will accelerate toward
F 1 Gm1nh Earth's surface at the same rate as a large mass (safe). 2) The farther from Earth's
a =-=---,- -
mt m1 r- center of mass (that is. the greater the R), the smaller the gravitational acceleration
Gm, (Fig. 8.3c): as a po tential field, gravity thus obeys an inverse square law.
a = --:;-= The value of the gravitational acceleration on Earth's surface varies from
r
about 9. 78m/~2 at the equator to about 9.83 m / s2 at the poles (Fig. 8.4a). The smaller
For Earth's gravi1y field (Fig. 8.3a) .let: acceleration at the equator, compared to the poles. is because of the combination of
three fac tors. l) There is less inward acceleration because: of outward acceleration
a= g =gravitational acceleration observed on or above Earth 's su rface:
caused by the spin of the Earth: the spin (rotation) is greatest at the equator but
m2 = M = mass of the Earth:
reduces to zero at the poles. 2) There is less accelerat ion at the equator because of
r = R =d istance from !he observation point to Earth's center of mass;
the Eart h's outward bulging. thereby increasing the radius (R) to the center of mass.
so that: 3) The added mass of the bulge creates more acceleration. Notice that the first two
factors lesse n the acceleration at the equator, while the third increases it. The net
effect is the observed -0.05 m/ s2 difference.
Gravitational acceleration (gravity) is commonly expressed in units of milli-
gals (mGal) . where:
I Gal = 1 cmN = 0.0 I mN
a so that:
1 mGal = w- 3 Gal = l0- 3 cm/ s2 = l0- 5 m/s2•
Gravity, therefore. varies by about 5000 mGa/ from equator to pole (Fig. 8.4b).
r
GRAVITY ANOMALIES
FIGURE 8.2 a) The gravitational Ioree between two objects is dir<ctly proportional to thei r masses (m 1• m!)·
and inversely proportional to the squ:tre ol their distance ( r). b)'n~e mass (m 1). times the acceleration (a) due
Gravity observations can be used to interpret changes in mass below different
to m"ss (m!). determines the gravitational force (F). c) The acceleration due to gravity (a) or a body depends regions of the Earth. To see the mass differences, the broad changes in gravity from
only on the mass ol the a tt racting body ( m!) "nd the distance to the center ol that mass (r). eq uator to pole must be subtracted from station observations. This is accomplished
 226 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Anomalies 227

a g ::: 9.83 m/Sl ~ For such an oblate spheroid (Fig. 8.4c). it estimates that gravi ta tional acceleration at
the equator (<j> = 0°) would be 978,031.85 mGal. grad ually increasing wi th latitude
to 983,217.72 m Gal at the p oles ( <1> = 90°).
~ ~"'~B.IJs~oa Radius
-llg <==;> Free Air Grav ity A nomaly
Earth's Rotation
g ::: 9.78 m/Sl ~ G ravity observed at a specific location on Ea rt h's surface can be viewed as a fu nc-
-llg <==;>
tion of th ree main components (Fig. 8.5): 1) the lmitude (<I>) of the observa tion point,
Excess Mass accounted for by the theoretical gravity formula: 2) the elevation (AR) of the sta-
<:====> +llg tion. which changes the radi us (R) from the observation poi nt to the center of the
Earth: and 3) the m ass distribution (M ) in the subsurface. relative to the observation
point.
The f ree air correction accounts fo r the second effect. the local change in grav-
ity due to elevati on. Th at deviation can be approximated by considering how gravity

c changes as a function of increasing dista nce of the observation point fro m the center
of mass of the Eart h (Fig. R.6a). Conside r the equa tion for the gravitational acceler-
ation (g) as a fu nction of radi us (R):

Equator (4' • o•) GM

!!
-
= -,-
R·
g1 • 978,031.85 mGBI
The fi rst derivative of g. with respect to R. gives t he change in gravity (.tlg) with
increasing dis ta nce from the center of t he Earth (tha t is. increasing eleva tion. AR):

lim -Ag =dg

lll ....o
- = -2 -
t.R dR
(GM
R
) = --2(GM
3 - ) =-(g)
R R
-2R
2

~
~
Assuming average val ues of g "" 980.625 m G al and R ~ 6.367 km = 6.367.000 m
FIGURE 8.4 arnlrcc..• main f;~et nr. rcsp(lll~i hlc: fc.1r the diHcn.:ncc.: 111 !!fiiVi t:Hional iiCCCicration :tl the equator compared to the (Fig. 8.4c):
pole,. h) Gravily increases from ahoul ~7N.(MMI mGttl ;n I he C<jU:IIor. 10 ahoul 983.000 mGal al l he pole'- c) Varialion in ~ravi 1y from
equator to pole. accnrdin!! w 1967 Reference Cir:tvity fo rmula.
dg/ dR "" - 0.308 mGal/ m

by predicting the gravity va lue for a station·s ia ti tude (iheoretical gravity). then sub- where:
tnJCting that value from the actual va lue at the station (observrd gravity). yielding a
dg/ dR =average val ue for the change in gravity with increasing elevation.
gral"ity w w 11wly.

Th eoreti cal Gravity

1l1e ave rage \"al uc of gravi ty for a given latitude is approxi mated h~· th e 1967
L1R FIGURE 8.5 Three Cac1ors dciCrmining
gravi1y at an observation point: a) latitude
(c!•): b) d iSI~ncc (rom sea-level daiUn.lo
RrfC'n'IICI! G m vity Form ula. adopted hy the lntern;n ional Associa tion of Geodesy: obsCI"\"alion poinl (<lR):c) Eanh"s mass
dislribulion (M). relalive 10 Ihe slation
g, = g. (1 + 0.00527R895sin2<1> + 0.0000234Ci2sin4 <1>) local ion (M includes male rial above as
well as below sea level). d> ISaccoumed
Level for by subtracung Ihe lhcorclical gravily
where: (rom Ihe observed gra,·ily. and .lR by Ihe
free air correction. The remaining value
g, = theoretical gravity for the latitude of the observation point (m Gal)
(free air anomaly) is lhus a fu nction of M.
& = theore tica l gnJVity at the equat or (978.031.85 mGal)
<1> = latit ude of the observation point (degrees).

The equation takes into accoun t the fact that the Earth is an imperfect sphe re.
bulging out at the equator and rotating about an axis through the poles (Fig. 8.4a).
 228 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Anomalies 229

bulge of the Earth; and 2) adding the free air correction (FAC) puts back the gravity
a Jig= g • z.
b lost to elevation. thereby correcting for the increased radius (R) to Earth's center.
The free air gravity anomaly is a function of lateral mass variations (M in
AR =R!. R, Fig. 8.5). because the latitude and elevation effects (4> and !lR in Fig. 8.5) have been
g , ~ 980,625 mGal corrected. Fig. 8.7 shows what a profile of changing free air anomalies might look
R 1 a 6,367,000 m
like across bodies of excess and deficient mass. Notice that the anomaly shows rela-
tively high readings near the mass excess, low readings near the mass deficiency:
A~AR ad~dR there are also abrupt changes that mimic sharp topographic features.
- ·2g1 1!1, - -0.308 mGaVm
Bouguer Gravity Anomaly
Even after elevation corrections, gravity can vary from station to station because of
differences in mass between the obse rvat ion points and the sea-level datum.
Relative to areas near sea level. mountainous areas would have extra mass. tending
to increase the gravity (Fig. 8.8a).
The Bouguer correction accounts for the gravitational attraction of the mass
c above the sea-level datum. '1l1is is done by approximating the mass as an infinite
slab. with thickness (h) equal to the elevation of the station (Fig. 8.8b). The attrac-
tion of such a slab is:

BC = 2o.pGh I
FIGURE 8.6 Free 11ir correctio11. 3) Rising upwatd from Earth's surface. gravitational acceleration decre3ses by about 0.308 mG11/ whc:re:
lor every meter of heigh!. b),\ gravity stational high elevation rends 10 have a lower gravitational ac,ckr3lion (g) than a srarion 31
lower ele vation. c) The lr<c 3ir correction (FAC) accoun!S lor the cxrcndcd rad ius 10 an obsorvarion point. dcv3!cd h meters above
BC = Bouguer correction
a sea level dalum. 'p = density of the slab
G = Uni versal G ravitational Constant
h = thickness of the slab (station elevation).
Substitu ting the values of G and 2"IT yields:
The above equa tion illustrates t hat. for every 3m (about 10 feet) upward from
the surface of the Earth. the acceleration due to gravity decreases by about I mGal.
Stations at elevations high above sea level therefore have lower gravity readings
I BC = 0.0419ph I
than those near sea level (Fig. 8.6b). To compare gravity observations for sta tions where: BC is in mGal ( 10- 5 m/s2 ) ; p in g/cm.l ( L0·1 kg/m.l): h in m.
wi th different elevations. a free air correction must be added back to the observed
values (Fig. 8.6c).
+ FIGURE 8. 7 General form of free air
FAC = h X (0.308 mGal/ m) gravity a nomaly profile across areas of
ma<s excess and mass deficiency.
where:
FAC = free air correction (mGal)
h = eleva tion of the station above a sea level datum (m).
The free air gravity anomaly is ~ he observed gravity, corrected for the latitude
and elevation of the station:

I 6g,. = g - g, + FAC I
where:
Sea Level Datum
ilg1, = free air gravity anoma ly
g = gravita tional acceleration observed at the stat ion.
12\ oe'tass
Notice in the above equa tion that: 1) subtracting the theoretical gravity (g,) fro m ~ciency
the observed gravi ty (g) corrects for the latitude, thus accounting for the spin and
230 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Anomalies 231

FIGURE 8. 10 Bouguer correction

Highg apphed to the free air gravit y anomaly
a profile in Fig. 8.7.

Bouguer Anomaly --

FIGURE 8.8 Onu~ urr com•ctinu. :t) Titc extra mass of mountains results in hi~h cr gra\"ity rclati\"C to
:ul.'a\ ncar sea kvcl. h) To accou01 for the cxcc~s ma~~ a hove a ~ca level datum. the Bou~uer
Sea Level Datum
correction assumes an infinite stall of density (p). with thickness (h) equal to the stOiion"s ciC\·auon.

a) On Land

ll1e standard Bouguer correction for areas above sea level is thus:

BC = 0.0419ph = (0.0419)(2.67g/cm~)h
= (0.112mGal/ m) X h

where h is in m.lllC eq uat ion illustrates that. for about every 9 m of surface eleva-
b) At Sea tion. the i ncre::~ sed mass below the observation point adds about 1 mGal to the
Water. Sea Level
observed gravity. Using the standard correction, the simpie Bouguer gravity allom-
aly oil land is computed from the free air gravity anomaly according to the formula:

1.6.gn = .6.g1, - (0.112 m Gal/ m ) h I (h in meters).

Rock Pc - 2.67 g/cm~
FIGURE 8.9 Stamford /Jnugucr corrrctiunwllur.•. a) On land. the reduction density (p) is
commonh•takcn as +2.67 g/cm' . Titc thickness of the infmitc slab is e qual to the stauon clevauon
(h). h) ,\t.sca. the reduction de n,ity ( - 1.(>4 g/ cm') is the difference oc t ween that of sea water (1.03
g/cm') and underlying rock (2.67 g/cm ').The thickness of the slab is equal to the water depth (h.).
Bougu er Gra vit~· Anomaly on Land For region s above ~ea level (Fig. 8.9a),
the Jimple Bouguer gravity anomaly (.6.g6 ) results from subtracttng the effect of the
infinite slab (BC) from the fre e air gravity anomaly:
I .6.gn = !lgr. - BC I anomaly is therefore smoother th an the free air anomaly. 3) Mass excesses result in
To determine the Bouguer correction. the density of the infinite slab (p) must be
assumed (the redrrcti;,, density). The reduction densi ty is commo nly taken as
2.67 g/ cm'. a typical density of granite (Figs. 3.9. 3.10).
Like the free air gravity anomaly. the Bouguer gravity anomaly reflects
Ghanges in mass distribution below the s u rface.ll1e Bouguer anomaly, however, has
. had an additional correcti on, removing most of the effect of mass excess above a sea
level datum (on land). Bouguer Correct ions applied to the free air gravity profile
(Fig. 8.7) would therefore yield a Bouguer gravity p rofile illustrated in Fig. 8.10. The
two profiles illustrate three general properties of gravity anomalies. 1) For stations
above sea level, the Bouguer anomaly is always less than the free air anomaly (IJ.1e
approximate att raction of the mass above sea level has been removed from the free
air anomaly). 2) Short-wavelength changes in the free air anomaly, due to abrupt
topographic changes, have been removed by the Bouguer correction: the Bouguer
positive changes in gravi ty anomalies: mass deficiencies cause negative changes.
Bouguer Gra,•ity A nomaly at Sea In
areas covered by the sea, gravity is gen-
erally measured on the surface of the water (Fig. 8.9b). In the strictest sense,
232 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Anomalies 233

Bouguer anomalies at sea are exactly the same as free air anomalies, because station
elevations (h) are zero:
a Station
..'. g0 = ..'.g1" - 0.04l9ph: h = 0, so that: <lg3 = <lg1a
A type o f Bouguer correction can be applied, however, because the density and
depth of the water are well known. Instead of stripping the topographic mass away.
as is done on land. the effect can be thought of as ·'pouring concrete'' to fill the
ocea n. 1l1Us, the Bouguer correction at sea can be envisioned as an infin ite slab,
equal to the depth of the water and with density equalling the difference between
that of wa ter and "concrete":
BC, = 0.0419ph = O.Q419(pw - Pc) hw
.·
where:
BC, = Bouguer co rrection at sea FIGURE 8.11 Terrain correction. a) In-areas of low relief. the Bouguer slab approximation is
Pw = density of sea water ac.Jcquah.:: terrain corrc.: t:tion is unncct!ssary. b) High rt.!'licf Jreas require tt:rrain corr..:ction. to account
Pc = density of "concrete·· for lessening of observed gravity c.Juc to mass of mountains <tbovc the slab (I). and overcorrection dul!
hw = wa ter depth below the observat ion point. to va lle ~s (2). For both situations. the lcrrain correction is positive. making the complete Bougue r
anomaly high..:r than the simple Bouguer 3nomaly.
Assum ing Pw ": l .OJ g/cm3 and Pc = 2.67 g/cm3:

BC, = 0.0419 ( - 1.64 g/ cm3) hw = -0.0687 (mGal/ m) X hw ON LAND AT SEA

where BC, is in mCal and hwin m. FAG = h (0.308 mGaf/m) FAG- 0 (h - OJ
Retaining the convention defined above. the Bouguer correction at sea is sub- BG- h (0.1 12 mGaf/m} BCs = -hw(0.0687 mGaf/m}
tracted from the free air anoma ly to yield the Bouguer gravi1y anomaly a1 sea (d.g 0 J:
---Topography

Notice that the wa ter is a mass deficit when compared to adjacent landmasses of
rock; the negative Bouguer co rrection at sea thus means that some value must be
added to the free air anomaly to compute the Bouguer anomaly at sea:

1 -"gR, = llg 1• + (0.0687 mGal/ m) hw I (hwin meters). FIGURE 8.12 Standard paramete rs used to compute gravity anomalies on land and at sea. FAC = free air correction: OC = Bouguer
correction: BCs = Bouguer correction at sea: p = reduction density: h (elevation) and h. (water depth) in meters.
Complete Bouguer Gravity Anomaly The infinite slab co rrection described
above yields a simple Bouguer anomaly. That correction is normally sufficient to
approximate mass above the datum in the vicinity of the station (Fig. 8.lla). In Theoretical Gravity
rugged areas. however, there may be signi ficant effects due to nearby mountains
g, = g. (1 + 0.005278895sin2<!> + 0.000023462sin\~)
pulli ng upward on the station, or valleys that do not contain mass that was sub-
tracted (Fig. 8. 1lb). For such stations, additiona l1errai11 corrections (TC; see Telford
et al., 1976) are app lied to the sim ple Bouguer anomaly (ug8 ) , yielding the complele g, = theoretical gravity for the latitude of the observation point (mCa/)
Bouguer gravi1y anomaly (ug0 c): g. = theoretical gravity at the equator (978.031.85mCa/)
<!> = latitude of the observation point (degrees).
I u gllc = ~gil + TC I
Free Ai r G ravity Anoma ly
Summary of Equations for Free Air
and Bouguer Gravity Anomalies I ~g,, = (g - g,) + 11(0.308 mCal/ m) I
Fig. 8.12 ill ustrates parameters used to determine free air and Bouguer gravity
anomalies.The form ulas below yield standard versions of the anomalies. e.g,, = free air gravity anomaly (mCal)
 234 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Measurement of Gravity 235

FIGURE 8.14 Mc(l.ruremtnl of ab.tolut~

g = observed gravity (mGal) a) Weight Drop gravity. a ) Weight drop. ·meobject
g, = theoretical gravity (mGal)
h =elevation above sea level datum (m).

Bouguer Gravity Anomaly

T_ 0-····rzy)·· · v _v, accelerates from an initial veloci ty of V 11
at ti me (T = 0), to a velocity of v, at
time (T = t ). as it falls a distance (z).
b) Pendulum . G ravitation al acceleration
is a function of the pendulum's length
(L) and period of oscillation (T).

= t.g,. - 0.0419ph T= t·-·---·--·-,·-·· V- V,

BC = Bouguer correction (mGal)
p = reduction density (g/ cm')

a) On Land Absolute Gravity

I L'> g
8 = !lg1, - (O. lU mGal/ m ) h I (for p = +2.67) TI1ere are two basic ways to measure ahsol ute gravity. In the weigh1 drop method
(Fig. 8.14a). the velocity and displacemem are measured for an object in free fall.
!lg0 = si mple Bouguer gravity anomaly (mGal) The absolute gravity is computed according to:
h = elevation above sea-level datum (m). z = v01 + ~gt'
b) At Sea where:
!\gil, = !lg1, + (0.0687 mGal/ rn ) h. (for p = - 1.64) z= distance the object falls
t= time to fa ll the distance z
!lg1h = Bouguer gra,·ity anomaly at sea (mGal) v0 = ini tial velocity of the object
h. = water depth below observation poi nt (m). g= absolute gravity.
c) In Rugged Terrain: The absolute gravity is thus:

Agn, = !lgil + TC I I g = 2 (z - v0t)jtl I

!!.gil< =complete Bouguer gravity anoma ly (mGal ) Using the second method (Fig. 8.14b ). a pendulum oscill ates according to:
TC = terrain correction (m Gal).
T = 2..'\/L;g
MEASUREMENT OF GRAVITY where:
Gravitational acceleration on Earth's surface can be measured in absol ute and rela- T = period of swing of the pendulum
tive senses (Fig. 8.13). A/Jsolulc grnl"i1y renects the actual acceleration of an object L = length of the pendulum.
as it falls toward Earth's surface. while relative gravity is the difference in gravita-
tional acceleration at one station compared to anoth er. TI1e absolute gravity is computed according to:

FIGURE 8. 13 a ) Ab~ol ute g ravity is

a) Absolute Gravity the true gravitnt iona l accclemtion (g).
h ) Relati ve gravit)' rcOects the
<f] g difference in gravitational acceleration
Psl at one sta tion (g 1) compared to
another (g,).
b) Relative Gravity
Relative Gravity
The precision necessary to obtain reliable. absolute gravity observations makes
those measurements expensive and time consuming. Relative gravity measure-
ments, however, can be done easi ly. with an instrument (gravimeter) that essentially
measures the length of a spri ng (L:.Fig. 8. 15a). The mass of an object suspended
from the spring remains constant. When the gravimeter is taken from one station
location to another. however, the force (F) that the mass (m) exerts on the spring
varies with the local gravitational acceleration (g):
f=mg
236 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Isostasy 237

a (that is, the initial length of the spring) measured at the base station represents the
absolute gravity at that point. Measurements are then taken at other stations, with
L Lrxg the changes in length of the spring recorded. The gravimeter is calibrated so that a
given change in spring length ( ~L) represents a change in gravity (~g) by a certain
amount (in mGal). The acce leration (g) can then be computed by adding the value
of ~g to the absolute gravity of the base station.
At sea, gravity su rveying is complicated by the fact that the measurement plat-
form is unstable. '.vaves move the ship up and down, causing accelerations that add
or subtract from the gravity. Also. like Earth 's rotation. the speed of the ship over
the wate r results in an outward acceleration; in other words. the ship's velocity adds
b Station 1 Station 2 to the veloci ty of Earth's rotation. An additional correction. known as the Eocvos
correction. is therefore added to marine gravity measurements (Telford et al., 1976):
L1L =L2- L t
L1g cr L1L' EC = 7.503 V cos<f> sina + 0.004154 y! I
where:
F, , ~ - Weight of Mass
at Stations 1 and 2 EC = Eotvos correction (mGal)
V =speed of sh ip (knots; L knot = 1.852 km/ hr = 0.5 144 m/ s)
4> =latitude or the observation point (degrees)
a = cou rse direction of ship (azimuth. in degrees).
c
Map View St41
St4 2 -~-~-~-~-~·"! ISOSTASY
Sta. 5 )("~·~ i
....·~. \ Until quite recently. surveyors le veled thei r instruments by suspending a lead
s:.. 6
~
,..... '· \ x·i Station
Base weight (plumb bob) on a string. In the vicinity of large mountains, it was recognized
,,'· ' Sta. 4
·~·-·-
\
·- ·-·~sill. 3
\
/ i\
that a correction must be made because the mass excess of the mountains standing
I#')XSta. 7 ' high above the surveyor's location made the plumb bob deviate slightly from the
Sta.. 8 ,;•"''"" Sta. 12 \ Sta. 16 vertical (Fig. 8. L6a).
K" f ., .-...... Sta. 15 In the mid-1800's a la rge-scale survey of India was underta ken. Approaching
\ Sta. 10 / ., ....~
\ ,X. , · ,, Sta 13 / the Himalaya Mountains from the pla ins to the south, the correction was calculated
\ ,. ·-·-·-·---.;;/
\ ,. Sfa. 11
x.... ..•)(// and applied. A systematic error was later recognized. however, as the plumb bob
~~9 Sta ~ was not deviated tOward the mountains as much as it should have been (Fig. 8.16b).
This difference was attributed to mass deficiency within the Earth. beneath the
FIGURE 8. t 5 Measuremmt of relativt gravity. a) A gravimeter measures !he lenglh or a spring ( L ). excess mass of the mountains.
which is proponionallo lhe gravilalional accclcralion (g). b) A rorcc (F 1) a lone s1a1ion resulls in a
spring lenglh (L 1). The lcnglh may change lo 1..., because or a dirrerenl rorcc ( F2) al anOlher slalion. The Pratt and Ai ry Models (Local Isostas y)
rorcc cxcncd by lhc mass is a runclion or g; lhc change in lcnglh or 1he spring (.1L) is lhus proponional
lO lhe c hange in gravilalio nal acceleralion (~g). c) Map or ref alive gravi1y survey. The Ira ve rse slarlS Scientists proposed two models to explain how the mass deficiency relates to the
wilh a mcasuremcnl all he base slalion.lhcn each or lhc t6 s1a1ions. rollowctl by a re-mcasuremenl al topograph y of the Himalayas. Prall assumed tha t the crust of the Earth comprised
lhe base slalion.
blocks of different densi ty: blocks of lower density need to extend farther into the air
in order to exert the same pressure as thinner blocks of higher density (Fig. 8. L7a).
so that: The situation is analogous to blocks of wood, each of differe nt de nsity. floating on
water. By the Pratt model, the base of the crust is flat, so that the surface of equal
g = F/ m pressure (depth of compensation) is essentially a flat crus1/mantle boundary.
In other words, I he mass will' weigh more or less (exert mo re or less force). depend- In the model of Airy (Fig. 8. 17b), crustal blocks have equa l density, but they
ing on the pull of gravity (g) at the station. A gravimeter is simply weighing the mass float on higher-density material ( Earth's mantle ), similar to (low-density) icebe rgs
at different stations; the spring stretches ( +~ L) where there is more gravity and floating on (higher-density) wate r. The base of the crust is thus an exaggerated, mir-
contracts (- ~L) when gravity is less (Fig. 8.15b). ror image of the topography. Areas of high eleva tion have low-density "crustal
If we know the absolute gravity at a starting poi nt (base station) , we can use a roots'' supporting the ir weight, much like a beach ball lifting part of a swimme r's
gravimeter to measure poi nts relative to that station (Fig. 8.15c). The initial reading body out of the water.
 238 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Isostasy 239

a // / FIGURE 8.16 a) Expected den ection of

a plumb hob (highly cx•gge rated), due to
a FIGURE 8.18 a) Press ure (P) at depth
(z) is a function of the density (p) of the
8 =Angle of the all raction of the mass of a mountain material above a point wi thi n the Earth.
Deflection range. b) The actual dc nection for the b) For the Prall and Airy models. the
Himalayas "'"' less than expected. due to pressure depends o n the density and
a deficiency of mass beneath the thickness (h) of crustal blocks. In both
mountains. models. prc,sure equali7.cs at the de pth of
compensation.

b 8 = E:rpecwd Deflection
¢ =Actual Deflection

g =acceleration due to gravity( = 9.8 m/s 2)

FIGURE 8.t7 Prall and Airy models of
a) Pratt Model
local isostatic compensation. In hot h
models. pressure cxcncd hy crustal
columns is equal em hori7.ontal planes at
and below the depth of compensation.
b) Airy Model
z = depth to the point.
For the Pratt and Airy models (Fig. 8.J8b ), the pressure exerted by a crustal block
can be expressed as:
p = pgh
where:
P = pressure exerted by th e crustal block
r = densit y of the crustal block
h = thickness of the crustal block.
In both the Pratt and Airy models. the pressure must be the same everywhere
at the depth of compcmation. For the Pratt model. the base of each block is at the
exact depth of compensation. so that:
p = p2gh 2 = p ,g h ~ = p4gh, = Psghs
where:
P~· p,. p,. p5 = densit y of each block
h ~. h~. h4 • h5 = thickness of each block.
Dividing out a constant gravitational acceleration (g):

I P / g = p 2 h 2 = p 3 h 3 = p 4h 4 = p~h~ I
...•...........•.•..................
Depth of Compensation
..•.......•.•.. In the particular Pratt model shown in Fig. 8.19a. p 5 < p, < p3 < P: < [1 1. where p1 is
the density of the substratum (Earth 's mantle).
In an Airy model the crustll l density (p 2) is constant and less than th e mantle
density (p 1). Only the thickest crustal block extends to the depth of compensation. •
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted on a point \vi thin a body of water. For the Airy isostatic model in Fig. 8.1 9b. the pressure exerted at the depth of com-
Similarly. pressure at a given depth within the Earth (Fig. 8.18a) can be viewed as pensation (divided by g) is:
lithostatic pressure. according to:
P = pgz
wh ere: where:
P = pressure at the point within the Earth h ~'. h,'. h/ = thickness of mantle column from the base of each crustal
p = average density of the material above the point block to the depth of compensation.
 240 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Isostasy 241

a) Pratt Model FIGURE 8.19 Densi1y (p) and lhickncss

(h. h ') re la1ionships for Prall and Airy
isos1a1ic models. P = pressure;
g = gra vi1a1ional accelera1ion. whe re:
p, = density of the air (p, "" 0)
h, = thickness of the air column. up to the level of the highest topography
p_. = density of the water
b) Airy Model
hw= thickness of'the water column
Pc = density of the crust
he = thickness of the crust
2 Pm = density of the mantle .
hm = thickness of the mantle column, down to the depth of compensation.

h' .· 2) The total thickness (T) of each vertical column is constant:

2

P/g - Constant ••••••••••••••••••••••••••

Depth of Compensation
IT = ·h, + hw + h, + h.., = Constant I
If the isostatic column (P/g) can be determined or assumed for one area. then solv-
ing the two equations simultaneously can be used to estimate thickness,;s (h) and/or
,Airy Isostatic Model densities (p) for vertical columns beneath other areas.

Lithospheric Flexure (Regional Isostasy)

Oceanh Air (p :> OJ Continent Mountains
. . _ _ ----" h: Water (p ·= 1.0 g/crrP)
Both the Pratt and Ai ry models assume local isostasy. whereby compensation
occurs di rectly below a load (Fig. 8.2la); supporting materials behave like liquids.
flowing to accommodate the load. In other words, the materials are assumed to have
11o rigidity. Most Earth materials, however. are somewhat rigid; the effect of a load is
distributed ove r a broad area. depending on the flexural rigidity of thl! supporting
material. Models of regional isostasy therefore take lithospheric stn::ngth into
account (Fig. 8.21 b).
Mantle A common model of regional isostatic compensation is that of an elastic plate
(p z3.3 g/crrfJ) that is bent by topographic and subsurface loads. The flexu ral rigidity (D) of the
plate determines the degree to which the plate supports the load. The elastic plate
model is analogous to a diving boa rd , the load being the di ver standing nl!ar the end
Depth of Compensation of the board (Fig. 8.22). A thin , weak board (small D) bt:nds greatly. espl!cia lly near
....................,..l..., . . .. . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . ._ .... . ,.. the diver. A thicker board of the same material behaves more rigidly: the diver
Pressure - Constant causes a smalle r deflection. The flexural rigidity (resistance to bending) thus
FIGURE 8.20 Airy isostatic model. Oceanic regions have lhin crus!, rela1ivc 10 con1inen1al regions. The weigh I o f cxrr a man lie depends on the elastic thickness of each board.
male rial benealh lhe lhin oce~nic c rus1 pulls downward unlil jusl enough deplh of wa1cr fills 1he basin 10 achieve isos1a1ie
cquil~b~ium. Moun1aino us rcg1ons have Ihick crusl. relal ivc 10 no rmal con1ine n1al regions. 'The crus1al roo1 cxcr1s an upward force
un1u 111s balanced hy 1he appropria1c weigh1 of moun1ains.
b) Regional Isostasy
While regions often exhibit components of both hypotheses, isostatic compen-
sa tion is ge nerally closer to the Airy than the Pratt model. Pure Airy isostatic com-
pensation for regions with oceanic a nd continen tal crust. as well as thickened crust
weighted down by mountains. might exhibit the form illustrated in Fig. 8.20. Notice
that the crustal root beneath elevated regions is typically 5 to 8 times the height of
the topographic relief. At the depth of conrpemation beneath each region, two equa- FIGURE 8.21 l11e 1ype of isos1a1ic compensalion depends on Ihe n~.xural rigidi1y of Ihe supponing ""'.!erial: a) Loml
tions hold true. l) The total pressure (P) exerted by each vertical column. divided by is<>sllL'Y· Where 1hcrc is no rig idi1y.compensa1ion is dircc1ly below Ihe load. b) Rt·giontll isoswsy. Mar<nals w11h
the gravitational accele ration (g). is constant: rigidi1y arc nexed. dis1ribu1 ing Ihe load over a broader region.
 242 Chapter 8 Gravity and l~ostasy Isostasy 243

a) Weak (Thin) Board
FIGURE 8.22 Flaum/ rit:idity. a) A thin di,·ing. hoard (small clastic thickness) has low Oexural rigidity. h) A thick
board (large clastic thickness) has high Ocxural rigidity.
a P8
x = horizontal distance from the load to a point on the surface of the plate
p. = density of the material above the plate
Ph= density of the material below the plate
b) Strong (Thick) Board g =gravitational acceleration
q(x) = load applied to the top of the plme at x.
Four important concepts are illustrated by solutions to the above equation
(Fig. 8.23b): I) a strong lithospheric plate (large D) will ha ve a small amplitude
deflection (small w), spread over a long wavelength ; 2) a weak lithospheric plate
(small D) has large deflection (large w), but over a smaller wavelength; 3) where
plates have significant strength, an upward deflection ("peripheral " or "flexural"
bulge) develops some distance from the load. separated by a depression; 4) plates
with no strength collapse into local isostatic equi librium.
Two simplified examples of li thospheric flexure are shown in Fig. 8.24. At a
subduction zone (Fig. 8.24a), flexure is analogous to the bending at the edge of a
diving board (Fig. 8.22). The load is pri marily the topography of the accretionary
b wc::dge and volcanic arc on the overriding plat e. Flexure of the downgoing plate
results in a depression (trench) and, far ther out to sea. a bulge on the ocean ic crust.
1l1e mass of high mountains puts a load on a pla te that can be expressed in both
directions (Fig. 8.24b). Depressions between the mountains and flexural bulges
<?= X~X <=C> ("foreland basin~") can fill with sediment to considerable thickness.
Losd(q) "'

FIGURE 8.24 £xnmplr>of litlwsplrrric

flexure. a) A ncxural bulge and
depression (trench) dc\'clop as the
downgoing plate is ncxcd at a subductivn
zone. b) Tiu: weight or i\ mountain range
causes adjacen t dcprc<.<ions that fill with
sediment (foreland basins).

Plate With No Strength

-·=v=-~·· Asthenosphere
FIGURE 8.23 a) Parameters for two-dimc nsioMI model of a plate ncxed by a linea r load.l3nth the plate and load extend
inhnitcl" 10 and out of the page. Sec text for definition of "ariablcs. b) Positions of depressions and bulges fomtcd on the
surface of a ncxcd plate. A strong plate has shallow but wide depressions. The depressions and peripheral bulges have
larger amplitudes on a weak plate. but arc closer to the load. A very weak plate collapses into local isostatic equilibrium.
b) Mountain Range

The deflection of a two-dimensional plate. due to a linear load depressi ng the

plate's surface. is developed hy Turcotte and Schubert (1982). The model (Fig. 8.23a)
assumes th ;~t material below the plate is fluid. The vertical deflection of points along
the surface of the plate can be computed according to:

I D(d4w/ d4x) + (pb - p.) gw = q(x) I

where:
D = flexural rigidity of the plate
'~ = vertical deflection of the plate at x
244 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isost asy Gravity Modeling 245

GRAVITY MODELING FIGURE 8 .26 Analogy between tire

Forward modelling of mass distributions is a powerful tool to visualize free air and
b gravitational attraction of1ile Eartll from
space anti n j'phere of cmomalvus mass
Bouguer gravi ty anomalies that result from different geologic si tuations. For large g buried benemlr l:artlr :~ surface. a) Eanh's
gravitational \\ccc:lt:rtllion (g) ;.H a distant
tectonic featu res, gravi ty modeling can be even more insightful if considerations of observation point depends on the mass of
the isostatic state of the region a re incorpora ted . the Eanh (M) and the distnncc (R) from
A common method used to model gravity data is the two-dimensional the 1.:enter of mass to the observation
approach developed by Talwani et al. ( 1959). The gravity anomaly resulting from a puinl. b) lne c hange in gra vity ( ~g) due
to a buried sphere depends on the
model is computed as the sum of the contributions of individual bodies. each with a
Uifference in ntt~ss (~m. rdativc to the
given density (p) and volume (V) (that is. a mass, m. proportional to p x V). The surrou nding material ). amJ the <..listance
two-dime nsional bodies are approximated, in cross section, as polygons (Fig. 8.25). (r) from the sphere to an obscrv~H ion
point on E:~nh 's surface.
Gravity Anomalies from Bodies with Simple Geometries
To appreciate contribut ions from comp lex-shape d polygons. it is helpful to under- FIGURE 8 .27 G raviw tional dfect (i'g)
stand. first, the gravity expression of two simple geometric shapes: 1) a sphere and
2) a semi-infinite slab.
a X of a bur ied sphere of rad ius (R) and
ano malous mass ( ~m) . a) 'llte d istance ( rj
to th~.: ccnt..:r of the sphere can he broke n
into horizont;~l (.,)and vertical (z)
Sphere The attraction of a sphere buri.::d below Earth's surface ca n be
,:.>mponcnts. b)11te magnitude (~g) of
viewed in much the same way as the attraction of the entire Earth from some dis- thc '!,Cavit:uional ~H t raclion \'c!Ctor can be
tance in space (Figs. 8.3: 8.26). The equation for both cases foll ows an inverse square broken into horizontal (~g,) and vertical
law of the form: l_\g, ) components. Fur a p..:rr'cct sphere
with uniform _\m. the angle: 0 is the same
as in (a).
+ a) Contribution from Mass Excess FIGURE 8 .25 'fivv-dim cmimwl grtll'll,l'

,<~"'..'\
i''
' mmlding of::w b.wrfact.: mass distrib11tions.
Bodies of anomalous mass arc polygonal
"~ ,,/
~0~~----~~-------------
'" in cro~ section. maintaining tht!ir sh:lpcs
10 infinity in directions in and o ut of the
pagl!. a) Relative to surrounding mah:rial.
a body with I!Xccss mnss results inn
positive contribution tO the gravity
A buried sphere may have excess or deficient mass (~m) relative:: to the sur-
a noma I)' profile ( ~g). b) J\ negative
con trihution rcsulls from a body with a
rounding material: its center lies a distance (r) from the obsavation point (Fig. S.27a).
+ b) Contribution from Mass Deficit 111.:: change in gravi tational attraction (.lg) due to the sphc;:r.:: is:
deficiency of mctss. c) The gravity anomaly
for the simple model is the sum o f the
G(um)
contributions shown in (n) and (b ). ao=---
0 rz
The density (p) o f the material is defined as mass (m) per unit volume:: (V):
p = m/ Y

so that:
m = pV
The excess (or deficient) mass of the sphere, in terms of the density differe nce (~p)
between the sphere and the surrounding material, is therefore:
Clm = (ap)V
SurfaC/1 the change in gravity is thus:
Mass Excess (+A m) G(ap)(V)
~ C\__ ug = r2

~ ~ The volume (V) of a sphere of radius R is:

Mass Deficit (-am)
V = 4/3 'ITRJ
246 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Modeling 247

so that:
G(.!lp)
.!lg = - r-
2 - (4/3 r.R 3) z
.!lg, = 0.02794 (6.p) n3 ( , ')''
_ x· + z· · 2

where the variables and units are:

Since r2 = x2 + z2: .!lg, = vertical component of gra vitational attraction measured by a gravime-
ter (mGal)
.!l p = difference in densi ty between the sphere and the surrounding material
(g/cm")
R = radius of the sphere (m}
6.g is the magnitude of th e IOta! nurac1ion. at the observation point. due to 6.m x = horizontal dist ance from the observation poi nt to a point directly
(Fig. 8.27a). The total attracti on is a vector sum of horizontal and vertical compo- above the center of th e sphere (m)
nents (F1g. 8.27b): z =vertical distance from the surface to the center of the sphere (m).
Fig. 8.28a shows the va riables in the above equation. The buried sphere model
where: illustra tes some fundamenta l properties of gravity anomalies (F1g. 8.28b): 1) mass
6"g = vector expressing magnitude (b. g) and direction of total attraction
due to the anomalous mass of the sphere a +
fg, horizontal component of 6"g
-+
=
...... ~
.!lg, = vertical component of .!lg c:>
.!lgx = !lg(sinB) = horizontal component of !lg ~ 0~----~~--------~=-----
6.g, = .!lg( cosB) = vertical component of !lg ~
"<:J
c
B = angle between a vertical line and the Eg direction. l

The magnitude can be expressed as the vector sum of horizontal and vertical Surface <Ff=(m) >< +x (m) :>
components:

A gravime ter measures only th e vertical component of the gravitational attraction

.t1p
(Fig. 8.27b):

I .!lg, = .!lg (c~sO) I b + Small A p or R Large Ap orR

From Fig. 8.27a:

~o that:
cose = z/r
oJ )0(
4r.R 3G{6p) I z
.lg, = .!lg(z/r) = 3 _(x·, + z·')-r 1 2
.t1p
Again. using: Shsllow
r2 = x2 + z2, meaning r = (x 2 + z2) 112
4o.R3G(.!lp) 1 z
.!lg = ----'-~ ..,..-,--= -:--=---=-,
• 3 (x2 + z2) (x' + z2)1/2
FIGURE 8.28 a) Gravi1y anomaly profile (tl.g,) anribUiable 10 a buried sphere of radius (R1 in m).dcplh (z). and
Substituting the value for 4TI/3: anomalous density (il.pl in f_icm~). The horizomal distance (x) is measured in nega1ive ( -x) and positive (+x) directions
!rom a poin1 on the surface directly abo,•e the sphere. b) Form of gravity anomaly profiles due to ( I) posi1ive vs. negative
!lg, = 4.1888 R3G(6.p) ( , z 2)V' densil)' con tram: (2) chan~ing mass anomaly: and (3.4) changing depth.
x- + z . -
 248 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Modeling 249

excess (+urn, implying +~p) causes an increase in gravity (+C. a). while mass
deficit (- urn, im plying - tip) results in a gravity decrease ( -t.'.gz); 2J~he more mas-
Sive _the sphere (larger t.'.p and/or larger R), the greater the amplitude (lt.'. g.,I) of the
gravity anomaly; 3) the anomaly is attenuated (smaller lt.'.gzl) as the sphere is buried
more deeply within the Earth; 4) the width of the gravity anomaly increases as the
sphere is buried more deeply.
is ze ro; 2) above the edge of the slab. the contribution is ~xactly l/ 2 the maximum
value (llg, = ~[0.0419t.'.pt.'. h ]); 3) over the slab, but fa r from the slab ·sedge, ~g. is the
same as for an infin ite slab ( ~g, = 0.04l%pt.'.h); 4) the rate of change in gravity (the
gradienr of !lg2 ) depe nds on the depth of the slab.
Griffiths and King ( 1981) develop an eq uation for the anomaly caused by a
semi-in finite slab (Fig. 8.30a.b):

Se mi-Infinite Slab Where there are density changes that can be approxi- t.'.gz = G(llp)(t.'.h)(2<j>)
mated by horizontal layering, it is co nvenien t to model latera l changes in gravity as
where:
the effects of abrupt truncations of infin ite slabs. An infini te slab (Fig. 8.29a) tha t
has excess mass (+tim) will increase the gravity ( + ..\g,), while mass deficit (- ..\m) <1> = angle (in radians) from the obs~ rvat io n point. betwee n the horizontal
will cause the gravity to decline (- u gz). Truncating the slab (Fig. 8.29b) results in: surface and a line drawn to the central plane at the sla b's edge
l) essentia lly no gravity effect in regions far fro m thl! .;Jab: 2) an increase (or G =Universal Gra.vita tional Constant (6.67 x l0 - 11 Nm 2/kg2 ) .
~ecrease)_ in gravity crossing the edge of the slab; and 3) . · . :1ositive or nl!ga-
ttve) gravtty effect In regions over the slab but far from th<: The angle <1> can be expressed as:
An infinite slab represents a mass anomaly (t.'.m) that ~~ ,, ... . Jn of the thick- ·.;· tb= -rr/2+ 11111 - t(x/z)
ness of the slab (uh) and its dens ity (up) relative to surrounding materials
(Fig. 8.29c). The amount the slab adds or subtracts to gravitational attraction (!lg,) is
exactly the same as tha t of thl! infinite slab used in the Bouguer correction (Fig. 8.9):
e.g, = 0.0419(t.'.p)(t.'.h )
a b
Central Plane
~e gra vity effect of a semi-infinite slab, however, changes according to position rel- z.J b=::6z:====::-:t
ative to the slab's edge (Fig. 8.29d): l ) fa r away from the slab, the contribution (..\g,)
·,

a Infinite Slab b Semi-Infinite Slab

+ ~--~~~~==~~+Jm- 2 3
~ 0-jo-..............~~=------=---1
-Lim.~'-..... c
·-·········-·-·
'1•(41.9}(.6 pllh

c d 'It (0.0419(ApAh)J mG«< OV9(9dg6

~ +F~========~ ~ + -·-·-·-·-·-·-·:::;;;· X"" _..,
~ O +-"
-Sl_8b_rai___:SBc.:.•~groc.:.vtty.c..
· :...b:<y;.:.0;.:..04.c. 1c.:.9~d.!:..pA=h"-~-'mG--=4«1
,;;
~0~~--~~~~~
,;; ~
~~
0.0419(Ap Ah)iiiGaJover318b

~ - ~==============~ ~ -~z=~=:~:=Y=~==3='8b==============~

Edge of
FIGURE 8.29 a) An infinite slab adds or sublr:tcl~ a c onstant amoum 10 the gr<~vity field. depending on
whe_the r the slab represents a positive ( + ~m) or negative ( - ~m) mass anom<~ly. b) n 1e gravity effect of a
senu·tfl{ifl~te slab changes gradually as the edge of the slab is crossed. c) An infinite s lab produces e.~actly the
same gra vuy e ffect as the slab used for the Bougue r correction. d) The gravity effect of a semi-infin ite slab is FIGURE 8.30 a) For a semi-infin ite slab, I he gravity a no maly measured at the sur face is ~g, = G(~p)(,lh)(2<!>). where <b is
equal to t he Bouguer slab approximation far out over the slab ( right), Y: of that value dircclly ove r the slab's measured in radians. b ) Away from the slab. <I> < r;/ 2 (that is. <b < 90' ). Over the slab. <I>> -:r/2. c) Method to estimate the
odge. and zero far away from the edge (left).
change in gravity anomaly (ug,) at five horizontal distances (x. in km ) from the edge of a scmi-infinit< slab.
250 Chapter 8 Gravity and l~osta~)' Gravity Modeling 251

where: chang<: with a steep gradie nt, while the same body deep within the Eart h
wou.u pr(Jduce a more gentle gradient.
x =horizontal distance from a point on the surface above the slab's edge
z =depth of a horizont al surface bisecting the slab (central plane ). Models Using Sc:mi-lnfinite Slab Approximatis>ns
The equation is thus: Scmi-infi:ii:e slah models can be used to approximat e contributions to the free-air
fig, = 2G(!lp)(.6.h)(» /2 + tmr - 1[x/z)) gravi ty anomaly at regions in isostatic equilibrium. Twu insightful examples are the
transition from continental to oceanic crust along o passive continental margin and
or: the thickc;ling of crust at a moumain range.

tlg, = 13.34 (Ap) (!lh) (o./ 2 + tan - 1 [x/z]) Pas~h ~ Contin ental Margin Thin oceanic crust at passive margins is under-
lain by mantk> at the same depth as the mid-to-lower c~ust of the adjacent conti-
when the units arc: t.g, in mGa/: .Up in g/cm 3; !lh. x. z in km. Note five important nent. Tt1c mns.\ excess ( + !lm) of the mantle exerts a force that pulls the oceanic
points from the above equation. illustrated in Fig. 8.30c: crust downward . By the A iry model. the resulting ocean basin subsides until it has
exactly enough water ( -ll.m) so that the region is in isostatic equilibrium.
I. x= - x => !>g, = zero ::) t.g, = 0(41.%p.Uh). The model in Fig. 8.32 is in Airy isostatic equilibrium. according to parameters
2. x= -z = ~ g, = V, its full value =>fig,= X(41.9!1p!lh). modified from Fig. 8.20:
3. x= 0 => ~g, = Y: its full value => Ag, = Y,(4 1.9.C.p.C.h).
Densities:
4. X = +z => ~g, = Y. its full v;lluc => Ag, = :X(41.9!lpAh).
fl .. = densit y of the water = 1.03 g/ crn 3
5. x = +:r.: = ..\g, = its full value = !lg, = I(41.9!lp!lh).
fl c = densi ty of the crust = 2.67 g/ cm-'
For layered cases. a quick estimate of the gravi ty change acros~ the edge of an Pm = densi ty of the mantle = 3.1 g/ crn 3•
anomalous mass can he made hy calculating and plotting those five points.
The semi-infinite slah approximation illust rates two fundamental properties Thicknesses for the ocean side:
of gra vi ty anomalies (Fig.IUJ ).
h., = th ick ness of th e water column = 5 km
I. The nmpliturlr (full value) of the anomaly rcnccts the mnss excess or deficit (hclo = thickness of the oceanic crust = ll krn
(..\m). ll1c mass excess or deficit depends on the product of density con trast hm = thickness of the extra mantle column = ?
Pr) and thickness (!lh) of the anomalous hody.
2. ll1e grndiem (rate of change) of the anomaly renects the depth of the e.rass or Thickr;ess for the cominelll side:
deficiemmnss hrlow the surfac<' (z). The depth thus determines how abru ptly (hclc = th ickness of the cont inental crust = ?
the gravitY anomalv changes from ncar zero to ncar its full v11luc. 11ccordi ng to
the ~erm.(o./2 + t~n - 1 [xfz]). A hody ncar the surface results in a gra~ity 1l1c two unknowns j(h 01 ) and (hc)cl can be determined from equations expressing
the two conditions for local isostatic equilibrium:

Con tinent Ocean

FIGURE 8.31 Lllcral chnnJ!c in ~ravil \
due to 01 ~cmi·infuutc ~lah of dcn:-.ity
con 1ra~1 (~p) and lhickne.s (.~h). TI1c Equa l Pressure: P.(h..) + Pc(hc)o + flm(hm)
amounl of clwn~e (amfllirudc) depends
Equal Thickness: h•. + (hJ0 + hm
on Ihe"'"" anomaly (t.r X :.h). "'hilc
Ihe rate of chanJ!C ( gmtfic111) depends on
the depth (z) lo the central plane of the Ocean FIGURE 8.32 Airy im.natic mnd~l ofrlrr
slab. 'J11c !!rcatcr the mass <~nomaly. the
Continent transition from thick comincmalto 'ihin
f(hc Jc • 31.84 km] f(hc)o •Bkm]
Z1t_:r:~~;~ii~~i;~~>·• greater the amplitude: the more deeply
oceanic crust m a passive contiurmnl
huried ihc slab. Ihe more gentle Ihe (p,. • 1.03; hw- 5 km) mnrgin. Densities of crust and manllc arc
j!radicnl. 0 simplified so that reasonable contrasts
result for Ihe water vs. upper continental
crust ( -1.(>4 g/ cm ')and the mantle vs.
lower continental crus! ( +0.43 !!/ em').
Sec text for definil>on of variables.

Distance from ContinentI Ocean Boundary (km)

 252 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Modeling 253

a +40/)b
the gravity anomaly is an abrupt change. along a steep gradient where the water
deepens.
'ii' ·~~~~~~~~----------------~
Water Contribution ~M~an~#~e~C~o-n~~b~--0-n--------------~
~ ,., .................. The mass excess ( + D.m) that compensa tes the shallow water relates to the
amount of shallowing of the manti~ (h"') times the diffe rence between mantle and
i 0 '
;-"'o!:."''"
0/&'""
crustal densities (up = Prn - Pc = +0.43 g/cm3; Fig. 8.33b). At great distance from

t~ . \\l,_ the continental margin. the positive contribution to gravity (due to the mantle shal-
0 ~~~·-~
·-·"'' r;,<t
·-~·~··~·~·-~------------------~
lowing) has the sa me ampliwde as the negative contribution (du~ to the water deep-
ening). because the two effects represent compensatory mass excess and deficit.
~ ~~-----------------··_·-_·_
· ·_·_
··_··_·_··_·_·_··_·J· respectively. The gradient for the mantle contribution is more gentle, however.
-~ ~-------------' bt:cause the anomalous mass causing it is deeper.
The free air gravity anomaly (6.g11 ) for the simple. passive margin model is the
sum of th.: con tributions from the shallow (water) and deep (mantle) effects
or==~~~ (Fig. 8.33c). Note that the anomaly is near zero over the interiors of the continent and
sor-_c_ru-31-(P._.· -2.-67)- ~JR)T~4 ocean, but shows a maximum over the continental edge and a minimum over the edge
of the ocean. This positive/negative couple. known as an edge effecr, results because
the contributions due to the shallow and deep sources have different gradients.
Olcm 150
60+---------- The passive margin model shows two important attributes of the free air grav-
·150 150
ity anomaly for a region in isoswtic equilibrium (Fig. 8.34a): I) valuc::s are near zero
c (except for edge effects), because the mass excess ( + urn) equals the mass deficit
~·r---------------- ( -urn); 2) at edge:: effects. the area under the curve of the gravity anomaly equals
:era. because the integrul of the anomaly. with respect to x. is equal to zero.
The second point is worth further discussion, because it provides a quick test
fo r local isostatic equ ilibrium. The free air anomaly curve for the passive margin
model is th.: sum of two contributions (Fig. 8.33):
\ ug.., = ..'.g,(bath) + ug,(moho)
~~
"' ' 2G(upM6.hM1T/2 + tan - 1 [x/zb])
~·~
'" ·········-·-·-······· + 2G(..'.p)m(nh)m(r./2 + lilll -
1
[x/zm])
where:
ug7. = free air anomaly
ug.(bat h) = contribution to the free air anomaly du~ to the mass defi-
ciency of the water deepening seaward (bathymc::try)
ug,(moho) = contribution to the free air anomaly due to the mass excess
or the mantle shallowing seaward
(D.p)b = density contrast of the water compared to uppe r continental
crust
(D.p)m = density contrast of the shallow mantle compa red to lower
continental crust
(uh)b = thick ness of semi-infinite slab of water
(6.h)m = thick ness of semi-infinite slab or eleva ted mantle
x = horizontal distance from the continent/ocean boundary
zb = vertical distance from sea level to the central plane of the
semi-infinite slab of water
Solving the two equa tions for the two unknowns yields:
zm = vertical distance from sea level to the central plane of the
1 (hJ = 31.84 km 1 and I hm = 18.84 km I semi-infinite slab of eleva ted mantle.
The equation can be simpl ified:
The water deepening seaward represents a mass deficit (- D.m). a function of
the product of the water depth (hw) times the density difference at upper crustal levels ug, = 2G {(llp)h(uh)h(TI/2 + W11 - 1 [x/zb]) }
(6.p = Pw - Pc = -1.64 g/cm3). Fig. 8.33a shows that this negative contribution to + (t.p) 01 (uh)Jrr/2 + wn - 1 (x/zm])
 254 Chapter 8 Gravity a n d Isostasy Gravity Modeling 255

a
+200 ~------------------------------~
therefore:

Positive Aree ~ Free Air Anomaly Free Air Anomaly Values Near Zero, m = pV = pA(.!lh)
with Area Under CuNe - 0 For each slab:
6.m = (t.p)A(6.h)
(u p)(Ah) =Am/A
so that:

Ag, = 2G {([.!lm]b/ A)(r./2 + ta11- 1 [x/zb]) }

+ (IAm]m/ A)(r./2 + ran- 1 [x/ zm])
where:
60 +---------------.---------------~ [Am )b = mass deficit of the water slab
-150 0
X (km) [Am).,= mass excess of the mantle slab.

~~b~--------------------~
Airy isostatic equilibrium implies that:

'ia' [Am]b = - [Am]m

\!) Bouguer Anomaly
.[ (BC, --1.641/1arf'}-- so that:

t
"<:
t 0
·····!~Free Air Anomaly
\...................................................
Ag, = 2G([Am]b/ A) [(r. / 2 + ra11 _1 [x/ zh))- (r./ 2 + ta11- 1 [x/z..))j
!lg, = 2G(i 6.mJ~/A) ( ro11 - 1 [x/ zh]- ran -' lx/ zm])
!'? TI1e area under the free ai r anomaly cu rve is the integral of t.g,. with respect to x:
\!)

-~ L-------------------------------~
Continent Ocean
f_~· .t.g, dx = 2G([.!lm]~/ A) r.·( ran- 1 lx/zh] - - ran - 1 lx/ z..]) dx

Standard integral tables show that. regardless of the depths of the slabs (zh and zm).
the integral from -:x. to +oc is zero:

L-:( ran · 'lx/ z1, ] - ran ·· ' [x/z.. )) dx = 0

therefore:
+~

FIGURE 8.34 Frrc air and Bougurt gravity tmo mahcs for passi,•c continrwal margin ;, loco/ i.\O.'imllc t•quilibrium.
a) l sost~tic equilibrium mean~ the absoluic value of excess mass (I+ Ami} equals the ;~bsoluic value of deficient mass
(I- ~m l). With this equality. the integral of the chan~e in ~ravity with respect to x (j A&, dx) = 0. 'The zero integral
f-· t.g, dx = 0

means that the positive and ncgath·c areas under the free <1ir anomaly curve sum to zero. b) Titc Onugucr correction The last expression demonstrates that the area under the curve for the free air
a1 sea (Fog. 8.9b). apphcd to I he free aor anomaly in (a). yields I he general fonn of the Bouguer anomaly at a passive anomaly eq uals zero (Fig. 8.34a). This relat ionship is seen in each of the models
continental margin.
below that arc in a state of local isostatic equilibrium.
Fig. 8.35 shows an observed free air gravity anomaly profile, and a density
Let: model. for the passive continental margin on the east coast of the United States.
The free air anomaly shows clearly the edge effect due to the water deepening as
A = horizon tal surface area of a slab (same for each slab). the mantle shallows (Fig. 8.33). Some isostatic imbalance is also evident. because the
TI1e density of a slab is: negative area (under the curve) is greater than th e positive area.
The Bouguer graviry anomaly (.t.g8 ) for the si mple, passive margin model
p = m/V results from correcting the mass deficit of the water to approximate that o.f the
where: upper part of the crust (Fig. 8.34b). The passive margin model thus illustrates the
m = mass of a slab y.eneral form of the Bouguer anomaly for a region in loca l isostatic equilibrium:
V = volume of a slab = A(t.h). I) values are near zero over normal continental crust: 2) the Bouguer anomaly mimics
 \.. II O~l~( 0 ~rclvoty and Isostasy Gravity Modeling 257

FIGURE 8.36 Airy isostatic motltl of 2

100,--------------------------- km lliglt mountain range. Dc=nsiries of
crus! and manlle are simplifictl so 1ha1
Free Air Anomaly reasonable con1ras1s result for Ihe
ropograph y vs. air ( "'2.67 g/cmJ) anti Ihe
cruslal rool vs. manlk ( -OA3 g/ cmJ).

10
p, =density of the mantle = 3.1 g/ cmJ.
~ Thicknesses at the No rmal Cominenwl Cmst:
20 h = thickness of the iiir column = 2 km
(h,)~ = thickness of crust outside mountains = 35 km
Mantle (3.3 g/Cf113) h., = thick ness of the extra mantle column = '!
30
Thickness at the tltfmmwim:
(h,)~
1 = thickness of total crust at moun tains = '!
As with the passive margin model. the two unknowns can be d.:tcrmincc.l from
-150 Okm 150 the two condi tions for local isostatic equilibrium:
FIGURE 8.35 .Obst!f\'t!cl free uir grm·ity tlltOJIIU!y from the passive (:vlllimmwlmargin off the Atlamic
wmo.oft/o( Umt•tl Srtttu. Tho tlosh~tllinc is ohc anomaly calcularetl from lhe rwo.uimcnsio nol Normal Continent Mountains
llenslly model. :'<otc Ihe edge dfcc1. wilh Ihe high ro wartllhc con1 incn1. rhc low over Ihe ocean. The
zero ~rossrn~ ts ncar Ihe edge of 1hc conr incnlal shelf. where rhe w;ucr column deepens abruplly. Equal Pressure: P.(h,) + Pc(hc)c + Pm{hm) p, (hJ,,
Lone I POD orr Cope Ha ucras. Nonh Carolina. From "Deep SlrUCIUrc :mil cvolulion of the Carolina
Trough." by D. Hulchinson. J. G row. K. Kl irgo rll. and B. Swift . AAPG .'vlemoir. no. 34. pp. 12'1- 152.19 Eq ual Thick ness: h" + (hJc + h.,, { h )~,
I 'IX3. Redrawn Wtlh pcrnussoon or Ihe American ,\ssociarion of l'clrolcum Gcologisls. Tulsa.
O klahoma. LiSA.
Solving th.: two equations for the two unknowns yields:

the Moho. increasing to large positive values as the mantle sha llows beneath the
ocean: 3) the form of the Bouguer anomaly is somewhat a mi rror image of the
to~ography (or bathymetry): the increase in the anomaly thus correlates with deep-
enrng of the water.
_ Mountain Ran ge As contine ntal crust thickens during orogenesis (Figs. 2. 18.
6.3)), .the crustal root exerts upward fo rce. due to its buoyancy relative to sur-
roundmg mantle. By the Airy model, the topography ( + nm) grows until its weight
exactly balances the effect of the low-de nsity root ( - !lm). The mountain ra~ge
model (Ftg. 8.36) is in Airy isostatic equ ilibriu m. accord ina to parameters modifi~d
~m~8~ a crustal and man tle densities (u p = Pc - Pm = -0.43 g/ cm'). If the mounta in range
Densities:
P, = density of the air = 0
p, = density of the crust = 2.67 g/ cm3
I hm= 12A2 km I and I(hJ~1 = 49.42 km I (Moho depth = 47.42 km)
1l1e contribution to the free-a ir anomaly due 10 topography of the mountains
(Fig. 8.37a) results from the mass excess of the material above sea leve l ( +nm). Th is
excess is a functi on of the product of the mountain height (equal to h,) ti mes the
density difference at upper crustal levels (up= Pc - p, = +2.67 g/ cm3) . Note that.
as with the water effect for the passive margin, the contribution is abrupt, resulti ng
in a steep gradient.
The crustal root provides a mass deficit (- um) that compensates the extra
weight of the topography (Fig. 8.37b). The deficit relates to the product of the
amount of deepening of the crust (equal to hm) times. the di fference be tween
is wide (several hundred km) , the negat ive contribution due to the crustal root has
the same anrp/iwde as the posit ive contribution due to topography. The gradient for
the crustal root contri bu tion is more gentle, however. because that anoma lous mass
is deeper.
 258 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Gravity Modeling 259

a +~fb~~--~~------------------~ a
+~r-~--~~----~--------------------------~
FIGURE 8.38 Free nir anti BmtKtrrr
gr011ity anomalies for mmmtain rangr in
Root Contribution Free Air Anomaly local isostmic eqtrilibritrm. a)
~ Compensatory positive ( + ~m) and

i~o ~-=~~~~~~~~~ negati ve (-Am) mass anomalies mean

that the imegral, with respect tO X. of the

~~L_------~======~----_j ·t~ Negative Area

free air g.nwit~~ anomaly is zero
(!) (.(~&, dx = 0). In othe r words. the "area
+2.67 under the curve" sums to :tero. b) The
-~L-------------------------------~
Or--------
··~
--~
-~·-~
·-~
·-~·-~·~-·~-·~--
· -------, Bouguer correction (BC) removes most
Topography (p ~67) of the contribution of the mass above sea
?,rustBl Root level (Fig. 8.37a). Bouguer a nomaly
~~------r-----~~/~r._
P _-_
z_6~--~
n
proriles or mountain ranges thus
Mantis
(p -3.1)
1·:-:-:.dp = -0.43 ·.-:-: j
l Crost (p - 2.67) CrostBI Root
commonly show low values reneeting the
contribution of the crustal root (Fig.

! ~ 1----M-an-tfe-.,..1.~:: ~:: :~:: -:=--~..1-m--:~:.:-:=-/~-::(>1_~(p_-__._7J_~

1
60 ~--~--~-T--~~~~~~~ 26
400 -400 Okm 8.37b). Taken together. the free air a nd
Bouguer gravity anomalies form the
" Batman anomaly" characteristic of a
(p -3.1} mountain range in local isostatic
ro·+-~---r--~--~~--,---~~---r--4 equilibrium.
-400 0 400
X(Km)

b
+~~----------------------------------------~
~ ('Batmann Anomaly)
Topogroplry (p -:.!:_67) _,A p :: +2.67 ~ FtHAJr.AnorrWy....._ 1,,, ,•• ~
0
~~o~--~~~f__
...._....~
....~
.."=""=""=""=""_...._...·-+~~--~
Or-------~----~------~
~ CnJs1 (p- 2.67) /CnJstal Root .f.§.
s 301----,...-:-:---~....,.(,-fp_·_z_.6_7J~ 0 -~~----------------------------------~
~ MMIHI f .·<Ap - .:0.43 ·.(-j
(p -3.1)
~~-----------:oc-~~--~~~400 Bouguer Corrected ..1 - 0
Distance from Center of MountBlns (Km) Topography (p •O)_~ -·-·-·-·..L·- P -
0
FIGURE 8.37 Comribmiuus w [!rm·ityfnr mouu111111 rmrgr iu Airy isostatiC' equilibrium (Fig. 8.36). a) A sharp increase.
with ncarJ,· full amplitude. results from mass excess of topography. b) Mass dericit of c rustal root gh·es a more gradual ~E Crust (p - 2.67) /Crust·cv
~• Root
decrease. c) The free air gra\'ity anomal~· profile for a mountain range in local isostatic equili brium has edge effects due to ~ (p · 2.67)
the d ifferinj: !!radie nts of the shallow (a) and deep (b) co ntri buti on ~ Unless the ran!!e is \'cry broad. so that the deep effect '5~1------~~--"":':""-:-:::-.,..,.f.r------i
of the root approaches full ampli1Ude. the free air anomaly has significant positive values over the range. ~ Mantle j:::::::..1 P -0.43:/.:l =
(p -3.1)
0 • 400
Distance from Center of Mountams (Km)
As in the passive m argin model. the free air gravity anomaly (t.g,.) for the
mountain range is the sum o f the contributions from the shallow and deep sources
(Fig. 8.37c). The anomaly is zero over the normal thickness contine nt and
approaches zero over the central pan o f the mountains. It shows edge effects. how- continental craton to the east and oceanic crust to the west. The broad region is thus a
ever. along the Oanks of the range. ~ mountain range close to a state of Airy isostasy (Fig. 8.36). Deviations from local
The free air gravit y anomaly for a mountain range often illustrates some of the isostasv (discussed helow) occur at the suhduction zone on the west side, where the
fundamen tal properties o f a r egion in local isostatic equilibrium (Fig. 8.38a): 1) val- edge effect low is exaggerated at the trench and a fl exural bulge high occurs over the
ues are near zero because the mass excess ( + t.m} of the topography equals the adjacent oceanic crust.
mass deficit (- t.m) of the crustal root: 2) significant edge effects occur because The Bouguer gravity ano maly (t.g 0 ) for the mountain range results from sub-
shallow and deep contributions have different gradients; 3) the area under the curve tracting the e ffect o f the mass excess of the topography from the free air anomaly
of the anomaly sums to zero. (Fig. 8.9a). Attributes of the Bouguer gravity anom aly that result from isostatic
Fig. 8.39 shows observed and modeled free gravity anomalies across western equ ilibrium are illustrated in Fig. 8.38b: I) values are near zero over continental
South America. Note that the observed free air gravity anomaly profile shows classic crust of normal thickness: 2) the form of the Bouguer anomaly mimics the root con-
edge effects. suggesting that the region is close to local isostatic equilibrium (Fig. 8.38a). tribu tion : the anomaly d ecreases as the Moho deepens beneath the m ountains;
TI1e model shows that the crust is very thick ("" 60 km) , beneath the high topography 3) the form of the Bo ug uer anomaly is almost a mirror image of the topography; the
of the A ndes Mountains. Thinner crust fl anks the mountains. as normal thickness anomaly decreases where the topography of the mountains rises.
260 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Tectonic Settings and their Gravity Expressions 261

200T---------------------~~----~ Mid-Ocean Continent Continental

(Craton) Mountains Rift
Air (P." 0)

~20
Ml111tle
~40 Uthosphere
(Pm" ~}
60
Okm 500 1000
FIGURE 8.39 Observed ~nd m<Xleled free air gravity ~nomaly o f the Andes Mountains and adjacent
regions. s howing the eaq portion of the classic .. Batman anomaly... The model shown results in ~
calculated anomaly in close agreement with the observed. Densities in g/cm' (= 10' kg/ mj). From
J. Grow and C. Bowin.Joumnl ofGeophysictii R~search. vol. SO. pp. 1+19-1458. © 1975. Redrawn with
permission of the American Geophysical Union. Washington. D.C.

TECTONIC SETIINGS AND

THEIR GRAVITY EXPRESSIONS

The gross forms of free air and Bouguer gravity anomalies reflect: 1) the density dis- FIGUR~ 4~8 Airv isosta.tic n;otl<i. modifi;tl"' include lithosphudt!Sthenmphere boundary. See tc.,t and subsequent figur< captions
tribwion of Earth materials in ·a region: and 2) the flexural strength of the materials. for defini;ion of ; ramcte rs. Note that h, in continental areas is the depth to the Moh~ below the s~a level datum. plus the. ~~oght of
The Airy isostatic model is an end-member case where supporting materials have the to 0 ra h ~ in subsequent figures).lloere is a slight drop in densoty across the hthosphereia>th~nospherc boundary. dev~~ed
no flexu ral strength. While an oversimplification. the Airy model is nonethdess use- asthe~os~h:r:t~~s provides buoyancy. supporting the weight of uplifted topogr~phy and mantle at conunental rofts and mod·occan
ridges.
ful in understanding the general form of gravity anomalies. Once those si mple forms
are appreciated, modeling of other parameters can be attempted (flexural strength.
complex density distributions).
The Airy model suggests isostatic balance involving two boundaries: 1) the h, = thickness of th e air column
topography and/or bathymetry; and 2) the crust/mantle boundary (Moho). Those Pw = density of the water
boundaries are important because they are universal and represent large density hw = thickness of the water column
contrasts. In some regions. a third boundary is a significant element in isostatic bal- Pc = density of the crust .
ance: 3) the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary. h = thickness of the crust
The Airy isostatic model in Fig. 8.20 can be modified to incorporate all three p~ = density of the mantle part of the lit~osphere
boundaries, as summa rized below and illustrated in Fig. 8.40. At the depth ofcompen- h = thickness of the mantle part of the lithosphere
sation beneath each region, two equations hold true. 1) The total pressure (P) exerted
by any vertical column (divided by g) is equal to that of any other vertical column:
,,
fl m = density of the asthenosphere
h = thickness of the asthenosphere column.
P/g = p,h, + Pwhw + Pchc + Pmhm + pAhA = Constant ·'
2) 11Jc total thickness (T) of any vertical column is equal to that of any other vertical
where: column:
p, = density of the air (p, "'0) T = h, + hw + he + hm + h" = Constant
262 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy
Gravity A noma lies for Reg ions in Local Isostatic Equil ibrium
The models below comprise five tectonic seuings. Each selling has characteristic
heights of topography (bathymetry) and thicknesses of the crust and emire litho-
sphere.
1. Cominental Craton: Topography ncar sea level: crust and lithosphere of nor-
mal thickness.
2. Cominemal Rift: Uplifted topography: thin crust and thin lithosphere.
3. Cominental Margin: Drop in topograph y; transition from thicker continenta l
to thinner oceanic crust.
4. Mid-Ocean Ridge: Shallower water than normal ocean: thin oceanic crust and
thin lithosphere.
5. Mountain Range: High topography: thick crust.
The seuings are re lated. in tha t: a) as a craton rips apart the crust and the
entire lithosphere thin. forming a cominental rift zone (Fig. 2.13): b) rifting can con-
tinue to the point where new ocea nic lithosphere is created. forming an ocean basin
with a mid-ocean ridge in the ce nter and passive cominentalmargins on the sides
(Fig. 2.14): c) the basin can close through subd uction of the oceanic lithosphere.
resulting in collision of the continental ma rgins and thickening of the crust as a
mow11ain range forms (Fig. 2.18).
The continental margin and mountain range on th e model (Fig. 8.40) are simi-
lar to those in previous models (Figs. 8.32. 8.36). 'Their respective gravity expressions
are also similar. because when those features are old . there may be no significant
relief on the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary. The same can be said for a conti-
nental craton . Gravity modeling assuming normal Airy isostasy. where compensation
is achieved at the depth of the deepest Moho (Fig. 8.20). is often sufficient to illus-
trate the forms of free-air and Bouguer anomalies in those three sellings.
In areas of acti1•e plate divergence (continental rifts: mid-ocean ridges). grav-
ity anomalies ca nnot be explained adequately without considering relief on the
lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary. Note that th e asthenosphere is less dense than
the overlying. mantle part of the lithosphere. so that: I ) th e asthenosphere column
represents mass deficit ( -!lrn). relative to the mantle part of the lithosphere
( + ~m ): 2) the density contrast between the a s tl!~nosphere and the mantle part of
the lithosphere is small. so that large re lieL on the lithosphere/asthenosphere
boundary is required to compensate mass excesses due to topography and crustal
thinning. . • The th ree fundamental boundaries change depth in each model so that. at the
In active convergent plate sellings. the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary
also needs to be considered in modeling gravity anomalies. In the Alps. for example.
a lithosphere root is an important component of isostatic balance. contributing 30 to
50 mGal to the observed gravity anomalies (Kissling et al .. 1983: Lilli e et al .. 1994).
At subduction zones. the mantle of the downgoingJplate comprises a mass excess
that needs to be accounted for in gravity models as well as models of isostatic equi-
librium and lithosphere flexure (G row and Bowin. 1975).
Tile models below show contributions to gravity anomalies due to compen-
satory changes in topography (bathymetry). Moho depth. and lithosphere/astheno-
sphere boundary depth , for simplified models of the fi ve tectonic settings. Density
assumptions are:
Ai r: p. = 0
=
Water: P. 1.03 g/ cm 3
Tectonic Settings a nd their Gravity Expressions 263
=
Upper crust: (pc)u 2.67 g/ cm3
=
Lower crust: (p<)L 2.9 g/ crn3
=
Mantle part of Lithosphere: p,.. 3.3 g/ cm3
Asthenosphere: p" = 3.26 g/ cm 3
In gravity modeling. important effects are due to lateral changes in mass (£1m),
reflected by density comrasts across boundaries (!lp). Zones of significant densitv
contrast, bounded by the three fundamen tal boundaries, are therefore: '
1. Shallow effects:
a) Mass above sea levelvs. air (topography):
t.p = (Pc)u - Pa = + 2.67 g/ cm 3•
b) Ocean water vs. upper crust (bathymetry):
Ap = P~· - (pc)u = - 1.64 g/ cm 3•
2. Mantle vs. lower crust (Mo ho):
Ap = Pm - (pc)L = + 0.4 g/ cm 3•
3. Asthenosphere vs. mamlc part of lithosphere (lithosphere/asthenosphere
boundary):
Ap = PA - Pm = -0.04 g/ em3.
For each of the five models, contributions to gravity due to the change in
depth 10 each of the boundaries a re calculated. The free air anomaly is then com-
puted as the sum of the three contribut ions. Densit y contrasts chosen for the topo-
graph ic and bathymetric effects are exactly the sa me as those commonly used for
Bouguer corrections (Fig. 8.12): the Bouguer anomaly is therefore the sum of the
contributions without the topographic and bathymetric effects.
The models start wit h a continental craton. constructectwith these simplifying
assumptions: I) the surface of the craton is at sea level: 2) the Moho is at a depth of
33 km: 3) the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary is at 180 km depth. The series of
models can be viewed as a progression of ripping the craton apart (continental rift
zone). opening an ocean basin (cont inental margins and mid-ocean ridge). then
closing the ocean a nd colliding the continental fragments (mountain range). This
progression is the " Wilson Cycle;• portrayed in Figs. 2.14 to 2.18.
depth of compensation (180 km), the pressure is the same as it was for the starting
craton. Contributions to gravity result fro m changes in depth of the three bound-
aries. relat ive to each contribution equal to zero for the craton. A composite model
then shows a comparison of the amplitudes and forms of free air and Bouguer grav- .
ity anomalies in the different tectonic setti ngs.
1. Contin ental Craton Fig. 8.41 is a simplified version of the lithosphere of
a stable continental craton. The model incorporat es a 180 km thick lithosphere:
180 km is thus chosen as the standard depth of compensation for the other models.
The model surface is at sea level, so there is no topographic contribution to grav-
ity. Likewise, the Moho and lithosphere/ast h~n osp h e re boundaries are flat. result -
ing in no fo rm to their gravity contributions. Changes in depths to these three
boundaries result in positive or negative contributions to gravity anomalies in the
other models.
•.
 264 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Tectonic Settings a nd the ir Gra vity Expressions 265

;_20 20 0 l~1- - - - - - /~- -AI/""""'"""''-'

------------~
FIGURE 8.41 Gravity expression of FIGURE 8.42 Local isostatic model,

Contributions
- Topography
-·-·-· Moho
........... Uth/Asth
Gravity Anomalies..,.,
- Free Air
....... •Bouguer
Topography at Sea Level
Continental
~ Parameters fo r the model are (sec
+200,-------------------------~
Ff96 Air and Bouguer
., /Anomalies - 0
~ 0 t-----.:;..-------~
·200 .1.-_ _ __ _ __ _ __
0~--------~~---------,
50
normal cominentnllithosphere.
Fig.ll.40):
h, = height of topography = 0
h, = thickness of crust = 33 km
hm = thickness of mantle part of
lithosphere = 147 km.
The model arbitrarily assumes that this
configuration results in zero amplitude
free air and Bouguer gravity anomalies.
.....J (In reality. the topography of a craton is
tens to a few hund red meters above sea
level. resulting in slightly negative
Bouguer anomalies). The ISO km depth
of compensation is.maintained
throughout the sc;ies of models in the
next fe w figures.
:2000 ~ ...J·-·-·····-·····~.\..
Contributions showing free t1ir ami Buuguer gravily
- - Topogrsphy ~ S IUIIPI;J.,.,,., ,, ,,, .. ,.lit
anomalies Ill" contin~mal rift : ontt.
Density contwsts. in g/cmJ. art:: + 2.67 for
Moho ·······.................................········ the mass above sea k,·d relative to air:
.......... Uth/Asth
·200 ..l.-----------------------' +0.4 for the mantk lithosphere relative
to the lower crust: and -0.04 for I he
asthenosphere r~la1ive tO the mantle
lithosphere. The depth of comp~nsation
Gravity Anomalies
(180 km) is the same os in the starting
Free Air craton model (Fig. SA I). Param~tcrs for
·· ·-·- Bouguer the model arc:
Attire rift:
h, = height of topography = 1.5 km
Topo (af - +2.67)
h, = thickness of crust = 31.5 km
(Moho depth = 30 km)
hm = thickness of mamlc pan of

Craton Continental lithosphere = 19.875 km

h" = thickness of asthenosphere
100 Rift column = 130.125 km.
Omsid.: rlre rifr (normal continental
lithosphere):
] 150 h, = 0
~ 150 h, = 33 km
hm = 147 km
200 h,, = 0.

250

2. Continen tal Rift At a continental rift (Fig. 8.42). both the crust and enti re
lil hospheric plate thin. Elevated asthenosphere can be viewed as an ··inflated bal-
loon," its buoyancy supporting the weigh t of elevated man tle and. in some cases.
topography. Note that the nega tive density contrast across th e lithosphere/
asthenosphe re boundary (np = -0.04 g/cm3) is far less than the posi tive contrasts
for the topography (n p = +2.67 g/cm3 ) and the Moho (Ap = +0.4 g/cm3). The
relief on the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary ( 130 km) is thus far greater than
the combined re lief of the other boundaries (4.5 km).
The topography and the elevated mantle beneath the thin crust result in posi-
tive gravity contri butions of relatively steep gradien t. The compensatory mass
defici t of the elevated asthenosphere is a dee p effect, givi ng a much broader gravity
low tha t does not reach fu ll amplitude. The free ai r gravity anomaly (sum of the
three effec ts) is a high over the rift, with fla nking lows. When the effect of mass
above sea level (topographic contribution) is removed, the Bouguer anomaly is a
broad low reflecting the elevated as thenosphere.
l11e Basin and Range Province in the wes tern United States illustrates the
pattern of fre t: air and Bouguer gravity anomalies shown in Fig. 8.42. The astheno-
sphere is so shallow that there is very little mantle lithosphere. as indicated by low
seism ic veloci ties (Fig. 4.15. 4. 19a) and low Bouguer anomalies (Fig. 8.43a). Hot
asthenosphere at shallow depth is under such low pressure that partial melting
occurs (Figs. 2.7, 2.24b). The resul ting gabbroic magma can underplate the continen-
ta l crust, establishing a new, flat Moho. Th is in terpretation is consistent with obser-
vations of prominent re flections from a horizontal Moho at about 30 km depth
beneath much of the Basin and Range Province (Figs. 6.23. 6.24).
Continen tal rifts have a wide variety of crustal and lithospheric structure and.
hence. a variety of free ai r and Bouguer gravity anomalies. The Pannonian Basin in
central Europe is broad. like the Basin and Range Province. but it has thinner crust
(= 25-30 km) and less relief on the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary (Babuska
et al., 1988; Sefara. 1986). The region is thus a topographic depression. Free air
anomalies have a fo rm similar to that shown in Fig. 8.42. but with much smaller
amplitude; the Bouguer anomaly is a broad, low-amplitude high reflecting the
Moho relief (Bielik. 1988; Lillie et al., 1994).
The East African rift zone is narrower than the Basin and Range Province or
Pannonian Basin rifts. The Bouguer gravity anomaly low is prominent. resulting
from very shallow asthenosphere (Fig. 8.43b). Superimposed on the low is a high of
abo ut 50 mGal, in terpreted to be caused by high density (gabbroic?) material
intruded throughout the ri ft valle y crust.
At very old continental rift zones, cooling transforms the density of the ele-
vated asthenosphere back to that of normal mantle lithosphere: the lithosphere/
asthenosphere boundary thus flattens back to normal continental depths. Intruded
gabbro cools and densities, weighting down the crust. causing it to sag. An example
is the l.l billion-year-old Keweenawan Rift in the central United States (Fig. 8.43c).
The Bouguer gravity anomaly is a broad low reflecting the sagging crust and
 266 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Tectonic Settings and the ir Gravity Expressions 267

FIGURE 8.43 Bouguer gra vi ty

a) Basin and Range Province sedimentary infill of ri ft basins; a supe rimposed gravity high results from gabbro

(!)
50...----w------,
04C'?.-·4
- Observed .,..~.~ ·
a nomalies a t continent al rifts, a long with
interpreted dcnsit~· models. a) Basin nml
Rangr Pro•·mcr from so uthern California
to central Ne•·ada. From R. Salt us and G.
Thompson. T~ctcmics, vol. 14.
that intruded the crust along the rift axis (Serpa et al., 1984).

3. Passh·e Continental Margin l n. a fully evolved ocean basin. passive conti-

nental margins are fa r from a mid-ocean ridge (Fig. 2.14c). The region cools through

E.;::==:
C1l
pp. 1235-1244,© 199S. Redrawn with time, so that there may be no significant relief left on the thermally controlled,
permission of th e A merican Geophysical lithosphere/aslhenosphere boundary (Fig. 8.44). Substantial change in depth
U nion. Wa sh in~t on . D.C. O bser\"ed cur'"e
is a resid ual anomaly. whereby effects of
remains on the Moho, which is a chemical boundary (Figs. 2.3, 4.9)-"The free air and

o~~~;;;;;;;;~~~ii~~~ Cenozoic basins were removed from the Bouguer gravity anomalies at a fully e volved passive margin are therefore of the
form and amplitude shown in Figs. 8.33 to 8.35: isostatic compensation and gravity
~50~
complete Bouguer a nomaly. Lo"· values
arou nd -100 mGal reO ect shallow. hot anomalies result from balance between mass excess of the extra mantle beneath the
asthe nosphere t hat suppo rt s th e weight thin oceanic crust and the overlying, low-density wa1er column.
100 o f th e higher topo~raphy o n the nort h
side o f th e section. h) Enst A frican Rift.
Okm 500 From ""The geology o f the E astern Rift
4. Mid·Ocean Ridge The isostatic situation for a mid-ocean ridge (Fig. 8.45)
b) East African Rift Svstem of Africa."" lw B. Baker. P. Moh1.
is similar to that depicted for a continental rift zone (Fig. 8.42). The density deficiency
-140 a~d J. Williams. GSA Special Paper.
Bouguer Anomaly No. 1~6.67 pp.. © 1972. Red rawn with
~.-----------------------~ FIGURE 8.44 Contributiom nfrlirer
Iii
Q) -200
pern1ission of t he Geological Society of
America. Bo ulder. Colorado. USA.A
---·-·-·-·-·-·-... .. ,, fundmncmal boundaries and rcsullmJ.:
gravity annmnlics for a passivt
E Bouguer gra•·it y m aximum. due to high Contributions \
comincmal margin in local isO.\'tnlic
\
de nsity m :11eri:ol imruding the crust. is ', equilibrium. Parameters used in the
~60~------------------------------~ superi mposed o n t he asthenosphere - - - Bathymetry
~ 0 .............................................,.
.....
" ...·----·;;;;-·:.:.:o---"1 mode l arc:
O WSW minimurn. c) Krwr(•tw"·m, Rifl in Iowa -·-·- · Moho E
and !\eh raska. central United State:< Normal oannic litliospliue:
............ UtfVAsth
From L. Ocola ;ond R. M e~·er.Jrwmol o.f h. = thickness of water column 5 km=
Gropliysica/ R<'.<enrcli. •·ol. 78. h, = thickness of crust = 7.5 km
pp. 5 17~-5194. !D 1973. Redrawn with (Moho depth = 12.5 km)
E 40 ·
~ pe rmi.sion of the A m erica n Geophysical ~~----------------------~ hm = th ickness of manlle pan of
Unio n. Wash inpton. D.C. The promi nent lithosphere = 167.5 km.
hip h rc. ults from rc lati•·cly high-de nsity Normal COtltmcmallithospherc:
~.----------------------,
80
(~.0~ g/ cm ') ma terial extending through
th e crust. perhap s pahhro solidified -·-·············-., h. = 0
h = 33 km
-100 Okm 100 within th is 1.1 hillio n-yea r-old rift Gravity Anomalies ~ '' h~ = j47 km.
c) Keweenawan Rift
~ ~------~-=----------~
(compare wit h mode rn ri ft in h). Fr96Nr
Bouguer
E
0~-=~~~~----~
~ Densi ty contrasts arc nearly identiealto
those used in the earlier passive margin
model (Figs. 8.32 to 8.34). and there is no
caQ) 0~-----,~----~--------~ ·~~----------------------~
relief on the lithosphere/asthenosphere
boundary: free air and Bouguer gravity
E anomalies are essentially the same as in
-~~~~~~==~~~~ the earlier model.

Continental
Margin
(2.94 g/crrf')
20

-50I

Okm 50
 268 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Tectonic Settings and their Gravity Expressions 269

+500 -r-------------------~ FIGURE 8.45 Contribwions of three Observed Gravity

............ ·-- ......... fwulamentnl boundaries ami resulting
400~----------------~--------------------------------~
·-·-·-·-·-·-·-· , ....................... gravity anomalies for a mitl·ocemr ridge
Contributions in local isostatic equilibrium. The depth
of compensation is ISO km. Model 300
-·-··· Moho
Uth/Asth
- - Bsthymstry
~E: OT-m=~~--------~~~
....................... ....................... .
parameters arc:
On tire ridge:
hw ~ thickness of water column = 3 km
-
~ 200
·········........ h, = thickness of crust = 2 km (Moho
depth = 5 km) E 100
h,. = thickness of mantle part of
lithosphere = 18.0 km
h,, = tbicknc:ss of asthenosphere
+400,----------------------. column ~ 157.0 km .

Gravity Anomalies
.................... .. .......................... Away from the ridge (pormal oceanic
lithosphere): ·
....... Bougusr hw = 5 km
- Ff9f1Air h, = 7.5 km ( Moho depth = 12.5 km)
h,. = 167.5 km
hA: 0.

-300 _._____________________...J 1lte Moho co ntribution is more than ~ 100

+ 300 mGal. because the region has thin
crust. relative to the standard. continental

2ooU~:$Ziit~~±$~-~
craton (Figs.8A0.8AI:comparc to the
seaward pore ion o f the passive margin
0 model. Fig. 8.4-l). Likewise. the
Mid-Ocean b:tthymctric contribution has background -2000 Okm 2000
50 values less than -300 mCul.
Ridge FIGURE 8.46 Free air ami Bouguer gravity anomalies observed ~cross the Mid-Atlanric Ridge
(T.rlwani ct al.. 1965). Ocn>itrcs in moud arc in g/ cm' (=tO' kg/nr'). lntcrpretcd ucnsit)'
100 distribution ( Keen and Tramontini. 19i0) shows 'hallow asthenosphere with density contrast of
- 0.0-l ~ /cm l. relative to aujaccnt ma ntle lithosphere. Compare obscn•ed grovity anomalies a nu
~ lithosphere stnr<ture with Fig.ll-45. FromM. Talwani. X. Le Pichon. and .Vt. Ewing.Jo11rtral of
150 Gt·ophysiml Rcl'trrclr. vo l. 70. pp. J-ll-352. <D I%5. Redrawn with permission of the American
Geophysical Unio n. Washington. D.C.

200
Fig. 8.45: the free air anomaly shows a broad centra l high with flanking lows. and the
Bougue r anomaly reveals a decrease associated with the shallow asthenosphere.
250 The modeled lithosphere structure for the Mid-Atlantic Ridge thus suggests local
-1000 Okm 1000 isosta tic equilibrium. the hot asthenosphere supporting the we ight of the topogra-
phy and elevated mantle at the ridge.

of the elevated asthenosphere supports the weight of the ridge and elevated mantle.
The positive changes in gravity across the ridge from the Moho and bathymetry are
superimposed on a broad low resulting from the deep effect of the asthenosphere.
The resulting free air gravity anomaly thus displays a high with flank ing lows.
After effectively removing the bathyme tric contribution, the Bouguer
anomaly shows the more than 300 mGal background level associated with oceanic
crust (see Bouguer anomaly for the passive continental margin in Figs. 8.34 and
8.44) . There is a drop in Bouguer anomaly values over the ridge. due to the ele-
vato.:d asthenosphere.
Fig. 8.46 shows free ai r and Bouguer gravity anomalies observed across the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Short-wavelength highs and lows mimic the topographic relief
on the sea floor. which is uncompensated. The longer wavelength anomalies show
widths and amplitudes that are in general agreement wi th those compu ted in
5. Mountain Range 1l1e lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary generally has
little relief ldt as a mountain range ages. so that the topography and supporting
crustal root are the major contributions to gravity anomalies (Fig. 8.47). The density
contrast of the topograp hy compared to air ("" +2.67 g/ cm 3) is generally 5 to 8
times that of the crustal root compared to surrounding mantle ("" -0.4 g/cm3);
crustal roots must therdore be 5 to 8 times as thick as the topographic relief of a
mountain range. ln the Himala ya Mountains and adjacent Tibetan Plateau. for
example. the 4.5 km elevation of the region is supported by crust that is about 30 km
thicker than normal. "'
For some mountain ranges it is essential to conside r relief on the litho-
sphe re/asthenosphere boundary (for example, the Alps in Europe and Sierra
Nevada in the United States). Those ranges are so young that there is still a root of
lithosphere left from the plate convergence that formed the mountains (Fig. 2.l6b
 270 Chapter 8 Gravit y and Isostasy Tectonic Settings anc t!"lt:i~ Gravity Expressions 271

+300 ,---------------------------~ FIGURE 8.47 Gmuul form of free air +500~=---~~--------------------------------------------~

tmd Bouguer gravity anomalies a1 a Contributions ~-~· ... ·-......
,.~·~·-·-···~·~·
~0~1.
. . . ,\ . . . . . . . . . . . \./~
Contributions mutmwin range. Paramelers arc: ·-·-·-·-·-·-·-., _.. . . . Moho
Topography
e ,,.,,.
Atthr mounuw1s: f Uth /Asth \
h, = height of topography ~ 2 km J Boundary ;
Moho h, = thickness of cru~t = 48.35 km co
~ 0~....... ,
~-...~...-....-...-...-....~/~...~....~.~~~~~ '·
~~...~....-...-...-....-...-...-....-...-...~....~...-...~....~...~.=·~~~----~~--~~
~-~
UtfVAsth ' '·-·-·-·-····'"'' (Moho = 46.35 km deep) ... ....
hm = thickness of mantle part of
-~~----------------------_J
lithosphere = 133.65 km.
Topographyi,........--
+200~-----------------------------, Olll!iitlc the mow unins (normal
Bathymetry '----'
Gravity Anomalies ~ t'---- _.-'\ continental lithosphere):

............... .r
h, = 0 -500~----------------------------------------------~
- Free Air ca o -1-----=-4----....:::=~-+-.,...-~
~
h, = 33 km
•••••• Bouguer ""'"""l\, ~ hm= 147 km. +500~----------------------------------------------------,
.- Gravity Anomalies
In an old mountain range the thermally
~J-------------------_J controlled. lithosphere/asthenosphere
boundary equilihrates to a horizontal
Topography (~p- +2.67) surf;,cc. Free air •nd Bouguer anomalies
thu ~ reveal the classic "Bc.tman csnomaly."
because the major contributions arc from
the topography and its supporting crustal
Mountain root (Fig. H.38).

Range
-500 ..1..-----------------------------------------------___J
Continental Continental Mid-Ocean Continental Mountain
Rift Margin Ridge Margin Range
Bathymetry
(!Jp- -1.64)

for the Sierra Nevada; Fig. 2.18 for the Alps)._Jn such cases, the lithosphere roots
100
represent mass excesses that lessen the to pographic relie f. ~
150
Composite Model The composite m od~ l (Fig. 8.48) shows general forms of
cont ributions. a nd free a ir and Bouguer gravity a nomalies. at each of the five tec- 200
tonic settings. TI1e fi g ure is importanl because it represents the ''background" (or
"regional") anomalies that one should appreciate before modeling and interpreting
gravity a nomalies in a particular selling. By understandin!! the major contributions
for a local isostatic situation , o ne can then a na lyze problems of m ass distributio n
and lithospheric st rength in te rms of deviatio n from local isostasy. FIGURE 8.48 Composite model oflocal isostatic equilibrwm, slwwing all five tectonic seuings from the previous u ries of
i/lustrotions. The depth of compensation is the depth of the deepest lithosphere (180 km). Density contrasts (.lp in g/ cm))
are for topography rela tive to air: bathymetry relative to upper crust: mantle lithosphere relative to lower crust:
Gravity Anomaly Maps a~thenosphcre relative to mantle lithosphere. Note thotthe contribution• from the three critical houndaries lead to free

G ravi ty a no ma ly maps present information useful to unde rstandi ng density distrib-
ution and isostatic stale of a region. An ideal situation would be 10 a nalyze.
together. maps of: I) topography (see front inside cover of this book): 2) surface
geology; 3) sedimem thickness and intra-crustal struc/Ure based on d rilling and seis-
mic reOection profiles ( Figs. 6.23 to 6.39): 4) Moho depths from refraction surveys
air anomalies near zero. except at edge effects. The fact that the positive and negative a reos under the curve sum to zero
illustrates local isostasy. The Bouguer gra,•ity a nomaly generally follows the form of the Moho. staying near zero over the
cratons. rising over the thin oceanic crust. and foiling where the crust i• thick beneath the mountain ranee. Boueuer lows
also reOect asthenosphere elevated beneath continental rifts and mid-ocean ri d~es. The in verse relation-ship be~ ween
Bouguer anoma ly and topography/ba thymetry is apparent: high values occur where bathymetry is deep in the ocean:
relative lows ar_e associated \lith surface re lief at the continental rift. mid-ocean ridge. and mountain range.
272 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Tectonic Settings and their Gravity Expressions 273

(Figs. 4.16 to 4.19): 5) depths to the lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary from sc:ismic

delay timeftomography methods (Fig. 7.34); 6) free air gravity anomaly: 7) Bouguer
gravity anomaly. Constraints on densities come from surface sample and borehole
measurements. as well as approximations based on seismic velocities (Fig. 3. 10).
Incorporation of all of these data would more likely result in cross-sectional inter-
pretations that honor geological reality (first order constraints, Fig. 1.8), and tha t
consider the state of isostasy. CENTRAL EUROPE
North America The gravity anomaly map of North America (back inside
cove r of this book) presents free air anomalies at sea a nd Bouguer anomalit!s on
BOUGUER GRAVITY
land. The anomalies correspond a t the shoreline, because the Bouguer correction at
sea level is ze ro. Several prominent feat ures are evident: most can be intaprctt!d in
ANOMALY MAP
terms of the isostatic model in Fig. 8.48.
·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-·-................
l. Near-zero values occur over the continental craton. co mprising rrwst of the
eastern parts of Canada and the United Sta tes (Fig. 8.41).
.........., ........
.. ........................ .
2. Low Bouguer va lues are coincident with the high topography and cruswl root
12"
of the Rocky Mountains. extending from western Mexico to western Canada
(Figs. 4.16. 8.38. 8.47).
3. A broad Bouguer low occurs over the Basin and Range Province. caused by
shallow asthenosphere \ Figs. 8.42. 8.43a).
4. A prominci'H gravity high runs through the central Uni ted States. caused by
gabbro intruded in to the crust along the failed. I. I bill ion-year-old
Keweenawan rift (Fig. 8.43c).
5. Free air edge effects arc prominent near the shel f edge off the cast coast of
Canada and the United States. representing the transition from thick conti-
nental to thinner oceanic crust of the passive margin (Figs. 8.34. 8.35).
6. Edge effects also occur along transitions from thicker (continental or island
arc) to th inner (ocea nic) crust at subduction zones. although modified by
deviations from loca l isostasy (see left side. Fig. 8.39). At the Alaska Peninsu la
and Aleutian island arc. effects of a rigid lithosphere accentuate the highs and
lows of the free air anomaly. and a nexural bulge high occu rs seaward of the
trench. Similar effects are observed in the Lesser A nti lles arc in the
Caribbean region. and along the Pacific coast of Mexico.
7. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge segment south of Iceland displays a broad low split
by a central high , characteristic of free air anomalies across a mid-ocean ridge
(Figs. 8.45. 8.46).

Central Europe Prominent features evident from the Bouguer gravity

anomaly map of central Europe (Fig. 8.49) include: I) a narrow. low-amplitude min-
imum associated with a downwarped '·keel" on the Moho, formed during an early
stage of continental collision in the Carpathians (Fig. 8.50b); 2) a broad low repre-
0 100 200 km
h>>H> · 20 mGa/ • < · 60 mGa/
senting a crustal root benealh the easte rn Alps. a consequence of a more advanced FIGURE 8.49 Bouguu gmviry a11omaly map of cemral Europe (Lillie ~tal.. 1994}. Gravity profiles along 13•
stage of continental collision (Fig. 8.50c); 3) a circular high representing shallow E. 20• E. and 47° N shown in Figs. 8.50 and 8.51 . Blank regions in southern and extreme northwestern and
mantle be neath the Pannon ian Basin (Fig. 8.5 1). southeastern portions of map lacked sufficient station density tO draw contours. A = Austr~ a: C = Czech
Re public: G =Germany: H = Hungary: I = Italy: M =Moldava: P = Poland: R = Romama: Se = Serboa:
Deviations from Local Isostasy Sl = Slovakia: Sv = Slovenia: U = Ukraine.

Lithospheric plate st rength partially supports the weight of topographic and subsur-
face loads. Gravity anomalies resulting fr om the two examples presented earlier in
this chapter (Fig. 8.24) can be studied in the con text of how they deviate fro m anom-
alies caused by simple Airy isostasy.
 Tectonic Settings and their Gravity Expre~sions 275
274 Chapter 8 Gravity a nd Isostasy

FIGURE 8.50 Bnlallccd crusrnl model of

CONTINEN TAL COLLISION MODEL
""-o bserved Profiles
W. CMp51t>lans -
E. Alp! II••••
ocean basi11 c/o,r;urc. mninlaming local
i.w.<lfltic equilibrium (Lillie ct al.. 1994).
Titc upper diagram shows the Bouguer <a
(!} -50
gravity anomaly at different s12gcs o( ObS8rved
contmcmal collision. The -300 km
E Calculated from Model
profile represents the Bouguer a nomaly -150....Lc...:....::...:...:....:;.c...:....::..:.:..:..:.=.t._ _ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ _ __ _j
when the ocea n basin is 300 km wide: the
0 km profile shows t he Bouguer anomaly ~ .-------------------------------------~
when the continental crusts initially
collide: the +200 km profile reptcsents
200 of cuntinued crustal convergence - - Observed
(shortening.) after collision. Observed
Bou~ucr anomaly p rofiles (Fig. 8.49) for
-·-·- Calculated from Model
the e astern Alps (13" E) and western
Carpathians (20" E) arc superimposed.
a) Ocean basin and ho;dering passive
No Vertical Exaggeration
and convergent margin~ at a stage 300 km

J::£~~SE~~~~~~5E~~~~==~
before t he margins collide. Numbers in
0
parcmhascs arc density contrasts.. in
g/cm'. A Bouguer anomaly high occurs
over the ocea n h:.sin (Fig. X.~~ h). h) So[I ~ 1 00
Co/lisirm . C rustal configuration after o ne
continent has overridden the edge of the 200
other h)' 50 km. as in the western
Carpathians. A narrow Bouguer an omaly
(b) 50 km Continental low results from a depressed Moho
Crvstal Shonenlng ("keel") at the edge of the continental 5:1 Vertical Exaggeration
(W. CarpsthlaM} crust. c) /lard Colli.rimt. Situation after
175 km of continental crustal shorte ning
SOFT (easte rn !lips). A hroad low results from
a crust;ll root supporting the high
topography or the mountains (Fig. 8.3Sb).

(c) 175 km Continental

Crvstal Shortening
FIGURE 8.51 Oh.'irn·c·tl frer oir rmt113nn,cm•r gradty nnnmnlir.'i. olnng wilh nnnmnlirs
(E. Alps)
compw rd from th•nsir.r mntlel.frnm thr /'muwninn !1tt~in in central EuropP (47 ° N profile.
Fig. 1\.49). Assumed densi ty contrasts (in g/ cm' ) are rd:n ivc to typical c rusta l materials. The
HARD ···· model shows shallow mantle hcncath thin crust. supported hy elevated asthenosphere. Upper
cross section shows entire model. down to 2~0 km depth. with no vertical exaggeration.
~ower section is the upper ~0 km of the model. at S:l wnical exaggeration. illustrating the
'crustal thinning. The Oou~ucr ano maly hich. in this case. TeOects the shallow mantle. From
Lillie eta!. (1994). . . '

Mountain Range I f a lithospheric plate supports the topographic load of a
mountai n range. effects of the load may he distr ibuted over a broad region (Fig. 8.24b ).
Three important perturbations to gravity anom<!lies result (Fig. 8.52). 1) In the
region of the load (mountains). the Moho is not d epressed.as much for the flexural
case as it would be for the Airy case. resulting in higher gravity a nomalies. Relative
to th e Airy model. flexu ral strength thus means that the region of the mountains is
undercompensated. 2) In fro nt o f the mountains, there is a depression (foreland
basin) where none existed in the A iry case. TI1e top of the continen tal basement and
Moh o are depressed. leading to lower Bouguer gravity anomalies. Flexural strength
thus means that the region of the foreland basin is overcompensated. 3) At the flex-
ural bulges both the top of basement and the Moho are upwarped. resulting in free
air and Bouguer gravity anomaly highs.
Subductio n Zone (Conver gent Continental Margin) At a convergent conti-
nental margin. the main fo rm of the free air anomaly is an edge effect similar to that
of a passive continental margin (Fig. 8.33). ln o ther words, the main contributioit;
are a shallow. negative effect due to the water deepening seaward. compensated by
th e mantle shallowing in the same directio n. Where the d owngoing plate has (l e;.
ural strength. loads from ihe overriding plate are d istributed over a broad region
(Fig. 8.24a). Analogous to the mou ntain range (Fig. 8.52). three things result. 1)
Distributing the load meilns less d epression of t he Moho in the area of the accre-
tionary wedge. enhancing the edge' effect high . 2) TI1e wat er deepens and the Moho
is depressed in the region of the trench. enh~ncing the low portion of the edge ·effect
on the free air anomaly. 3) The water and Moho are shallow at the flex ur;l bulge.
produci ng both free air and Bouguer gravit y highs.
 Exe rcises 277
'-''dfJter 1$ Gravr ty and Isostasy

FIGURE8.52 H,vpvt!reticalmodel ii) Use the equation for the free air correction to estimate the negative contribution
s!rowilrg free air and Bouguer gravity due to the increased equatorial radius. iii) Use a 8o11g11er slab approximation
(assuming the average density of the Earth as the reduction density) to estimate
~ t-'---~~-;;::--t---.:...._-\-=;;:pok--_.::::-l
anomalies for a mou11win rnngt in local
0 (Airy) ami regional (fle.wre) isostatic the positive contribution due to the excess mass of the equatorial bulge.
E
equilibrium.~) Airy isostasy (Fig. 8.38) c) How does your answer for part (a) compare with the sum of the three contribu-
•200 Free Air Anomalies . results in a free: air anomaly profile with tions in (b)'! [f there is a significant difference, explain the error in terms of the
c:dge effects on both sides of the range.
and values fa lling to ncar zero over the methods a nd assumptions used in (b).
+200~~~~~----~------------------------------~
Bouguer Anomalies center.The: Bouguer anomaly is the low 8-2 Given the following data for a gravity station:
~ or-------~~----~1____~2~~~3~~ due to the mountain rooL b) Strength to
the lithospheric plate results in higher
Latitude: 48.1 195° N
Longitude: !2. 1878• E
-·-·· Airy~ ~ gravity anomaly values over the range Elevatio n: 487.9 m
_ to -Flexure ~:- •.-. -.•-.:.-?/-
...-.•-.•-.- ( l). with additional hi11.hs due to Oexural
200 Obs~rveJ gravity: 980,717.39 mGal.
bulging (3). Adjacent ~o the mountains
(2). the downwarpe<J Moho results in u) Calculate the: i) theoretical gravity: ii) free air correction: iii) Bouguer correction;
lower values compared to the Airy case: iv) free air gravity an.omaly: and v) Bouguer gravity anomaly.
those values are even lower if there is b) Suppose that the gravity station in (a) had exactly the same latitude. longitude and
significant densiiy controst between the observed gravity, but it ~vas located on the surface of the ocean. over a water depth
sediments and crystalline crust. of 487.9 m. Recompu~ the free-air and Bouguer gravity anomalies.
8-J Draw a block diagram of a passive continental margin in Airy isostatic equilibrium
(Figs. 8.20 and 8.32). assuming: topography at sea level over the continent: ocean water
3
depth of 5.0 km: wate r density of 1.03 g/cm3: crustal density of 2.67 g/cm for both the
oceanic and conti nental regions; mantle density of 3.1 g/cm3: oceanic crustal thickness
of 8.0 km: 60 km depth of compensation.
50 a) Calculate and show on the modd the corresponding cominenwl CTIISWI tltkkness
b) Flexure (Reglonalj Isostasy needed to achieve isostatic equilibrium.
Load (p- 2.67) Sediments (p- 2.67) h) Assuming semi-infinite slab approximations (Fig. 8.30). calculate then plot on a
graph above the model: i) contribution to the free air anomaly dut: to the water
dec:pening seaward: ii) contribution to the free air anomaly due: to the mantle shal-
lowing seaward: iii) free air anomaly: iv) Bouguer anomaly.
c) For this specific modt:l. explain why the f ree air mwnttd.v is cquivaknt to the wn-
trilmtion tftte to the water deepening seaward. added to the contrihllliun titre 10 tire
ma11tle slral/owi11g seaward. (Discuss in terms of the amplitude anJ the gratlierH of
each contribution). Based on your response. discuss the meaning of the term
"edge effect."
d) For this specific model, c:xplain why the comribtttiun due 10 the numtle slwl/uwing
seaward is equivalent to the Bouguer atwmaly. ls this always the case? Explain why
or why not.
8-4 Introductory geology textbooks often state that the top of oceanic crus, is lower
The left portion o f Fig. 8.39 shows this cha racteristic free a ir anomaly at the
than the top of continental crust because oceanic crust is more dense than continen-
conve rgent contine nta l margin of So uth A merica. The nex ural bu lge o n the
tal crust.
occa mc lithosphere results in a b r oad free air gravi ty high. adjacen t to the edge -
a) Design. compute and plot an isoswtic model to test this iJca. 1l1c model should
e ffc~t a no maly cons.is t ~ n g o f. a n e nha nced low over the tre nch and a high ove r the have the followi ng assumptions: i) the top of oceanic crust is about 5 km lower than
conttne ntal edge. StnHiar htgh/low/hig h a nomalies are e vident a t the Ale utian, the top of continental crust; ii) the Moho is exactly the same depth beneath the
Ce ntra l A me rican , a nd Carib bean s ubd uc tio n zones in the map on the back inside continental and oceanic crusts. (In other words. compute the differences in cntstal
cove r of this book . densities needed to achieve a f'rau model).
b) Design, compute and plot a modification of the isostatic model in (a). so that the
only difference is in cruswlthicknesses. {That is. assume that the continental and
EXERCISES oceanic crustal densities are the same. as in an Airy model). Use the same
8-1 a) Using the equation for theoretical gravity, compute the difference in gravity
assumption that the top of oceanic crust is 5 km lower than the top of continen ·
expected at the equator compared to the poles. tal crust.
h) Draw sketches and compu te the relative contribwions (in mGal) for each of the c) Develop a more realistic model which combines elements of the models in
three facto rs responsible for the differe nce (Fig. 8.4a). i) Use an equation for cen- (a) and {b). The model should involve changes in both crustal density and cmswl
tripewl accelermion to estimate the negative contribution due to Earth's rotation. thickness, as constrained by observations from data other than gravity. Does this
278 Chap:er 8 Gravity and Isostasy Exercises 279

refined model ~ug~cs11hmthe ;lclual situalion is closer to I he Airy or Prall hypOih· d) Discuss a geological inlerprelation of the model. How might the region have
esis? Explain. evolved 10 the lithosphere Slructure depic1ed in 1he model?
cl) Wrile a concise slatemenl for an inlroductor)' geology texlhook that explains why
I he top of oc.:anic crust is lower than 1he top of continental crus!.
+200 .-------------------------------------~
fl.:; True or False: ··Oc<'llllic cmst subductJ more rc11dily 1hn11 comillemnl crust hccouse
oceanic crust iJ more dense tlum cotlliii<'IIWI crust:· Discuss your answer. including
sketches and compulalions as support.
(ij
R-li A model of a basalt filled haJin is shown below. The basin is 5 km deep and I he crust
ou1side 1he basin is 40 km thick . 'The topography both m and ou1side of 1he basin is nat, ~
E o ;-----------------------------------~
exactly a1 sea level. Note 1hat the hasah densi1y (2.9 g/cm;) is higher than I hal of the
crust (2.7 g/ cnr'). TI1e manlic dcnsi1y is 3.3 g / cm;.
a ) Compute and il!us1rate on lhe model the change in Moho depth necessary lo
achieve isos1a1ic equilihrium. -200~-------------------1
h) Compu1c and plot the profile for 1he conlrihution 10 gravity made hy the basah·
1 km Topo Relief
filled hasin . Sea Level
r) Compute a nd plot the profile for the conlrihution 10 gravity caused by lhe change
in Moho depth. Crust 2.67 g/crrf3
d) Compute and plot the free air grovily anomaly profile.
c ) Compute and plol I he Bouguer gravity anomaly profile. Moho
1 km Moho Relief '

+50~-------------------------
· ------------.
Mantle Lithosphere 3.30 g/crrf3
ii
.i
?
Asthenosphere 3.26 gjcrrf3
...
-50~------------------------------~ 8-8 Draw a block diagram of a mountain range in Airy isostatic equilibrium (Figs 8.20 and
8.36). assuming: I he range is over 500 km wide: topographic relief of2 km; crustal den-
Sea Level sily of 2.8 gm/ cm3: manlle density of 3.3 gm/cm3; crustal thickness outside the range of
35 km: 60 km deplh of compensat ion.

~ Crust 2.7 g/crrf3

a) Calculate and show on I he model the dwnge in Moho dep1h needed to compensate
the topography.
~ b) Assuming semi-infinite slob approximations ( Fig. 8.30). calculate and plot on a
Moho
? graph above the model: i) contribution to free air anomaly due to crustal root;
ii) contribution to free air anomaly due 10 mass above sea le ve l: iii) free air anomal)•;
iv) Bouguer anomaly.
8-7 Densities and thicknesses for a highly simplified model of a cominental rifl are shown 8-9 Densities and thicknesses for a highly simplified model of a mowlloin range are shown
on the following page. • on page 280.
a) Calculate and skelch above I he model: i) conlribution 10 the free air anomaly due a) Calculale and sketch above I he m odel: i) contribution to free air anomalv due to
to the moss olwve sea level; ii) contribution to the free air anomaly d ue 1o the sho/- mass above sea level: ii) contribution 10 free air anomaly due 10 8 km thick cnlSiol
/oll' mamle l>cneoth 1he thin crust. 1'00/.
b ) Calculate and ske1ch on the modellhe change in dep th of lhe lithosphere/ ostlteno- b) Calculate and skelch on Ihe model t he dwnge in dep1h of lilhosphereloslhenosphere
spltcre boundary needed 10 achieve isosla lic equilibrium. bou11dary needed to achieve isos1a1ic equilibrium.
c) Calculate and skelch above the model: iii) contributi on to the free air anomaly due c) Calculale a nd sketch above Ihe mod el:'iii) contri bu1ion to free air anomaly due to
to the change in deplh of 1he /i!lJOspltere/nsthenospltere /Jotmdnry: h•) f ree air change in depth of lilhosphere/ nslh enosphere boundary; iv) free air anomaly for
nnomnly for entire model: v) Fl:'uguer nnomnly for e n lire modeL en lire model:,.) Bouguer anomaly for entire model.
280 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy Selected Bibliography 281

d) Discuss a geological interpretation of the model. How might the region hav~ !1·12 a) Using the maps of central Europ~ in Figs. 4.17. 7.34. and tl.49. draw profiks along
evolved to the lithosphere structure depicted? -17° N latitude of the: i) Moho: ii) li thosphere/ asthenosphere boundary: iii) Bouguer
anomaly.
b) Explai n relationships betwe~ n the profiks in (a ). in terms of mass distributions.
+ 2 5 0 - r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -....... isostasy. and tectonic evolutio n.

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

~0--t----------------~
E
Abers. G. A.. :ond H. Lyon-Cacn. l9'Xl. Regional grav·
itv anomalies. depth of the foreland l>asin and iso·
Duroy. Y.. A. Farah. and R. J. Lillie. 1989. Subsurface
densities and lithospheric ncxure of the
Himalayan forela nd in Pakistan. in: Tectani,·s uf
static compensation of the New Guinea highl:mus.
Trcto11irs. v. 9. pp. l479-1493. the Western Himalawrs. edited bv L. L.
Alhs. R. G.. t9X I. Continental underthrusting beneath :VI;tlinconico. Jr.. ami R. J. Lrllie.' Boulder.
the Southern Alps in New Zealand, Geology. v. 9. Colorado: Geological Society of America. Special
Paper 132.pp.21 7-236.
·250 pp. .103 -307.
Farah. A.. M.A. Mirla. :-.1. A. Ahmad. anti M. H. Bull.
Anderson. R. E.. M. L. Zoback . and G. A. 'n>Ompson.
1 tszrJ. [oe52. Relief l9l!J. Implications of sckcteu subsurf;~ce <.lata on 1977. Gravity field of the buried shield in the
I I ~'~VfJ./. the structural form anti c\'olution of some basins Punjab plain. Pakistan. Geologiarl Society of
in the norlh«!rn Ba)in :1nd Range provin.c~:Ncvada AmefiCII 8ul/etilt. v. 88. pp. II H-1 155.
~ Crust 2. 67 g/cf713 and Utah. Geolo,t;h-111 Surirt.v of Amt.•rictr /Jullt:tin . Fowler. C. :vf. R.. 1990. Tlrr Solid [arrlr: An
~ v. 94. pp. 1055-1072. lntmduction 1t1 Glubul GeoplrysifS. Cambridge:
Moho Oabu>ka. V.. J. Plomero,·a..ond I~ P;~jdu>:ik. l 9~ll. Cambridge Unl\·ersity Press. 472 pp.
8 km thick Lithospherc·,\sthenosphcre in central Eurupe: <larland. G. D.. 1979. lntroducrion IU GeopJr ,,·si<'s
~
Crusts/ Root ~loucls tleri\'eu (rum I' resiuuals. 1911~. In: (2nd ed.). Toronto: W, 0. Saunders Comp.. 494 pp.
..... Pm,·-.•dings oftlu· Nr EGT IVorkslw1J: Tir e UJ!t'" Ciriffith,, D. H.. anti R. F. Ki n~. 19111. Atlf'lid
[ Mantle lithosphere 3.30 g/crrf3
,\twult*, CummisstOn of thc
Communities. European Sc:icnc:c f-'oum.h1tion.
European Geophysics fo r Gt:ulogi:us m~tl Enginl!a:r:The
f:Jements of Geopltyriml f'fiJS(J<Cting (2nd cu.).
~ pp. 37-48. ~\!\\' York: P\!rgamon Press. 230 pp.

-8
?
Asthenosphere 3.26 g/crrf3
!1- lll Draw a eros.,· sectiun along B-13' shown on the map in Exercise 2-2. Notice that the lin~
c.~ tends from the Pacific Plate.. across the East Pacific Rist:, Peru-Chile Trench. South
America. the :VIid·Atlant ic Ridge. and a lithe way across the East African Rift.
a) lnclud~ a portrayal of how the depths to t he following boundaries might b~
cxpectcd to change along t he length of the cross section: i) wpogmphy and b~th vm·
etry: ii) Moho: iii) lithospherelasthenosplu:re boundary. · Societv of America. ~lcmoi r 172. pp. 2ll5-J 15.
b) lll.ustrate. on the cross section . the seismicity: iv) put X's where earthquake activity
mtght be expected to occur: v) draw focal meclumism diagmms. illustrating types of
faulting expected in various parts of the section:
c) Label in vario us parts of t he cross section: vi) approximate P-wave velocities
(kmf s): vii) approximate densities (g/ cm3).
d) ~raw graphs above the c ross section of: vii i) expected free air anomaly profile:
tx) expected Bouguer anomaly profi le. (Be sure to label each graph and include
a scale).
I!· II a) From the maps on the inside covers of this book, draw the topography and gravity
anomaly profiles across the United States along 40° N latitude. from 1000 km out in
the P;~cific Ocean to LOOO km o ut in the Atlantic Ocean.
h) Start a cross section by drawing the Moho along the same line of section from the
map in Fig.4.16.
c) Based o n (a) and (b). draw a n interpretation of the change in depth to the litho·
sphere/asthenosphere boundary. Write a n explanation for your sketch of the
boundary, in the context of isostasy for the ove rall model.
Oaker. 13. H.. P. A. ~lohr. and J. A. Williams. 1972. Tire
g<ulogy of tit< [nstan Rifr Sytfl'lll of Africa.
Boulder. Colorado: Geological Sodcty of
America.Spectal P:tpcr 136.67 pp.
13iclik. M.. 19X8. A preliminary stripp~d gravity map
of the Pannona<lO B~•sin . 1111p'h:s uf the l:urllr fllld
Plwwwry /meriors. v. 51. pp. lll5-lli<J.
Bon. :-.1. H. 1'.. 1'1:12. The btt<'fior <>/ t/1<• /;'artlt: Its
Strurwrt•. ConHiltiiiOtl ami £::,·nlmion (2m.l t:c.l.).
:-<cw York: Elsevi~r Science Put>.Comp.. 4113 pp.
Oraik. L. w.. 19:!9. Crus1al structure ur the continental
int...:riur. in: G,•opltysh'ul Frameu:ork of tin·
Contin<flllll Unit~•tf Swtt·s. «liteu by L. C. l'akiscr
and W. D. Mooney. Boulder. Colorauo: Geological
Chamala~n. E H.. K. Lockwood. and r\ . Whit~. 1976.
The Bouguer gra\'ity ikhJ .mU crustal structure nf
eastern Timor. Tecumopltysics. v. 30. pp. 241-259.
Cook. F. J\.. and J. E. Oliver. 1911 I. Th~ late
Pr~c:tmhrian-carly Palc.:070k continental edge in
t he Appalachian orogen. Amcrkm1 Journal of
Scient·e. v. 21)1. pp. 993-ICOS.
Couch. R. W.. and S. Woodcock, 19~1. Gravity and
structure o f the continental margins of southwest-
ern ~h.:xico and northwestern Guatemala. Journal
of GcoplrysiCIII Reserlfclt. v. 86. pp. IS29-l340.
Couch. R. W.. and R. P. Riddihough. 19ll9.11>e crustal
str uctu re of the western conlincntnl margin of
North America. in: Ct'ophy.ficlll Frmnework of tlu:
Cmrtine11lill Umtc<l Stat<>. <tlitcd by L. C. P:tkiser
:tnd W. D. Mooney. Boulder. Colorado: Geol ogic:~ I
Society of Amcric:t. ~l emuir 172. pp. l03- 12S.
D~ Bremaecher. J. C.. 1985. Gwplty.<i<'s: 71tr £urth ·,
/11terior. New York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc..
3~2 pp.
Grow. J. A.. 1973. Crustal and upper mantle structure
of th~ central Alcuti:tn Arc. Geulogiml Sodety uf
Ameri<'a 8ulh•tin. v. :!-1. pp. 2169-2191.
Grnw. J. A .. :tnd C. 0. Bowin. 1975. E,·iu<nce for high·
densitv crust anti manllc ben~ath the Chile Trench
due to the descending lithosphere. Jurmwl of
Gt•oplt,\•siml Rt•search. v. 110. pp. 1449-1458.
Grow. J.. R. Mattlick . and J. Schke. 1979. :VIultichanncl
sd~mic t.Jcpth M:ctiun~ :"~ntl interval ,·dodcics over
outer conli ncntal slope between Clpt: Hatteras
an<.J C;1pc Coc.l. in: Gt!olngifal ami G.:oph_vl·icul
/nve.~tigations of Cvmim:nwl ,\/drgitLJ. cc.litcd by
J. S. Watkins. L. :VIontadert. and P. \V. Dickinson.
Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists. Memoir 29. pp. 65- 83.
Hall. S. A.. J. F. Case\'. and D. L. Elthon. 1986. A possi·
bh.: cxplanataon ·of gr:wuy anomalies over mid-
ocean rid~t!s. Journal of GeOfJhy.sit·al Rrseardr.
v. 91. pp. 3724-3738.
Hanna. W. F.. R. E. Sweeney. T. G. Hildenbrand. J. G.
Tann~r. R. K. :-.lcConncll. and R. H. Godson. 1989.
Tit~ gravity anomaly map of North America. in:
Th~ c~ology of Nortlr Amrricn-r\n o~·rrview.
edited bv A. W. Ballv and A. R. P:tlmer. Boulder.
Colorado: Geologic;! Society of America. Decade
of North American Geolog~·· v. r\ , pp. 17-27.
Horvath. F.. 1994. Towards a mechanicol model lor the
formation of the.: Pannoni;m Basin. Tectono ·
tJitysics. v. 226. pp. 333-357.
Hutchinson. D. R.. J. A. Grow. K. D. Klitgord. and
0. /\. $\Vi(t. 19X3. Deep structure and evolution of
the.: Carol ina Trough. in: Swdies in Crmtinemal
M11rgin Genlngy. edited by J. S. Watkins :tnd C. L.
Drake. Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists. Memoir 34. pp. 129-152.
2S2 Chapter 8 Gravity and Isostasy
Karner, G. D.. and A. B. Walls. 1983. Gravily anorn·
ahcs and flexure of the lithosphere al mountain
ranges, Jmmrnl of G<ophysical Research. v. SS.
pp. 10449-10477.
Keen. C.. and C. Tramonlini. J9i0. A seismic refraction
survey on the mid·Allanlic rid~c. Jormrnl of the
Royal Amonomical Socrtty of Canada. v. 20.
pp. 47 3 -~91.
Kissling. E.. S. Mueller. and D. Werner. 1983. Gravity
anomalies. seismic structure and geothermal his·
lory of Central Alps. Amrnlcs Geophysics. v. l.
pp. 37-46.
Kru~c r. J. M.. and G. R. Keller. l9R6. lnlerprctalion of
crustal SlrUClUrC from rc!!-ional gravity anomalies.
Ouachita Mountains area and adjacent Gulf
Coastal Plain, Amrricm1 Associmion of l'clrofcum
Gcologi.<ts Bulletin. v. 70. pp. 667-6R9.
Lillie. R. J.. K. D. Nelson. U. dl·Voogd. J. A. Brewer.
J. E. Oliver. L. D. Brown. S. Kaufman. and G. W.
Viele. 1983. Crustal structu re of Ouachita
Mountains. Arkansas: A model hascd on integra·
lion of COCORP reflection profiles and re£-l<>na!
~cophysJc~l data. tlmcncar: As.'wcimiot• of
f'ctrolrum GeniCIJ:ists /Jrtllrtin. v. 67. pp. 907-931.
Lillie. R. J.. G. D. Johnson. M . Yousuf. A. S. H. Zamin.
and R. S. Yeats. JIJ!>7. Structural develop·
mcn1 within the Himala\·an foreland fold·and·
thrust hell of Pakistan. ;n: Srtlunrmnn· Bosms
m1d llmdtl·Formmg Mcchani.Hn.\. edited by
C fleau monl and A. J. Tankard. Cal!!ary:
Canadian SocielV or Petroleum Gcolo~islS.
MemOir 12. pp. 379-392. • Sahus. R. W.. and G. A. ·noompson. 1995. \\'hy is il
Lillie. R. J.. 1991. Evolution of ~ravilv anomalies
across collisronal mountain hells: Clues 10 the
amount of continental convcr~encc and under·
lhru~lln~. 'li·wmic.<. ,.. 10. Pi'· 672-M\7.
Lilhe. R. J.. M . llidik. \'. Bahu'ka. and J. Plomerod.
19~~- Gravity modelling or the lithosphere in the
Eastern Alpine· Western Carpathian-Pannonian
Basin region. 'li·omwplry.,ic.<. , .. 23. pp. 21 S-235.
Lowry. A. R.. and R. U. Smilh. 199~. flexural rigidity
of the Uasin and Ran~c·Colorado Plateau-Rockv
Mountain tr;tnsition from coherence analvsis ~f
~r:mly and topography. Jmrr11ol uf G<·apiryJicol
Rrsenrclr. \'. 99. JlJl· 20123-201 40.
Lyon-Cacn. H .. and 1'. Molnar. 1983. ConMrainls on
the structure of the H tmahwa from an analv~i~ of
gral'ily anomalies and a ricxural model of lhc
lilhosphcrc.Joumnl of Groplry.<icnl Rrsrnrclr. v. 88.
pp.8171 -Sl91.
Lvon-Cacn. H .. and P. Molnar. 19S5. Gra1i1v anom·
· alies. flexure of the Indian plate. and the siructurc.
support and evolution or the Homalaya and Ganga
Bason. Trcto11ic.<. , .. 4. pp. 51.~-538.
Madsen. J. A .. and R. S. Detrick. 1990. A two- and
three-dimensional analysi~ of gravity anomalies
associaoed with the Ea~l Pacific Rise al 9° N and
u· N. Joumol of Gropii\'Sical Rc.<enrch. v. 95.
pp. 4967- 4987.
Malinconico. L. L.. 1986. The structure of the Kohislan
Island-A rc terrain in northern Pakistan inferred
from gnwity data. Tecwnophysics. v. 124.
pp. 297- 307.
Selected Bibliography 283
Malinconico. L. L.. J989, Crustal thickness estimates Talwani. M.. J. L. Wortcl. and M . Lnndisman. 1959. Turcollc. D. L.. and G. Schubert. 1982. G<·u<lynamics:
for the wrstcrn Himalaya. in: ·,-f!ctomc.s of the Rapid gravity computation lor two·duncnsional Applicauons of Continuum Pirystcs 10 Gealugtcttl
1Ves1<•m Himn/m·n.<, edited bv L. L. Malinconico. bodies with application lo the Mendocino subm<t· l'roll/cms, 1\cw York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc..
Jr.. and R. J. Liliie. Boulder. Color"do: Geological nne fracture zone. Journal of Geophysicul 450 pp.
Society of America. Spcci:.J Paper 132. Rcsenrclr. v. 64. JlJl. 49-59. Walcoll. R. 1.. 1970. Flexure of lhe lithosphere at
JlJl· 237-242. Talwani. M.. X. Le Pichon. and M. E" ing. 1965. Hawaii. Tectonophy.<ics.v. 9, pp. 435-446.
McKenzie. D.. and C. Bowin, 1976, The relationship Crustal structure of the mid-occ;on rid~cs:
Walls. A. n., and J. R. Cochran. 1974. Gravity anom·
hctwecn boHhymet ry and gntvity in the Atlantic 2. Computed model from gravity and seismic
alics and flexu re of the lithosphere along the
Ocean. Jormwl of Geophysical ReuMch. v. 81 . refraction data. Journal of Ge.Jphy.<ical Rc.<corch.
Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, Geophysical
PI'· 1903-1915. "· 70.pp.34J-352. Journal of th e R oyal Asrronomicol Society. v. 38,
Molnar. P.. 1'.184. Structure and tectonics of the Telford. W. M.. L. P. Geldarl. R. E. Sheriff. and D. A. Jll'· I 1'.1-141.
Himalaya: Constraints and implic;nions of !!CO· Keys, 19i6. Applird Geophysics. Cambridge:
physictrl data. Am;unl Revieii'S of Earth 011d Walls. A. B.. and N. M. Ri he. 1984. On geoid heights
Cambridge University Press. 860 pp.
l'lnlfctnry Sci<'llff. v. 12. JlJl· 489-512. and flexure of the lithosphere at seamounts.
noomas. M. D.. 1983. Tectonic significance of paired Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 89,
Nculcton. L. L.. 1971. Clemc11tnn· Grm·itr mod gravity anomalies in the southern and central I'Jl· 11 152-J 1170.
Mogn<'lics for Geologi.<l.l am/ Gcophysicisu: Tulsa: Appalachians. in: Comriluuions til the Tccto mcs
Society of Exploration Gcophysocists.. Monograph nnd Geophysics of Mounwin Chains. edited by Woclk.T. S.. and J. Hinze, 1991. Model of the midcollli·
ncnt r ift system in northeastern Kansas. GC'olog)'.
Series l. 121 pp. R. D. Hatcher. H. Williams and l. Zietz. Boulder.
Colorado: Geological Society of America. Memoir , .. 19, pp. 277- 2li0.
Nvbladc.A .. nnd H. N. Pollack. J992.A Gravilv Model
· lor the Lithosphere in Western Kenya and north· 158. pp. 113- 124. Woodside. J. M.. 1972. The Mid·Allamic Ridge ncar
45° N.: The gravity field . Canadian Joumal of
Cil~tcrn Tanz;mia. Tectnnophysics. v. 212. Tomek. C.. 1988. Geophysical investigation of the
Earth Science.,.. 9. pp. 942-959. 1972.
pp. 25i- 26i. Alpinc·Carpalhian Arc. in: Evolmion o.f thr
Ocola. L. C.. and R. 1'. Mcvcr. 1973. Central North Northcm /lfnrgi" of Tetlry.> (volume 1). edited hy Woollard. G. 1'.. 1943. Transcontinental ~ravit alinn ;o l
American rifl svslem. 1. Structure or the axial zone M. Rakns. J. Dcrcourt and A. E. M. Nairn. Paris: and magnetic profile of North America ;ond il>
from seismic ~md ~ravimctric data. Journal of Mcm. Soc. Gcol.. Nouvelle Scric 1\o. I ~4. relation lo geologic structure. Gwloxicnl Sucicty
Gm11h)'.I/Cnl Rc.«nrch. v. 7!>. pp. 5173-519J. JlJl. lt\7-199. of AmNico Bulleriu. v. 44. pp. 7~7-7R9.
l'akoser. L. C.. and Mooncv. W. D.. 1989.1ntroduclion.
in: Gropltysicfll 1-ran;ru·nrk of tlrC' Colllin~ntal
Uuitrd Swte.<. edited hv L. C. Pakiscr and W. D.
Mooney. Boulder. Colo;ado: Geological Society of
Amcnca. Memoir 172. pp. 1-9.
downhill from Tonopah to Las Vegas?: A case for
mantle plume support of the high northern Basin
and Range. Trc1011ics. ''· 14. pp. 1235-1244.
Sd;~ra. J.. 19R6. Various nspccl> of lithospheric inter·
fnces modcllinf.. S/mr. Cu>l. \led. Uzitn Gcofy~ ..
v. 21. Jlp. 9-2R.
Serpa. L.. T. Selzer. H. Farme r. L. Brown. J. Oliver. S.
Kaufman. J. Sharp. and D. W. Steeples. 19X4.
Structure of the southe rn Keweenawan Rifl from
COCORP surveys across the midcontinent gco·
phy;';ical anomal~· in northeastern Kan sas.
Trctn.iic.<. ''· 3. pp. 367-J/!4.
Simpson. R .. R. Jachens. R. Blakely. and R. Sahus.
1986. A new isostatic residual !'-ravity map or the
conlcrminou> United Suolcs with a discussion on
the si~ni fic.1nce of iso<latic residual anomalies.
Jmrr11~l of Geophy.<icol Rcsrorclr. ,.. 91.
pp. 8348-8372.
Stacey. F. D.. 1992. l'hy>~c.< of the £ortlr. Brishane.
Australia: Brookfield Press..513 pp.
Stockmal. G. S.. C. flcaumonl. and R. Boutilier.
1986. Geodynamic models or convcrj!enl margin
tectonics: Transition from rihcd marcin to over·
thrust bell and consequences for foreland-basin
development. Amcricmr Association of l'rtrolrum
G<·ologm.< Bullrti11.v. 70. pp. 181-190.
Swain. C. J.. 1992. 11te Kenva Rifl Axial G ra,·itv
High: A Rc-lnlerprclalion: Tectolloplry.<ics. , .. 204.
pp. 59-70.
Talwani. M.. 1970. Grn1•ity. in Tire Sra (volume 4).
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and Sons. Inc. pp. 251-296.
 Earth's Magnetic Field 285

The magnetic method has many important applications. Anomalies induced by

Earth's natural field give clues to the geometry of magnetized bodies in the crust.
CHAPTER 9 and the depth to sources of the anomalies. The depth to the deepest sources of
anomalies (Curie Depth) ill ustrates the depth below which rocks are too hot to
retain strong magnetization (Curie Temperature). Studies of rocks that have been
Magnetic Interpretation permanently magnetized (paleomagnetism) give clues to the ages of the rocks, the
latitudes at which they formed. and to the relative positions of continents in the past.

magnu (ll~tlg'nir) n .. [ < OFr. < magnes < Gr. Magnetis.sru11 e of

Magn~sra l: a prece of rron. sree/, or loclesrone rirar iras rire properry of
aurm.:tmg tron, steel. etc.
EARTH 'S MAGNETIC FIELD
fo rce (fors) n., [ ~ OFr. < LL.. L. fortis, slrongl. lire cause, orngenl.
thlllf!uts a~ obJect m rtst imo motion or alters the motion of a
movmg object. · About 98% of Earth 's magnetic field is of internal origin, thought to be caused by
magnelicforce (mag ner'ik fu rs) n., lire tlllrncring o r ,.pel/ing force motions of liquid metal in the core: the remaining 2% is external. of solar origin.
between a magnet mrd a ferromaxneric mmerinl. Unlike the gravitational field. which is essentially fixed. the magnetic field has secu-
field lfi:!dJ 11., [0£. fcld!·" spt1cein wiriclr lines of force are aclive.
nragnencfldd (mag llfl rk file/) n., n region ofSfJtiCe in wlridr 1/rere is lar variations. Measuremc:nts in Europe since the 1600's show that the direction of
rm apprecwble magnetic force. the magnetic field has gradually drifted westward at rates up to 0.2° per year. The
in1trprt1 (in rur'pril} w.. [ < Mfr. . < L. interpretnri < intcrpres. overall strength of the field lias also decreased by about 8% in the last !50 ycars. In
negoumorJ, to explam the mewwrg of; tv give one's own
wulerstmuling of addition. several factors result in daily. monthly. seasonal. yearly. and longer period
magnttic i~ ttrprtta tio n (mag net 'ik intur'pr:J fti'sh:»r) n.. 1111 variations in the magnetic fi.: ld. Thc:r.: arc also sporadic variations ("magnetic
explmrauun of the tlistrihutiun of magnetic IIUifl:rials wulun the storms") which mom.:ntarily disrupt the field.
Earth tltm cuust.•s observed dwnges in £ artlt l· mngm:th: jidd.

Ax ial Dipo lar M odel

The magn~tic fie I~ obs.:rved <~t Earth's surface varies considerably in both strength
A magnetic d ipole, inclin.:d about 10.9 ° from Earth's rotational axis. can be used to
~nd dt rectlon. Unlike gravitational acceleration. which is directed n.:arly p.:rpendic-
describe about 90% of Earth's internal field. With such a model Earth's magnetic
ular to Earth 's surface. m~gnetic fie ld directions change from nearly horizontal at
fie ld is analogous to that of a bar magnet (Fig. 9.2). A homogeneous Earth with such
the equa.tor, to nearly vertical at the poles (Fig. 9.1). The variation in strength of the
a dipole wou ld have north and south magnetic poles ("geomagnetic poles") .:xactly
gravtty fteld IS only about 0.5% ( = 978.000 mCa/ at the equator. 983,000 mCal at
the poles). compared to doubling of the magnetic field("" 30,000 nT at the eq uator. 180° apart (Fig. 9.3a).
60.000 nT at the poles). The complex source of Earth's magnetism. however. produces lines of force
that vary considerably from that of a simple dipole. The actual north and south mag-
n.:tic poles (that is. positions where the field is vertical) arc no t 180° apart: thc:y devi-
ate considerably from both the geomagnetic and the geogra phic poles (Fig. 9.3b).
a) Gravity Field b) Magnetic Field
.,........ ---·---..-·-.. ,~

~,/'.,.,

.~ a) Earth b) Bar Magnet

FIGURE 9.1 Mugnirrull's ullll direcrions of Earrlr sgmviry Wit( mugnelic fielrl.t. a) TI1e gravity field ·. · 1 • · 1 ·h FIGURE 9 .2 Earth's magnetic field is similar to that of a oar magnet. with the negative magnetic pole in the northern hemisphere
only lihghl vanatJOn in rna. nitudc Cr "' , • . • as appro:<amatc y vcrttca . wn
direction. g om .qua tor to pole. b) Inc magnetiC field shows s trong varia tio ns in both magnitude and and the posi tive magnetic pole in the southern hcmisphcre.ll1c positive end of a compass needle (defined o riginally as "north·
seeking") thus points roughly toward the geographic north pole.
284
 286 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretat ion Earth's Magnetic Field 287

i"" +90° (Downward)

(Upward) b) Magnetic Declination

FIGURE 9.3 !Oarth:r magnrtic pole.< a) Grnmagnctic poles. according 10 a b e~l-fil dipolar model. These poles arc exactly 1&0• a parl.
dcvi a1i n~ 10.9 "· fromlhc ~cographic poles (North G conw~nelic Pole= 79.) " N. 7J.J • W:South Geomagnetic Pole= 79. 1° S. 108.9'
E). h ) Acwal ma.~nttic poles. where the ma~nclic field is vertical. a rc not ISO• apart (North Magnetic Pole = 7S• N. 101 • W. on
a)Magneuc/ncfinauon
Balhhurst bland. Cana da: Soulh Magnetic Pole = 67• S. 143' E. in northeast Anlarcl ica). FIGURE 9.4 Magnetic inclitwtinll n11d dcclillatirm. a) The angle bct\\c.cn magnet it lines of force (Fig. 9.J b) and a
horizontal ground surface is Ihe maf!nelic inclination (i). b) TI>e magrn:tic decli nation (b) is the angle a compass
needle devi al c~ from geographic north.
Strength and Direction of Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is composed of vectors, having both magnitude and direction.1l1e
orientation of a compass needle illustrates the direction of Earth's magnetic field FIGURE 9.5 Components of Iota)
(Fig. 9.4). ma~n~lic field vec1or defined in 1c xt.

1l1e magnetic inclination (i) is the angle that a compass needle makes with a
horizon tal ground surface (Fig. 9.4a). A compass needle points vertically toward the
ground at the north magnetic pole ( +90° inclination), straight upward at the south
magnetic pole ( -90° inclination). At the magnetic equator. a horizontal compass
needle indicates an inclination of 0°.
1l1e angle between <1 compass needle and true (geographic) north indicates
the magnetic declination (1\). 1l1e north magneti~ pole lies approximately along a
line (roughly the arc of a great circle) running t!irough the central United States to
the geographic north pole: a compass need le would point close to true north along
that line. In the northwest United States. a compass needle deviates about 20° east-
ward from geographic north (Fig. 9.4h).
Unli ke gravity. where sl ight deviations from vertical are commonly not signifi-
cant, knowledge of the direction of Earth ·s magnetic field is critical. A vector that
describes the magnetic field strength and direction from a given position can be bro-
ken in to its components as follows (Fig. 9.5):
F= total magnetic field vector
F11 = horizontal component of total field vector
F~' = north component of horizontal vector
FE= cast component of horizontal vector
Fv = vertical component of total field vector
i = angle of magnetic inclin ation
1\ = angle of magnetic declination.
The magnitude (F) of the total magnetic fie ld vector (or total field intensity) is:
F = \IF~ + F~. = VF~ + F~ + F~.
 288 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation'
Magnetization of Earth Materia ls 289
where:
FIGURE 9.6 Earrh s magneric field.
From Porenrial Theory in G raviry tm d
FH = magnitude o f horizom al component of total field vector Magneric Applicarions, by R. Blake ly.
Fv = magnitude of vertical component of total field vector © t995 Cambridge U n iv~rsit y Press.
FN = magnitude of north compone nt of total field vector R~print~<l with th~ pem1issio n o f

FE = magnitude of east component of total field vector Cambridge University Press. New York.
a) lnrensuy va ries from about 30.000 nT
The magnetic inclination and declination are: near the magnetic equator, to abou t
60.000 n T at the poles. b) /nclinarion is
i = tan - t(Fv/FH) o·
roughly nea r the magnetic equa tor,
90" ncar the poles. c) Declination. in
6 = tan - t(Fd F.'I) <legrees. is most pronounced nea r the
The ax ial dipole model simplifies discussion of Earth's ove rall field because magnetic poles.
eq uations can be developed to describe the strength and di rection of the field. With
such a model the magnitudes of the horizontal , vertical. and total field ~<ectors are
(B utler, 1992):

where:
' of the Earth
R = radius
3
M/R = total field intensity at the magnetic equator
4> = magnet ic latitude (for axis inclined 10.9° from the true rotational
axis; Fig. 9.3a)
TI1e magnetic inclination for an axial d ipole also varies systematically with magnetic
latitude as:

tan i = 2 tan <1>

The equation expressing the tota l field intensity (F) illustrates that unlike the
gravity field, which decreases by l/ R2 • the magnetic intensi ty falls off by l/ R3. The
same equation is analogous to the theoretical gravity formula discussed in Chapter 8.
It thus illustrates that, for a value ofF= M/ R3 "' 30,000 nT at the magnetic equator
(4> = 0°), the total fie ld intensity doubles to about 60,000 nT at the magnetic pole
(<I> = 90°). Earth 's field. though complex, approximates the axial dipolar model
(Fig. 9.6a). Observed inclinations and declinations (Fig. 9.6b, c) also show ge neral
agreement with that idealized model.

MAGNETIZATION OF EARTH MATERIALS

Earth 's magnetic field is pert urbed locally by materials that are capable of being
magnetized. Perturbations in the direction of the field ca n be illu$trated by movi ng
a magnet around a compass; the inclina tion and decli nation of the compass needle
change in response to the position of the magnet (Fig. 9.7). Likewise. when magne -
tized rocks occur at or below Earth ·s s urface, the direction and magnitude of
Ea rth 's ove rall magnetic field change sl ig htly. It is th u$ important to understand the
290 Cha pter 9 Magnetic Interpretation Magnetization of Earth Materials 29 1

,,\,,'''
\ ,, \,, ', \
\,
\,
\
'\.\
\ ''\ ,,\,.........<~::~~~;;:~~:····
............ ...... ...... ...... ..
"".... ....... . ........
........
\

\\
...
.......... . ........, '
~

.. .... ....... ')"'\\ \ ~.....'\\

.. ............ J!
I I
:: :
I I
Q· ~
~
I
~
TAB LE 9.1 Typical magnetic susceptibili ties of some
common Eart h materials.
Material
Magnetite
Magnetic Susceptibility
10000 X J0- 5
\
I
I
I
I
I
I Peridotite 500 X 10- 5
I t t I
: : ! Basah /Gabbro 200 X 10- 5
~
0
~
0
:
I Diorite 20 X J0- 5
0 0 I
0
I
0
I I
I
Sandstone 10 X J0- 5
:' '~ '\ Granite 1 X 10-s
'' '' ''
I \ \
Salt -1 x 10-s
' ' \
'' ' ' ' ' \ \

a b '' \ ''\ ' \

\
\

FIGURE 9.8 1)p~s of magnetic bdtov10r.

FIGURE 9.7 a) Compass responding 10 Eanh's ambienl magnelic field . b) Magne1 causes a local a) Diamagnetic a) Diamagnc1ic minerals acquire a weak
de via lion of Earth's field . EB.rlh's Ambient Ae/d magne1iza1ion ciJ oppo•ilc 10 lhe cx1ernal
ftcld (F.,..). b) The magnclil.ation in
pnramagnrtic minerals is weak bu1 in the
propensity of various types of materials toward magnetization, and how the magne-
same di rection as I he eXIernal fie ld.
tization locally affects Earth 's field. c) A strong magneli7.alion. in lhe same
Units of measurement employed in magnetic field studies can be confusing to direction as the external field . occurs in
Induced [ ] _
nonspecialists (see pp. 15-18 of Butler. 1992). For applications discussed here. it is
sufficient to appreciate the relationship between the magnitude of Earth's total
Magnetization JI£J fcrromagnruc minerals. fNote: In a s1ric1
sense. solids "'ilh coupling of a1omic
magnetic momenls may be lerromagnelir
magnetic field (F) and the magnetization (i). induced within a body of magnetic sus-
(parallel magnelie momenls).
ceptibility (x). A typical magnetic survey employs a proton precession magnetome- b) Paramagnetic anliferromagnelic (antiparallel magne1ic
ter, which measures the magnitude (intensity) of the total field vector. but not the momenls). or fcrrtm agnclic (~nliparallel
direction. The In ternational Standard (Sl ) unit for both magnetic field intensity and
magnetization is the ampere /meter (1 Am- 1 = I es·lm- 1). while magnetic suscepti-
\.\. \s \. \.\. Famb magnetic momenls thai do not cancel). As
in DUller (1\192) and Blakeley (1995) lhc
term " ferromagnetic" is u~cd here in a
bility is dimensionless. The uni t of magnetic inducti on, the tesla (T) is also equiva-
general sense for allt~cc cases.)
lent to I Am - 1• For convenience and to avoid confusion. the nanotesla
(I nT = I0- 9 T) is used in this text to express both magnetic field intensity and mag-
netization. In the older literature intensity is sometimes expressed in gammas
(J -y = J nT): intensity may appear in oersted (J Oe = JO>T/ 471'), magnetization in c) Ferromagnetic
gauss (1 G = JO'T). . -
• The magnitude and direction of magm~i.izat ion induced within a material \.'\ \. \. '\\. Famb
depends on the magn itude and direction of ihe external (ambient) field . and the
abil ity of the material to be magnetized: ~~
,...,-j_=_x_F_.m_h,_, ~J
when::
j = induced magnetization of the material Types of Mag netic Behavior
x = magnetic susceptibility of the material The type o! magnetism exhibited by a mineral. in the presence of an external mag-
F.mh = magnitude and direction of the ambient field. netic field. depends on the mineral's magnetic susceptibility. If a body containing
The magnetic susceptibility (x. a dimensionless quantity) is a measure of the the mineral is placed wi th~n an external (ambient) magnetic field (F•.,"). the body
degree to which a substance may be magnetized. The overall susceptibilit y of a rock acquires a magnetization (J) with intensity proportional to the overall magnetic sus-
is roughly equivalent to the susceptibility of the magnetic mineral (or minerals) pre- ceptibility of the body.
sent. limes the percentage of that mineral (or minerals). divided by 100. Table 9.1
illustrates that the amount of iron in a material, particularly in the form of the min- Diamagnetism (x = -10- 5) A diamagnetic mineral. such as halite (rock
eral magnetite (Fe,O.). strongly influences magnetic susceptibility. Ultramafic and sa lt ). has negative magnetic susceptibility, acquiring an induced magnetization
mafic rock$ (peridotite, basalt, gabbro). which arc rich in magnetite. ha ve high sus- opposite in direction to an applied external field (Fig. 9.8a). The weak magnetiza-
ceptibilities compared to felsic rocks (d iorite. sandstone. granite). tion results from alteration of electron orbitals as force from the external field is
 - :::J· ' -"' ' '" ..... c;•p• c;loltOfl Interpretation of Ind uced M agnet ic Anomalies 293

applied to the material. Susceptibilities of onl about -w-s . in the direction of the ambient magnetic field. As the rock lithifies. the orientation
lion is on the order of l/IOO 000 h h . Y '. mean that magneuza- of the magn.::tic domains may be frozen into the rock. Th is remanent magnetization
. l l e ~tre n gth ot the exte rnal field.
remains even after the ambient field changes (Fig. 9.9b): it is commonly S times as
. Paramagnetism
. . . (X =- + w-•) Th e magneuc . susceptibil ity of paramaonet ic great as the magnetizat ion induced by the present field .
mmera 1s IS posJttve· they acqu · e
(Fio 9 Sb) Th . . •r a magnettsm parallel to an exte rnal"' field
.
·,"'· · . · . e magn eu s~ occurs as magnetic moments of atoms are artiall
at hJnedf m tkhe prese nce ot tl~e external field. Most magnetic minerals ex~ bit thi~ INTERPRETATION OF
ype o wea magneuc behav 10r. INDUCED MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
Induced magnetization resul ts from application of an ~xterna l magnetic field: the
Ferromagnetism
. (x =- +. w-•) rn some metallic . mmerals
. rich in iron cobalt magnetization in turn leads to a local field about the magnetized body. In the
~anga~ese. or ntckel. atomtc magnetic momen ts align strong! with an ~xternai al:>s~nce of r.: ma n~ nt magnetization. th.: total magnt::tic fit:ld observed in the vicinity
fteld (Ftg. 9.8c). Susceptibilities on the order of w-• indic·ue tha{tl ' , ·. , . ' of a magnetic l:>ody is the sum of Earth's ambient field at that location and the field
1s m the same d' t'100 d ' 1e magnc uzauon
Und . tree as, ~n about 1/ 10 the magnitude of, the external field. induced within the magnetic. body (Fig. 9.10}:
e ~ some Circumstances md uced magnetiza tion ma remain i f .
maten als, even after the external field is removed (rema~ent magn;tiz::~ci~~gneuc
.I f = F.mh + F ind I
Ty pes of Magnetization when;:
~l:gnet.iz~~ion of .a rock occurs. in two ways: it can be induced by Eart h's prese nt ~- = total magnetic fidd
gncllc held. or It could have lormed some time in the past. as the rock li th ificd. F.,,b = Enrth's ambient mngnctic field in region
F ind = induced magnetic field.
exter~~~~~~: Mllgnetization Earth's ove rall (or ambient) magne ti.:: field is an Loca l perturbations in Earth 's field thus provide clues to the pres.:nce of mag-
t~ken out that ca~ cause rock~ to be temporarily magne tized (Fig. 9.9a). Wh.:n netica lly susceptible matl!rials in the subsurface. Such materials can h.: studied by
d d ~f the amb1ent held, th1s mduced magnetization may be lost. The mao ni- subtracting the.: avt:rage value of the ambie nt field in the region from the total field.
tu e an . dlre.cuon o(_the lllduced field depends on the magnitude and di rectio~ of
the ambient field and the magnetic susceptibility of the rock. yieldi ng the induced field surrounding the material:

. Remanent
. , . Magnetization. Whe n rocks form. the magneuc . domai ns of some I Find = f - f omh I
mlnerab (parucularly magnetite} behave as compass need les, orienti ng thems.elvt:s Even though the total magnetic field is a vector (f). with both magnitude and
di rection. studies of subsurface suscept ibility can be accomplished by taking simple
measurements of on ly the magn itude of the total field (F). The tOtal frehl anomaly
a) Induced Magnetization FIGURE 9.9 Types ofmngnfti~<uivn.
a.) In the pr~scnce of an external magMiic
p F) is computed by subtracting the magnitude (intensity) of the ambient field
(F1 mb) from F (Fig. 9.10c):
Famb\.\. \.\\\ ftc.!l<.l . mtlgnetization may be imfltt•t:tf in a
material. :VIaterials commonlv los~ their
in<.fuccc.J magnetiza tion whc.::n .the cxh:rnal I~F = F - F....h I
field is removed. b) Some materials ~ F is analogous to the gravity anomaly obtained by subtracting the obse rved
I J;nd I rcm:un magnc:tizc:J :lftcr the external field
is removed. retaining a rt•fltnllt!nt
magnetization.
gravity (g) from the theoretical gravity (g,) , according to the latitude of a station
(see Chapte r 8). A notable difference is that, wh ile the overall gravity field (= g,)
Msgnet/z9d while In Loses Magnetizadon when has simplt! changes that correspond closely to latitude. the overall magnetic fie ld
ESJ1h's Ambient Field Ambient Field Removed
(=- f,,mb) has changes that are complex: the values for F•mb must therefore be esti-
mated empi rically (for example. from a map, as in Fig. 9.6a).
b) Remanent Magnetization
Geometry o f Magnetic Bodies in the Subsurface
Famb\'\ \ \ \ \ Magnetization is induced in a material according to the direction and magnitude of
Earth's ambient field. and the magnetic susceptibility (x) of the material. Fig. 9.11
illustrates that. because the ambient field lies at varying angles (inclinations) with
'I ~nd ~ ~em respect to Earth's su rface. the fo rms of induced magnetic anomalies dep.:nd on lati-
tude. The induced magnetization (.1) with in the body is parallel to the ambient field
Magnetlz9d while in Retains Magnedzstion when
Earth's Ambient Field Ambient Reid RemoV9d
(F.mh), according to j = xF.mh· .1 in turn leads 10 an induced field (Find). Where (Find)
crosses the surface with a component in the same direction as f.•.,h• the tota l field
294 Chapter 9 M agnetic Interpretation Interpretation of Induced Magnetic Anomalies 295

a
I
a) Magnetic North Pole (i
,.+90°)
=

+60.~:~~ I
~~ ~ -

+5~000nT~------------------~

!l!!l
Ee.rth's Surfsce
Sutface

b
+60,01;! ~
+59,ooonr. . . . t--~~ b) Magnetic Equator (i = 0°)
South + North

!!!!!
:!;!;..,
~ .. G::'
Famb! _!:
~g~
~"'
0

c
;~o nrl
iJ~0~·--~~~-71:\~~~--
. ~~
-500 nT~-------------------
~ ~_:arne direction FIGURE 9. 11 At different magnetic latitudes. magne tic anomalies from the
BS Famb same magnetic body (that is. a body of exactl y the same shape. size, dep th. and
magnetic susceptibility. x) are quite different. a) At thr magnetic north pole.
===9> ~ opposes~ Earth's ambie nt field (F,.,.) is strong("' 60.000 nT) and points dow nward
(macnetic inclination i = 90"). Where the induced field (F1• 6 ) points in the
F~GUR E 9.10 Tom/ .field mngnc1ic anomaly produced by localmagnclic bod.". a ) Earth's ambie nt fie ld sam~ direction as F,.,. (gray shading). the total field anomaly (AF) is positive.
(F,.,.l has magni}udc of se,·cral thousand nT. with \'Cry lo ng wavelength changes. b) A body of Negati ve total field a nomalies occur where the two fields o ppose one
magnetization ( J ) is surrounded by an induced magnetic h eld (1°1• 6 ) . with amplitudes of perhaps a anothe r. b) At the magnetic equator. F,.,. is horizontal (i = 0 ") and weaker
few hundred nT occurring over much shorte r wavelengths. Tite total magnetic field (FJ that results ("' 30.000 nT ). The magnetization Ol is s mallcr.lead ing to a wcak_cr induced
is the sum of the ambient a nd induced fields. c) Subtracting the magn itude of the ambient fi e ld fi eld. TI1c total field a nomaly is th us lower amplitude than in (a). F'"6 opposes
(F,.,,) from that of the total fi e ld (F) yie lds the total field a nomaly (A F). A profile of AF thus F,m• over the bod y. leading to negative AF values. (Modified from R. F.
renects the effect of t he induced field. Butler. personal communication. 1996).
 Pa leomagnetic Studies 297
296 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation ·
b) 45' North Msgll8(fc Latitude{/•. +45')

+]
...-·/ .-.I· "·~...
anomaly (AF) is positive. In areas where F;nd has a component opposite to F•mb• AF is
negative. For the same body, magnetic anomalies observed at the magnetic north
pole (Fig. 9.l la) and the magnetic equator (Fig. 9.11b) are thus quite different. (The
~]
problem is even more complicated, because the direction of the magnetic profile is i
i
also important. Fig. 9.11b assumes a profile running in a south-north direction. cut-
ting across induced field lines. East-west profiles would parallel induced field lines, +] ~
resulting in a different total field anomaly profile). c) MB{J116/Jc Equator (I • 0') ~OJ!~
Although some magnetic surveys are undertaken on the surface, an airplane is
an effective means to cover large areas and to record large amounts of data. Unlike
. +j I
~- -1--~·--~··~·---r
1'7''
• "
l ---·~~·~·~--
-~
Sll11C!
'F......,'- ! ! 9
I ~

l
I

gravity surveys, which require a platform with no (or relatively small. predictable)
motions. a standard proton precession magnetometer can be towed behind an air-
~~
i
plane. Such aeromagnetic surveys measure the magnitude (F). but not the direction,
of the total magnetic field. That measurement. along with knowledge of the local
magnitude of Earth 's ambient fie ld (F,n,h), is sufficient to determine the {otal field
~ :_-"l_,.,.,~o;:--
-i\-':7'"-----~-
magnetic anomaly (il.F). TI10s. whi le magnetic anomalies are commonly more com- d) 45' South Mag116/Jc I.AJJtvcM(I • ~·) J -Fwrb....i l g
plex to interpret due to their latitude and direction dependence. adequate coverage Surtg
J

of an area is generally easier to attain compared to gravity surveying.

Forward modeling of magnetic anomalies can be used to interpret the distrib-
ution of magnetic susceptibility contrasts (t.x) in the subsurface. analogous to esti-
mating density contrasts (:lp) from gravity data. Changes in the magnitude and
direction of Earth's ambient field. however, make the forms of magnetic anomalies
far less intuitive than gravity anomalies. TI1e same mass anomal y. buried at a given
depth. will produce essentially the same gravity anomaly anywhere on the Earth;
magnetic anomalies from the same body. however. vary in form and amplitude
according to magnetic latitude (Fig. 9.12). It should be noted, too. that remanent
magnetization is often much stronger than that induced by the ambient field. If the ~4x.,4p
remanent and induced magnetizations are in the same direction. their net effect may
be incorporated by choosing an equivalent susceptibility for modeling purposes. t_2tl · · 1 b '" 111
FIGURE 9.12 Grt~vity and mag~~ttlc WIOmllllt's fru m Itt' S<("""). mh. . .
differeniiiW~nelic lalilwlrs. At each latitude. the gravity
• For the s'am. body with magnetic susceptibili ty contrast
. f h b 0 d 0 f d •n ·ity contrast ..\p IS I I! sa mo. < • . . .
anomaly (..\g) resultmg rom 1 " ~ c > •. h d south poles (a and e). the anomaly is a centra! lugh wllh nankmg
Mapping of Magnetic Bodies Magnetics is a useful tool for mapping materi- (..\x).the magnetic anomaly (..\F) ~anos.At thc ma)\nct: ~r~~T induces high magnitude magnetization (J). resulting in hi.gh
als that have susceptibilities or remanent magnetizations that contrast with those of tows (Fig. 9.! Ia): a high magnlludc ambient field (F~,.. . ( ) th). ·n·'ucc·' fidd opposes the ambient field at the surface d~tcctly
· I' (..\F) At the ma~nct1c equator c . c 1 u u . .
surrounding rocks, and for distinguishing between types of intrusive bodies. Igneous amplitude magnetic a noma 1es. · . . - . . (Fi !b )· F • 30.000 nT !cads 10 low amplitude ..\F. At nud-lamudos
o ver the body. leading to negative magnetic ,momaloes 1g. 9 : 1 . '"'"
rocks often have large amounts of magnetite. inducing high magnetization (band d) the anomaly is asymmetric. with intermediate amplitude ..\F.
(Table 9.1). Salt exhibits diamagnetic behavior, induci ng a weak field opposite in
direction to the ambient field (Fig. 9.8a). Like igneous intrusions, salt domes are rec- Curie Depth Minerals that exhibit strong (ferromagnetic) behavior at low
ogn ized from seismic refraction e xperiments as high velocity material. Potential tern eratures have weaker (paramagnetic) properties when hott~r than the Cune
tem perawre. With increasing depth. temperature increas~s accordtng to a. geother-
field studies can diffe rentiate the two features (Fig. 9.13); the high density and high
magnetic susceptibility of an igneous intrusion will produce pronounced gravity and matgradient. Deeper than the Curie depth. rocks lose thetr strong magnettzattonas
magnetic anomalies, compared to a gravity minimum and subdued magnetic anom- the heat up beyond the Curie temperature(= 600°C for most ~ocks). Areas wnh
alies resulting from a low-density, low-susceptibility salt dome. h' ~ oeothermal oradient thus have a shallow bottom to magnettc basement, com-
tg "' to co lder areas
pared " (F't,.
0 9 ·15) · The form of magnetic anomalies can thus be used
Depth to Magnetic Basement High ferromagnetic mineral content results in 0

high levels of magnetization (Fig. 9.8c). Crystalline basement rocks. which are com-
monly more mafic than overlying sedimentary deposi ts, are thus the main source of
magnetic anomalies in a region. Amplitudes and gradients for magnetic anomalies
decrease as the sources get farther from the surface observation points, because
magnetic force is a potential field (see examples for gravity, Figs. 8.28 and 8.31). The
depth to the basement in a region can be estimated. therefore, by studying the pat-
tern of magnetic anomalies. Regions with high magnetic anomaly amplitudes. short
wavelengt hs, and steep gradients s uggest shallow basement (Fig. 9.14a); in areas
where the basement is deep. magnetic anomalies are subd ued (Fig. 9.14b).
to map the approximate depth where rocks reach about 600 C.
PALEOMAGNETIC STUDIES
The remanent magnetization in a rock records information about the dire~tion to
the north magnetic pole, at the time the rock lithified. Paleo~agne ttc studtes may
thus indicate the age of the rock. and perhaps suggest the latttude of the regton at
the time the rock formed.
 298 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation Pa leomagnetic Stud ies 299

a) Igneous Intrusion b) Salt Dome a) Shallow Magnetic Basement b) Deep Magnetic Basement
X==C> X==C>
. ....
l t' '•,

~ 1-

~
..§
~
.I/

~
+

FIGURE 9.14 Dep1il 10 magrwic lm.wmen1. Magnetic anomalies me:~surcd at Eanh's surface depend on the depth or the magnetic
!-OUrC'cs. commonly located within cry~tallinc ba~cmcnt. a) \\1hcrc ba!-tcmcnt rocks arc shallow. ~hort·w~lVc lcngth c.momalic.s. with
high amplitude~ and steep gradient,. occur. b) Basement buried deeply beneath sedimentary cover results in longer wavelength
anomalies with sm:tllet amplitudes and gradients.

a) Normal Geothermal Gradient b) High Geothermal Gradient

if]~
FIGURE 9.13 An igneous intrusion and salt dome might both he rccoF-nizcd as hir.h-vclocity material (V).Icading to a ' Famb
cntical rdraction. a) An igneous intrusion F-e nerally ha' high density (p) and hir.h magncllc su•ceptibility (x).tclmivc to ""
surrounding sedimentary stntta. A pronounced gr:tvity maximum and high-amplitude magnetic anomaly result. h) A salt
dome has low density. resulting in a gra,·lty minimum. 'Jllc ~mall. ncgati\'c SU!\ccptibilit~ lead~ 10 a suhducd magnetic
:•nomc•ly.

TI1e total magnetization of a material is the vector sum of the induced and
remanent magnetizations:

where:
j = total magnetiza tion of the material FIGURE 9.15 Curir dep1h . a) Regions with a nonnal geothennal gradient reach 6()(1•c at depths or about 20 to 30 km. Their
magnetic anomalies may exhibit high amplitudes because of the great thickness or basement rocks capable or ferromagnetic
j;nd = induced magnetization of the material -
heha,·ior. h)Thc C urie depth Cor hot regions (high geothermal r.radient) may be considerably less than 20 km. resulting in a thinner
jn:m = remanent magnetization of the material. layer with ferromagnetic behaviOr. Magnetic anomalies arc potentially lower in amplitude compared to those in colder region•.

The total field at a given location is thus the local field~ due to the induced and
remanent magnetizations. added to the ambient field:
F= Fomh + f;nd + from
Find = magnetic field due to induced magnetization
F..,., = magnetic field due to remanen'1 magnetization.
where:
After the magnitude of the ambient field (F••,~) is subtracted from the magnitude
F= magnitude and direction of the total magnetic field of the total field (F). the total field anomaly (I.\ F) is a function of the magnitudes of
F omh =Earth's ambient magnetic field in region the induced (F,.d) and remanent (F,, 111) fi elds. In man~· instances the remanent mag-
 300 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation Paleo magnetic Studies 301

netization is several times s tronger than the in duced magnetiza tion, so that the a) Thermoremanent Magnetization
total field ano maly re flects the paleomagnetism componen t.

Types of Remanent Magnetization ' \' \' \' \' \' \ F~b
Rocks are collections o f diam agnetic, par amagnetic, and ferro magnetic minerals.
Diamagnetic and paramagne tic materials acquire a magnetization when exposed to
an external magnetic fiel d (Fig. 9.8). At a given temperature, they have a constan t
suscep tibili ty. acquiring a magne tization which is linearly proportional to the exter-
nal magnetic fie ld. The m agne tization goes away when the external fie ld is removed.
Ferromagnetic ma ter ia ls, ho wever, retain a pe rmanent (or remanent) magnetiza-
tio n, even when the external field is removed. There are three ways by which mate·
rials can acquire remanent magnetization (see also chapter 3 o f Butler, 1992).

1. Thermore manent Magn etization (JTRM) At high temperature a fer ro-

b) Detrital Remanent Magnetization

·.~~ F~b
magne tic ma terial exh ib its para magnetic behavior. As rocks cool below the Curie
temperature, some minera ls (par ticularly magnetite) change from the paramag· ' \' \' ' \' \
netic to the much st ronge r, fe rromagnetic behavior. T he rocks acq uire a la rge.
therm oremanent magnetization as magnetic dom ai ns orient themselves to Earth's
Surface ---=--::.-------:.:--:'%:;;:-----M8(JnBrtt 9
ambient field (Fig. 9.16a). GrBln
A commo n misconceptio n about thermoremanent magnetizat ion is that min-
eral crystals O(ient themselves to Earth's field as a lava fl ow cools and hardens.
Actually, the fl ow. tho ugh still hot. is q uite hard (crystals randomly locked in place)
before the remanent magnetization is acq uired; the crystals cannot rotate to align
. with the ambient magnetic field . Instead. the magne tic mo men ts of the collection of
mineral grains acquires a bias in the direction o f Earth's ambient field during cool-
ing. The rmo remanent magnetiza tion is thus a statistical, thermodynamic p henome·
non; it resul ts from the fact th at a magnetite grain is in a slightly lower energy
configuration when its magnetic moment is aligned with Ea rth 's am bient fi eld.

2. Detrital Remanent Magnetization {JDRM ) When sedimen ts settle in water,

ferromagnetic mineral grains (part icularly magneti te and hematite) tend 10 orient
themselves along the ambient m agnetic field of the Earth (Fig. 9. 16b ). The rock thus
acquires a detrital remanent magnetization.

3. Chemical R emanent Magnetization {JCRM) As io ns are precipi tated from

solution. for m ing ferromag netic m inerals, the magne tic domains in the mineral crys-
tals preferen tially or ient themselves with Earth's amb ie nt field (Fig. 9. 16c). The rock
thus acquires a chemical remanen t magnetization. The pa leomagnetism in iron-rich,
continental sediments is generally formed in this manner. These "redbeds" accoun t
for the bulk of paleomagnetic observations on la nd, facilitating paleomagnetic . . . For eac h type. the strength and direction
FIGURE 9 16 T-ypes of remanelll magnellzatwn. . . of
. . b ' t field is r~moved or changes onentauon.
s tratigraphy and paleo-latitude s tudies (discussed below); the red color is derived the magnetization remainS. even afte! the a\~h~~nthc material (for example. a lava now) cools
from the ferromagnetic mineral h ematite. a) Thermoremanent magllellllltlon (JTR>~). . . . II Ito Earth's ambient
below the Curie temperature. a strong fcrr~magneuz:~~:~~~~:~·t;l:r:u~ in water. mineral
Paleomagnetic Interpretation f·leld b) Detrital r<manent magntiiZtiiiOn (J ,.,.). As . . .h h b'ent f'tcld
· · · f 'ntially o nc nt wll t cam 1
grains rotate so tha t their magnetiC do~alns pre .e re.
•
reci itatcd from solution. their
c) Cltemkal remanent magneuzatron .(J cH,\~). As IOns are p p
·m e paleomagnetism in rocks can lead to inlerpretations of the ages of the rocks magnetic domains align with the ambient field.
(geochronology; paleomagnetic stratigraphy), and to the positio ns of crustal blocks
when the rocks formed (paleolatitude).
Dating of rocks based on magne tic measuremen ts revolves around the obser-
vation that Earth 's magnetic fiel d periodically reverses (Fig. 9.17). Magne tic
domains in minerals, like compass needles, point toward the north magnetic pole in
 302 Chapter 9 11/,agnetic Interpretation Paleomagnetic Studies 303

0 Pleistocene 1
2 27
Paleocene
Pliocene 3 28
N -~----- 29 r---~~t<;
L 30
4
a 31
e Maastrichtian
5
0 32
e
g
a) Normal Polarity b) Reversed Polarity Miocene
e 33
FIGURE 9.17 Rc•wsnl of Enrtl•:• mn,cnctic.fidd. a) "Normal .. field, with lines of fo rce pointing from a positive south pole
to a negative north pole. b) .. Rcvcr>cd .. field. \\ith opposne polarities: a compass needle would point southerly.
c
Campanian
n
6
the "normal .. configuration that exists today. At times in the past, however. the mag- e e
netic field was reversed. so that mineral domains were magnetized in the opposite
direction.
Utilizing observations of polarity reversals. a Geomagnetic Polarity Time a Santonian
Scale has hecn developed (Fig. 9.18). The scale is based on various methods. includ-
ing: a) remanent magnetization studies of isotopically dated. young( < 5 million c Coojaclao
year old) igneous rocks: b) observations of marine magnetic anomalies. accompa - e Turonian
Oligocene
nied by paleontological dating of sediments and potassium /a rgon (K/ Ar) dating of
basalt recovered through the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP): c) magnetic 0
stratigraphy studies of sedimen tary sections with unusually complete fossil records.
u Cenomanian
Gcochronolog_r Based on Paired Magneti c Anomalies across Mid-Ocean p
13 s
Ridges The ocean noors illustrate the utility of magnetic data to record the ages of
certain Earth mat erials. As basaltic rocks at a mid-ocean ridge cool. they acquire a a 15 c
strong thermoremanent magnetization (Fig. 9.16a). A record of normal and 16
17
reversed polarities is thus frozen into the basalt of oceanic la yer 2 (Fig. 9.1 9b ). The
remanent magnetization of oceanic basalt results in additions and subtractions to 18 E e
19
Earth's ambi;nt field. Profiles of total field anoMalies recorded across mid-ocean e a t Albian
ridges thus show alternating maxima and minima, representing times when oceanic 20 - - --4'\
layer 2 was normally or reversely polarized (Fig. 9.19c). E cx:~ne
0 r a
Magnetic polarity reversals observed across mid-ocean ridges agree with 21
DSDP data showing that oceanic sediments and underlying basalts get progres- g c
sively older away from mid-ocean ridge axes. The ages of oceanic rocks can thus be 22
inferred from the pattern of observed magnetic anomalies, tied to the Geomagnetic
e 23 y e
Polarity Time Scale (Fig. 9.20). 24
0
The alternating bands of positive and negative mag!letic anomalies show
remarkable $ymmetry on opposite sides of mid-ocean ridges. This symmetry is testi-
n u Aptian
mony to the idea of creation of new lithosphere at divergent plate boundaries 25
(Fig. 9.21 ). Anomaly widths indicate the rate at which pla tes diverge at mid-ocean e 26 s
Paleocene
ridges: narrow anomalies indicate slow spreading rates (Fig. 9.22a). wider anomalies
faster rates (Fig. 9.22b).
FIGURE 9.18 G•omngnttic polarit.\· time scnle for the fJOSI 117 million yenrs. Times of normal polarity shown in
black. reversed polarity in white. Magnetic anomaly numbers appear on the left sides of columns: corresponding
Paleomagnetic Stratigraphy Sedimentary layers can acquire remanent mag- ages in millions of years (Ma) are on the right. From "Magnetostratigraphic time scale:· by A. Cox. in: A Geologic
netization through detrital and chemical mechanisms (Fig. 9.16). The ages of layers Time Scale.© 1982 Cambridge University Press. Reprinted with permission of Cambridge University Press. New
in a sequence of sedimentary strata may thus be determined by comparing the York. Figure redrawn as in Butler (1992).
 Pa leomagnetic Stud ies 305
304 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation
Distance (km)
200 400 East
a West 400 200 0
gamma

"]~
Model profile

Today's Ambient Field

\.\.\.\.\.\.\.\.'\\.\
Asthenosphere
FIGURE 9.20 ,1/agnelic wWIIWI}' projile awl m udd uf i/oe /'acifit·Antantic Ridge. The obscrwd total fie ld magnetic anomaly
profile (top) correlates well with a calculated profile (center) from the model of polarity reversals (bottom). The model
incorporates times of normal (black) and reversed (white) pakomagnetism. according to the Geomagnetic Polaritylime
S'"k Names rda to magnetic epochs in the time scale: numbers :tre ;oges in millions of years (:via). Magnetic anomalies in
gamm:ts ( I gamma = I nT). From "Magnetic anomalies over the Pacific-Antarctic ridge:· by W. Pitman, Ill. and J. Hcirtzler.
Science. vol. 15~. pp. 116-l-1171.<D 1966. Figure redrawn as in Butler (t9'.12).

c observed polarity reversals with the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale. The tech-
nique is especially useful if parts of the section can be tied to isotopic dating of
interbedded volcanic ash.
Fig. 9.23 shows an example from the Himalayan foreland basin deposits in
Pakistan. Samples were taken from 10 stratigraphic sections. with results plotted in
cross-sectional form on the diagram. Accord ing to lirlrostrarigraplry, the sections are
part of the Nagri Formation on the southwest. the D hok Patha n Formation on the
northeast. Samples analyzed for magne1ic polarity show that there are correlations
with positive and negative epochs of the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale. This
clrronosrratigraplry thus reveals that parts of the Nagri and Dhok Pathan formations
were deposited at the same time.
Paleolatitude Studies The remanent magnetization of a sedimentary or vol-
canic rock records the magnetic inclinations (i) at the time the rock formed ..The
incli nation. in turn. can be related to the magnetic latitude (<b) of the rock at the
time it formed. according to:
FIGURE. 9.1 9 • · a 1·1glllllt!llt at" mul~ocean
Paleomagtu.ltc . .
rulgt. a) Cross section of the lithos ht!re sh
for~a-11~~ of basalt (layer 2) and gabbro (layer 3). b) Closeup of the crust. Black arrow at tf.e rid. c ~xi~ng
w·
lOll i =2 {[//l <!>

~:~::~~:~.~~~~~~nn:st~;~~o:.:~~~"(,~h~i;~,~r:~:sm)
f 'ld ) M· ..
~I ~olarit~. iara11el to tnoday·s amb~ent field. Away f~om. the a.< is.
• n norm.t po1arny re oct penoc.Joc reversals of the ma •netic The equation assumes that the rock 's magnetization records the origina l magnetic
~I -~ .lgncuc anomaly pattern across a mid-occ:tn ridge. Alternating bands of oceanic crust with ~ormal direction at the time of forma tion, that the field acts as a geocen tric dipole, and that
~iel~c m:;,~:;~; :;:n~~~i::s~~~;vhote arrows) magnetization r.sult in corresponding positive and negative total secular variation has been averaged out. Rocks fo rmed near the magnetic equator
 306 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation Paleomagnetic Studies 307

....,._.,-.IWIII'l
·---·-IN)
1 Uocww (~ l!N)

()Ooocono(Z).OOIN)

£ocono~lll')

FIGURE 9 .21
§ ~fM.Ioll..,'f'l

. . . ..Mnac.(t4&-1S7liY)
..,.,.~ C1 57·17lMY)

Wnrltf map showing ''" age of ocranic lillrostJ!trre tlrcermincd from nwgnrcic anomalies. MY = Million yea rs.
From Earth :' Dyn11mic Systems. 7th ed. l>y H"ml>lin iChristiansen. Q l 99~. Repnnted by permission of Prentice-Hall. Inc.,
U pper Saddle River. NJ.

would have remanent magnetizations oriented horizontally: magnetizmions closer

to the magnetic poles would be steeper (Fig. 9.4a). 1l1e magnetic inclination
observed for a sedimentary layer th us indicates the magnetic latitude of the region
at the time the layer was deposited (Fig. 9.24a). If the crustal block (terrane) on
which the layer formed drifts to a different iadiude. the inclination of reman en t
magnetization would differ from that of Earth's present magnetic field (Fig. 9.24b).
FIGURE ~.22 The widths of magnetic anomalies can be used to infer the spreading rate of mid-ocean ridges.
a) Mitf·Atlanric Ridge. Slow-spreading rate of 2- 3 em/ a (20- 30 km/ Ma) resulls in narrow anomalies. b) East
Pacific Rise. Broader anomalies resull from spreading of 5- 15 em/ a (50-150 km / Ma). creating a broader
region of new lithosphere over the same time span as m (a).
 308 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretatio n Exercises 309

Southwest Northeast EXERCISES

DRS 9-1 The magnetic anomaly profile in Fig. 9.11b is drawn in a south-north direction. cutting
DNS across induced fie ld lines. Sketch a cross section of the induced field and plot the total
fie ld anomaly for an east-west profile.
9-2 Redraw the gravity a nd magnetic profiles for the two models in Fig. 9.13. assuming the
DR4
fea tures occur a t:
m a ) the magnetic equator:

1~!
b) the magnetic south pole.
9-3 For the model in Fig. 9.14. ske tch the form of the magnetic anomaly profile. if the mag-
20 DN4 netic basement is at the: surface.
30 9-4 a ) For the s tratigraphic section below. fill in the magnetic inclination for circles B-F.
assum ing the rocks were deposited at the following times and o rientations:
40
A ) 77 million years ago. 27" S magnetic latit ude (answer provided: the black arrow
50 represents normal.polarity).
B) 53 million ycars.:'-go. 12• S magnetic latitude.
DA3 C) 42 millio n years ago. magnetic equator.
D) 31 million years ago.l7° N magnetic latitude.
E) 16 m illion years ago. 25 • N magnetic latit ude.
~~~e~a~~ 9b;~n d:;~:·r::~~~~~:~~~"t~~;~~trtuigraplry. Samples were taken from ten stratigraphic sections of Himalayan F) Today. 45° N magnetic latitude.
(open circles. ••qu•rcs.
..
•nd tn·· I ">
"
dagneuc normal polan lles (filled circles and squa res) and rovcrscd polarities
"ng es we re etcrmrn ·d for • h I r 11 bo b) Calculate the average (south to north) velocity of the continent as it moved from
and reversed-polarity zone D R4 represent 8 I " .II' cac oca ny. .•c und~ry between normal-polarity zone D N4
sediment a d . .· F "I san. . ml ron-year-old tunc lrne. allowmg age comparison of the various position A to position F.
and L. Tau xe, Scdimenrology
• ry cposns. rom sochro nous nuvtal systems in Miocene de osits of north. p .·
·
vol 29 pp 33 1 352 1"
· • :... -
F' d P .
..
ern ak rstan. by A. Behrensmeyer
. v 1982 . rg urc rc rawn as 111 Butler ( 1992).

a b

Transported Terrane Terrane

9-5 Across a mid-ocean ridge. the distance between total field anomaly pairs representing
~ i~ Bo• @i -Bo• the Gilbert magne tic reversal epoch is 187 km. How fast has the ridge;: been spreading
since that time?
9-6 A north-to-south magnetic profile is recorded across a magnetic body at 45 • N mag·
~~~:~~::eli;~~~~:;~:::~~ c:; ii:~~~~~~.1~~~ ofhmag~etiza~~on within a ~ock formed in the past at JOO magnetic latitude. netic latitude (model on next page). Titc body has a magnetic susceptibility of O.l.
i r ,. , ' W Cll I C roc~ dnfls tO a h1ghcr magnetic la ti tude. differing from the
f:~~n~~~on of Earth s present field. The paleomagnetic inclination is thus a clue to the latitude a t which the rock a) Assuming the body is shallow, sketch on the diagram: i) Earth's ambient magnetic
field ; ii) the di rection and amplitude of magnetization within the body. relative to
the magnitude and direction of the ambient fie ld: iii) the induced magnetic fie ld
lines: iv) the total field magnetic anomaly profile.
h) Repeat (a) with the body very deep.
3 10 Chapter 9 Magnetic Interpretation
Surtace
a~
b~
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bchrcnsmc"et. A. K.. ;md L. Tauxc. 19:>2. lsochronvu~
nu\'ial ;\'SICill!oo Ill Mioccnr deposits of northern
l'aki~lan'. Srdimrmolng,1·. ,., ~9. pp. .l~ 1-352.
Olakcl\·. R .. 19'15. l'mt~tuial nrron· ;, Grnnn· mrtl
Mn:~llrtic Applicntirm.<. Camhridgc: C.1mi>ridge
Uni"crsil\' Pre~-. 4.11 pp.
Bon. M . H . P.. 1982. Thr lmrrior of tlrr Enrtlt: lt.<
Suucwrc. Cmr.<rlillltion mul £,·olutinn (2nd cd.).
1\ew York: El~evicr Science Pub. Cu.. ~03 pp.
Burger. H. R.. I'J'J2. E.t11lorntin11 grophy.<ic.< of tl1<•
.<hnllnu· .wh.mrfllcc·. En~l cwood Cliffs. New Jer~cy:
Prcmicc Hall. Inc.. 4S9 pp.
Buller. R. 1'.. 1\192. l'nlromngnrti.<lll.' M11/lnctic
/)omnin.t 1<1 Gc·ologic Tt.•rrmrrs. Boston: 131ackwcll
Scien1ific Publica~ inn~ Bo<lon.319 pp.
Cox. A .. 1982. Ma~nelo<lr;lli grophic lime scale. in: A
Gcolo8ic Tn11c Scale. edilcd by\\'. B. Harland and
olhers. C.1mhridee: Camhridcc Univcrsil'' Press.
PI'· 63-R4. • - . anomalies over 1he Pacific-Amarclic -ridge.
Fab•ano. E. B.. and 1'. W. Peddie. 1%9. To1al rnaj!nCiic
imcnsi1y map of lhf Eanh in 1965. Nt~tiollnl
Ocrnnic nnd Atmospheric Administrminn Ocrnn
Sun·c·y. Tccluucal Hcpon C&GS 38.
Fowler. C. M. R .. 19'Xl. The Solid Eartlt: All
lmrmlucuun 10 Glolwl Gt•oph_\'5/CS. Cambridge:
Camhridge U niversily Press. ~72 pp.
Garland. G. D.. 1979. lmroduc1tn11 to Geophysics (2nd
ed.). Toromo: W. ll. Snunde" Company. 494 pp.
Griffilhs. D. H.. and R. F. King. 1981. Allf'licd
Gropl•ysic.< fr~r Grolr~gist.< n11d £ngim•cr.<: The
Elemcms of Geophy.<ical Pro.<prctillg (2nd cd.).
New York: Pergamon Press. 230 pp.
C H A P T E R
Heat Flow
Famb
Find
flnd
Hamblin. W. K.. and E. H. Chri~liamcn. 199~. F.nr~h>
Dynamic S,I'SII'III.< (71h cd.). En{:lcwood Cliffs. :\J :
Premiec Hall. Inc .. 710 pp.
Hcimlcr. J. H.. G. 0. D1ck~on. E. M. Herron. W. E.
l'i1man. Ill. and X. Lc Pichon. 1968. Marine mae·
netic anomalies. l:!cum:u!nclic field rc"cn.als. a~d
mol ions of the oc~an nc;or and continents. Journal
of Geophy.<icnl Rcs<•nrch. \', 73. pp. 211 9-2136.
Kearel'. P.. and M. Brooks. 191'4. An l111rmluction tn
G~ophy.<ical Explorntirm. Bnslon: Black"cll
Science Pub.. 296 pp.
Merrill. R. T.. and M. W. MeEihinnl'. 191\3. Tlw F.nnh:<
Mrrgn<'tic Field. London: Acadc;,ic l'rc~s. J C)I pp.
Ne11le1on. L. L.. 1971. £h·""'ntnrr Gml'lll' all(/
A1ngnctic,.~ for Groln;:i.{/!i awl G<'ui1lry.t~cutJ: Tulsa:
Sociely of,Exploralion Gcophy~iciSIS. Mo nograph
Series I. 121 pp.
Pi1man. W. C .. Il l. and J. R. Hcinzlc r. 1966. Maenclic
Scirncc. ,., 154. pp.IIM - 1171.
Smilh. R. B.. R. T. Shuey. J r.. R. Pelion. and J. 1'. Bailey.
1977. Yellows10ne Ho1spo1: Conlemporao, 1cc1on·
ics and cruSial proper1ies from eanhquakc and
aeromagnelic dala. loumnl of Grophysicnl
R<•w~rch. v, H2. pp. 361>5-3676.
Telfo rd. W. M .. L. r. Geldar1. R. E. Sheriff. and D. A.
K c~·s. 1976. Appltcd · Geophysics. Cambridge:
Cambridge Univcrsilyl'ress. 860 pp.
Vine. F. J.. and D. H. Ma11hcws. 1963. Maene1ic a nom·
alies over ocean rid)!CS. Naturr. \', 199.'pp. 9~7-9~ 9.
1 0
heat (hi!t} n., JOE. ha:10]. tltc quality of being hot;energ,l• mnnifcst fly
thr accclcrnred vibrotion of moh'cule.r within n mmerial.
flo,.. (flu) l'i.,JO£. Oowan].to mo"r gc111ly n11d smoothly; to pour 0111.
heat flo"' (M:t flo) n .. thr rate of trtmsfcr of heat from the Ennh ncross
us surfncr.
tcmpuaturt (tcm ' pr~ch~r) n., I < L. < lcmperalus. tempcrnu·].the
rlrgur nf lwmess: llrr nmoum of hem pt•r rmit Hltlll uf n IIWil'rial.
gto· (ji'' bJ.JGr. gcb· < !!aia. ge.thc £anh].pcrwining to the £nnh.
thermal (th ~r'm'l) adj., ltm·i11g to do with l1cnt.
gradient fgri•'di! :>til) n.,J < L. gradi.to SICfl].thc nmmmt of slope. a.<
of a road: thr rate of chn11gc of" partlmrtcr.
g~nthtrmol grodimt (ji!' iltlt.or'm ·l grit• de :>til} 11., thr wtl' of chnngc
in lrmprrnturr with iu rrrasing depth u-ithirt the Eart/1.
Heat flows outward from the interior through the surface of the Earth (Fig. 10.1 ).
ll1e rate of heat flow across a region of th e surface is a funct ion of the original tem-
perat ure of the Earth. the production of heat within the Earth. the transfer of heat
between different regions of the Earth. and the ability of different Earth materials
to conduct heat (Fig. 10.2). Measurements of heat flow ra tes provide clues to the
prcsenc<' of hot material at shallow depths (young igneous intrusions: upwelling
asthenosphere). cold material protruding into the Earth (subducting lithosphere).
and the cooling of materia l through time (subsidence of the ocean floor away from a
mid-ocean ridge).
FIGURE 10. 1 Heal Oows ou1ward.
from Eanh's hoi inlcrior across i1s cold
~urface. 11cm flow refers 10 I he amounl
of hca11lm1 crosses I he surface in a
given amounl o( lime. The 3\'Crage ra1e
.· is ahoul 0.08 W { rn 1• equiva lenllo
1.9 X t o·•eal/cm~/s. or 1.9 HI'U.
~11
 312 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Heat Within the Earth 313

Time =
.· FIGURE 10.3 Cooling of Eartlt through time. a) Originnlccmpcr:Hurc of che Earch (T,). in a molcen scace •He he lime of ics
formacion. b) As heal is loscchrough che surfacc.che lcmperacurc drops chroughouc: ic is highcsl ncar Ihe cc111cr (T,) and
decreases oucwMd (co T1 ). c) The race of heal flowing across chc surface also decreases chrough cimc: chc average heal flow
across chc surface was chus used by Kelvin co escim:icc chc age of chc Eanh.

a 150' b 300'
G'
t..
~
~.,
-2"'
l!!
8.
'0 ~
.... ..... ; .........................($ ..----
FIGURE 10.2 Several faccors influence chc race chac heac fl ows across diffcrenl regions of Eanh's surface. a) fl<llt of
formwion. A background level of heal for all regions is due. in pan.co che original ccmpcracure discribucion of che ~ so·
Eanh (T). The ovcrallccmperacurc decreases as Earch cools chrough lime. b) li<m production. :-<cw heal is a by-
produce of radioaccive decay, primarily wichin Eanh's mancle and conlinencal cruse. c) Conduction. Heal generally
iE ··-·-·~·.·····:
conduces oucward. from Eanh's hoc incerior 10 ic's colder surface. Locally. somc rocks conduce hcac more readily chan ~
ochers. d) Conv<etion. Large amouncs of heac can be cransfcrrcd from one region co anocher chrough conveccion. o· o·~~--~~~~~~-=--~
Convcccion can occur in che upper pare of che aschenosphere and in chc deeper manclc (see Elder. 1965). <:)
~ ~ f5 l3 <:)~~ f5l3~
Time since potato removed Time since E1111h formed
from oven (minutes) (million yeBIS)
HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH
FIGURE 10.4 Loss of hem through comtuction. a) The surface cemperacurc of a poe aco suggescs !he cime since che pocaco was
Sources of Heat removed from an oven. b) Assuming no new heal gene rae ion or convcccive heacloss.che cempcracure ac abouc l km deplh
indicaccs Eanh's age.
Most of Earth 's internal heat is due to the combined effects of the original tempera-
ture of the Earth (heat of formation) and new heat produced over time by the Earth least an hour. Similarly. the ave rage temperature near Earth's surface indicates
itself (primarily through radioactive decay). Earth's age (Fig. l0.4b).
Modern dating techniques reveal that the Earth is about 4.6 billion years old,
Heat of Formation In the 19th century, William Kelvin estima ted the age of not 20 to 40 mi llion. Kelvin 's age estimate was low beca use both of his assumptions
the Earth as between 20 and 40 million years, based on measurements of heat !low- were inaccurate; the Earth has been generating new heat since its formation, and
ing across its surface (Fig. l0.3). Kelvin 's assumptions were that all of Earth's heat heat flows to the surface through convection as well as conduction.
originated when the Earth began to cool from a molten state. and that heat is trans-
[erred out of the Earth through conduction. This si mplt: model can be: visualized by Radioactive Decay Not all of Earth's heat origina ted at the time of its for-
taking a hot potato out o f an oven a nd laying it on the kitchen counter (Fig. 10.4a). mation. New heat is produced when radioactive elements decay from one for m to
If someone were to enter the kitche n and feel that the potato is hot, they would rea- another, primarily in Earth 's mantle. Continuing the above analogy. it would be like
son that it was taken out of the oven very recently, within the last few minutes. A takino the hot potato from the normal oven and placing it in a microwave o ven; the
person touch ing a cold potato might conjecture it had been out of the oven for at micr~vaves would excite new heat within the potato. On a low enough setting, the
 314 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Heat Within the Earth 3 15

potato would coo!. hut not n ear!~: as quickly as outside the microwa,·e oven
(Fig. 10.5a). Like the Eart h (Fig. l0.5b). the potato would remain hot for a very long
time. due to the continuou ~ production of internal heat.
The production of heat depends on the decay of radioactive elements. like
uranium. thorium. and potassium. Crustal rocks. especially continental. arc high in
those elements. and thus produce large quantities of heat per unit volume
(Fig. J0.6a). The Eanh·s mantle is. however. far more volumin ous than the crust
(Fig. 2.3), so that most of the new heat is produced in the mantle (Fig. 10.6b).
Heat Transfer
The transfer of h~a~ from ~ne region to another can involve electromagnetic waves
(radwuon). atom1c mteracuon between materials of different temperature (conduc-
uon ), or the actual movement of hot materials-(wn vec;ion; advection).
Radiation A common and obvious source of heat at Earth's surface is radia-
tion from the sun (Fig. 10.7).11lis radiation is on the order of 2 x 1017 W ("" 4 x 102 w
2
m- average over the surface). resulting in an average surface temperature of about

a 60'~--------------------~---,
b 60'
20°C (Fowler, 1990). Solar heat drives atmospheric and oceanic circulation which in
tu_m drive surface geologic processes (weathering. erosion, stream flow, giaciation).
V1rtually all of the heat that shines on the Earth is radiated back and lost, however so
that solar radiatio~ cann<:t explain the amount of heat that flows from Earth's d~ep
2
mtenor ("" 8 X 10 W m 2). O ther heat sources are therefore responsible for Earth's
mtcrnal processes (earthquakes. volcanism, lithospheric pla te motion).

. Cond~ction Heat can be transferred by atomic vibrations, flowing from a

reg10n ?f h_1gher to one of lower temperature. Such conduction is illustra ted by a
potato 1f tt JS dry; heat goes from the center of the hot potato to colder regions near
liS surface. at the contact with the cold air (Fig. l 0.8a). A thermal gradient is thus
established in the potato. with temperature increasing from the surface to the cen-
ter. Likewise. conductive transfer of heat from Earth's interior to its surface sets up
a geothermal gradient. with temperature increasing rapidly ncar the surface. more
O'L-------------------~ ~ L---------------------~ slowly with depth (Fig. 10.8b). Transfer of heat through conduction is a relatively
<o
§ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
C\j t') 't 10 slow process on a geologic time scale.
Time slnoe EaJth formed
Time sinoe potsto removed (billion years)
from conventionsf oven (minutes)
FIGURE 10.5 lmrmnl!lcnrmtinll crf llcm. a) Hot rota to cool~ much more slowly if it i~ rlnced in microwa,·c oven on
low 'cuing. h) "Inc Earth has cooled much more slowly than might he exrectcd. hccau~c new heat is generated du ring FIGURE 10.7 Trnt~sfcrofhcauo Ear/lis
radiootcti\'c dctfly. Surface lfarQ_ugfa ra<fia1i011. TIIC Jarge
amount of heat from the sun that is
absorbed during the day is lost outward
through radiation at night.

a b
H98t Productiorl
Rock Type (p W / 171') G900fll! Setting

Granlte/Rhyo/lttJ 2.95 Upper ConllflBntBJ CfiJSt

OcsanJc CIUSt
Basaft/Gabbro 0.56 t..Dtwr Cont/()IJ()tBJ CrtJst

PIJridolittJ 0.01 MsnrJe

©ceattic
Orust
z0.1 X 1012 W
FIGURE 10.6 Hemf>rodu clir>ll ;, tlw £nrtll 1/rrougll radionclivr decay. a) Production of heat t>y igneous rock types ( Phil pons. 1990). A
Wan (W) is equivale nt to one Joule of energy produced rcr second (J/s). A cubic meter of continental crust (granite/gabbro) produces
heat much faster than a cubic meter of m:mtlc (rcridotitc). b) The mantle is far more voluminou~ than the crust. howeve r.so that it
accou nts for most of Earth"• ante rna! heat production.
 316 Cha pter 10 Heat Flow Heat Within the Earth 317

Temperature of Potato ("C)

a b Divergent
Lithosphere
a) Dry Potato o r~------~--~~§____-.§ Plate Boundary
. Asthenosphere

~ ·: :\
............................... ...
"'CCI!.. '
0 (;)

" ~\ ~
.; . '?.

.. . .. ................ ···········-
Cent9f'
70 ....___.;._ _ __ Of _
Potato-
_ _ __,

FIGURE 10.9 ff<uttmusfcr 1>,1· cum·ectiu11. a ) Hc;H.~ov~s rapidly in a pot or boiling wat~r. rising from Jep th where it is hot and
light. falling ncar the surface whe re it becomes cold and dense. b) A t a ve ry slow rnte (a Cow cm/yc:lr) convection can occur in
b) Solid Earth Earth's asthcnosph~re . In addition to rcdi•tnbut ing he:ll. convection contributes to lithosph~ ric photc motion: where convection
currents rise. pl:1:(!'s diverge: dc:sccnding currents enhance! plate convergence. Some con\'Cction is ~lso though110 occur in the
deeper mantle.

.. ·:t.
a
Earlh's Surface
ssooo
g.
Q6000
Center of Eatrh -
~~------------------~
FIGURE 10.8 I feuttmnsfa b,1· m mluctiuu. a) i\s heat is conducted from the hot center of
a potato to the cooler surfacl!'. a temperature gradient tlcvdops.. The temperature increase
is rapid ncar the sur face. more gradual ncar the center. b) The Earth deve lops an
annluguus thcrmnl gr~uJicnt =ts heat conducts from its hot interior to its cool ~u r£acl!.

Convection The transfer of heat in conjunction with movement of material is

called con veccion. In a pot of boiling water. convection currenls move hea t rapidly b
(Fig 10.9a). Hot water near the burner rises; colder, denser water at the surface
descends to near the burner. where it is heated. A cherry pie baking might resemble
the Earth's lithosphere/asthenosphe re system (Fig. l0.9b); convection of the filling
(asthenosphere) produces currents that rise and fall, in places deforming the pie
crust (lithosphere).
Adveclion is a special type o f convection. whereby heat is transferred through
movement of material in a solid state. Advective heat flow generally proceeds
slowly, so that conduction readjusts the temperature. In some instances, however.
tectonic processes quickly move blocks of hot material large horizontal or vertical FIGURE 10.10 fft•mtmm[<•r by mfvectimo. a) 'll~rust fau lting. b) Erosion and ISOStatic rcbnund.
distances, so that advective heat transfer is significant. Examples include the hori-
zontal and vertical movements along deep-seated thrust faults. as well as upli ft of
mountain ranges due to erosion and isostatic rebound (Fig. LO.lO).
318 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Heat Flow Across Earth's Surface 319

HEAT FLOW ACROS S EA RTH'S SURFA CE

Heat Flow Equation

a q b
1l1e rate that heat flows by conduction from Earth's interior 10 its surface can be fr.,..,..;;~,.T-f....:r,;f:.+-~-+--....,.....
envisioned through a simple pla te model (Fig. l O.ll a). Heat energy is conducted
from the level with highest temperature (T2) to the lowest temperature surface (T 1).
according to:

(T-T)
q = k _2_h_J

where:
q= rate of heat flow. per unit area, th rough th e top of the plate (W m- 2)
k= thermal conductivity of the plate (W m- 1 0 ( - 1)
T1 = temperature at the surface of the plate (°C)
T2 = temperature at the base of the plate ( C) 0

h= thickness of th e plate (m).

FIGU RE 10. 11 Hem flow. a) Transfer of heat across a thin plate of thennal conductivily (k). The temperature
If there is a linea r increase in temperature from th e surface downward (Fig. 10.11 b), at the bottom of the plate (T2) is hotter than at the lOp (T1). b) For constant increase in temperature with depth.
the heat flow can be expressed as a funct ion of depth as: Ihe heal now (q(z)( can be detcnnincd from knowledge of k. T 1• and the change in temperature ( AT) over a
small change in depth (A>.). c) Heat nows through Earth's surface a1 a rale (q) according to the geothermal
[T 1 + .H) - T 1)
q(z) = k ('--'--~--' gradient (ifT/ in) and the thermal conducJivity (k) of rocks in the region.
ilz
where:
TABLE 10. 1 Thermal conductivity of selected rocks (aver-
q(z) = heat flow at depth z (positive downward) ages from Jessop. 1990).
t::. T = change in temperature from the surfa ce to depth z
t::.z = distance from the surface to depth z. 1l1ermal Conductivity
Rock (W m-t oc-1)
Taking the limit. for very small !lz:
Igneous Rhyolite 2.6
.
~,~u
. (·H)
lim q(z) = lun k -
~,~o ~z
Gran it e
Andesite
3.~
2.3
Diorite 2.8
= k(':T) Basalt 1.8
<lz
Gabbro 2.8
For constant increase in temperature wi th Qcpth (Fig. IO.ll c). the heat flow at
Earth ·s surface is thus: Sedimentary Shale 2.1
Sandstone 3.7
I q = k (oT/ CJz) I Limestone 3.4
Metamorphic Amphi bolite 3.0
where: Serpentinite 3.5
q = rate that heat flows outward across Earth's surface (hear flow) Quartzi te 5.0
k = ability of rocks in the region to conduct heat (thermal conductivity)
aT /iJz = rate at which temperature increases from the surface downward in the
region (geothermal gradient). Measurement of Heat Flow
Table 10.1 shows that thermal conducti vities for most rocks range from 2 to Fig. 10.13 illustrates that hea t now is measured by taking the temperature at differ-
3 W m- 1 oc- 1• Valu~s for rocks rich in qu artz (sandstone. quartzite) can be signifi- ent depths in a piston core or drill hole, yielding the geothermal gradient (iJT1i:JZ). If
cantly higher. i>4 an average thermal conductivity (k) is kno'f\'n for rocks in the region. the heat flo w
For a given thermal conductivity. higher heat flow results from higher geother- (q) can be calculated.
mal gradient (Fig. 10.12a). lf the geothermal gradient is constant. regions with rocks International Standard (Sl) units are stated above for parameters in the heat
of higher thermal conductivity have higher he<t l flow (Fig. IO.J2b). flow eq uation. Table 10.2 shows how other units commonly found in the li terature
 320 Chapter 10 He at Flow Tectonics and Heat Flow 321

a Low q
b T
relate to SI units. In particular, heat flow units (HFU) are often used on older maps
(1 HFU = w- 6
cal cm- 2 s- 1 = 4.2 x 10- 2 W m- 2). Some typical values measured for

z~ -
the Earth are:
k = (2 to 5) w rn - 1 ·c- t
= (0.005 to 0.012) cal crn - t•c-t s- t
High q and:
T /JT/ iJz = (0.01 to 0.05)"C m- 1

z~
..
" = (10 to 50)•c km - 1
so that:
FIGURE 10.12 a) Change in heat now (q) as a function of geothennal gradient; the thennal conductivity (k) i• hdd constant. q = (0.03 to 0.12) W m - 2
b) Change in heat now as a function of thermal conductivity: the geothermal gradient remains constant.
= (1to 3) HFU.

a Bor8hole b TECTONICS AND HEAT FLOW

1l1e transfer of heat from one region of the Earth to another is enhanced by convec-
Earth's T • Temperature (•C)
tion within the upper man tle: the convection facili tates movement of lithosphe ric
Surface
T1 plates (Fig. 2.10). La ternltransfcr generally elevates the uve rall heat flow of oceanic

tt t t q
1
regions relative to that of the continents. Ve rtical transfer makes shallow features
,T2 hot, particularly where plates diverge (contin.:ntal rifts. mid-ocean ridges). Where
plates converge. the injection of cold lithosphere results in low hea t flow a t subd uc-
.· T3 tion zones and mountain ranges.
k
T4 z Contin ental Are as
Fig. 10.14 is a mnp of heat llow determined for the United States. Table 10.3 shows
Ts N
approximate geothermal gradients and heat flow values for three regions. one cold.
ThBrmometer
Ts one. normal. and one hot.ll1e geothermal gradit:nts for the three n:gions are super-
imposed o n phas.: diagrams for uppcr continental crustal rock (grani te) and mantle
(peridotite) in Fig. 10.15. The diagrams ill ustra te the consequences to roc ks in those
FIGURE 10.13 Measareme111 of Item flow. a) Temperatures (T1• T!. .... T.) measured at different depths regions as a result of the different gradien ts.
in a borehole. b)T ploued against z yields the geothermal gradknt (oT/az). Combining with the
(z)
measured thermal conductivity (k) for the region. the heat now is calculated as q = k(aT/uz). Continental Craton On the stable interior of a continent (craton), there is
normal increase in temperature with depth. Granitic rocks of the upper-to-middle
crust are therefore too cold for partial melting to occur (Fig. l0.15a). The upper
TABLE 10.2 Conversion from International S tandard (S f) to other units foun d in mantle is of normal temperature, result ing in typical refraction velocities of about
the literature. 8. 1 to 8.2 km/s (Fig. 4.15). Because the region is not tectonically active. it has had
time to thermally equilibra te: a relative ly flat lithosphere/asthenosphere boundary
Sl Equivalent Units has thus been established at about 150 km depth (Fig. IO.l6a).
Thermal Conductivity (k) ·w rn- t•c- t 2.39 X 10- 3 cal cm - t •c- t S- t
Geothermal Gradient (iJT/ EJz) ·c m- t 103 •c km - 1 TABLE 10.3 Approximate geothermal gradients and heat flow values for
Hea t Flow ( q) W m-2 2.39 X 10-s cal cm- 2 s - t three regions of North America. ( t HFU = 4.2 X 10-~ W / m2).
2.39 x 10 1 H FU
Geothermal
Gradient Heat Flow
Sierra Nevada Mountains l0°C/ km 0.03 W/ m2 0.75 HFU
Continental Craton 20°C/km 0.06 W/m2 1.5 HFU
Basin and Range Province 30°C/km 0.1 W/m 2 2.5 HFU
a a) Dry Granite P/T Diagram
Tect onics and Heat Flow 323

FIGURE 10.15 a ) Gcolhcrmal l!radienls

from Table 10.3. superimposed on phase
T • Temperature tC) d oagram for dry granite. Note I hat
lcmpcraiUrcs arc high enough at ahoUI

c ~
0 a::~---------·~-...;.;'"";__..;~
~
;_~.;;- 0
~ ~ § ~ ~ 20 km dcplh in the Basin and Range
Province 10 iniliale partial mehing:
earthquakes occurring wilhin I he hriulc
upper crust lhus 1ermina1c a bove thai
10 depth. b) Gcolhcrma l gradients
500 ~ superimposed on phase diaQram for

..... 20
.. - ~\ · a : Q. peridolile (Fig. 2.7). Nolicc the shallow
~ . ~ ~ depth<- 45 km ) where partial melting

' -z.\ -o.., may be cncoun1ercd bcnea lh Ihe Basin

~
tl 30 <Sl \. .. ..,.
£. • . . ~
1 000 ::;, a nd Range Province. l nlerscctions of the
~
<;>"> ... : geothermal gradicnls wilh the pa rt ia l
s 40
o-
~
•... : .... ~ mch region sug~test the base of the
~ \.
1,500 t
Q. lil hosphere at aboul !50 km deplh fo r the
\.
J! 50 " ;. Q.
cra10n. 250 km for the Sicmo Nevada
Mounlains. Modified from 1'/n•sica/
\.
Heat Flow (WI m 2) \. CMIOg)· by 13. J. Skinner and S.C. Porter.
60 \ . 2, 000 © I 9R7. Used wi1h pcrmbsion or John
~ >0.09 Wile,· and Sons. Inc.. New York.
70
D 0.05-0.09
r-:-1 < 0.05
L:...:J
b) Wet Peridotite P/T Diagram
T- Temperature tC)
b c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
0~~~~~~77~~--~--_, 0

100
5,000 ~

.....
200 8:
I ~
10,000 ~
~ 300
s 400 ~
~ . ... , . ...
a.:~
J! 15,000 •
500 0..

600

FIGURE 10. 14 /lear film mnJ• aft/or Unitrd State.< (simplified from U.S. Departmcnl of Encr!!Y Heal Flow Map.
1996: sec also Blackwell and S1eclc. 1989. and Blackwell cl al.. 1991 ). Regions of high and low values. cxpres.~ed in
1
W/ m' . arc highlighlcd. Older maps may show ' 'a lues in h eal Oow uni1s (I HFU = 4.2 X 10_, W / m ). High ,·a lues
(> 0.09 W/ m' ) arc observed in areas of continenta l rifting (Basi n and Range Province: Rio Gra nde Rifl) and a1
th e Ycllows1onc holspol. 'Inc conlincntal cra10n is domina1ed hy normal val ues (0.05 - 0.09 W / m '). -m e region or
on goin~ suhduction in Ihe Pacific Nort hwesl shows a low(< 0.05 W / m 1 ) in Ihe forearc region (ncar Ihe coasl) and
a high all he volcanic a rc (Ooscadc Moun1a ins). A promincm low marks the region of the Sierra Nevada
Mounlains. where pla1c conver~c nce ceased aboul 20 million years a~to. Low values arc also observed in I he
Palco10ic con1 inc n1a l collision 70nc in Ihe Easl (Appalachian Mountains).
 324 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Tectonics and Heat Flow 325

;;" 0.15 Continental Rift Hot asthenosphere is in a shallow position ben<::ath a conti-
~ ,,,,,,.,.,.,uu,, b ~3. 0 nental rift. heating overlyi ng crustal rocks (Fig. 2.24b). At a depth of about 20 km
~ 0.1-
•
beneath the Basin and Range Province, gran itic rocks are hot enough to initiate
111111111111

a 111111111111

2.0 ~
~ ........................ c....
11 11111
nHIIIIII I'I I • llfl tllt!
slight partial melting (Fig. 10.15a). Earthquakes are thus limited to the upper 15 km
Cij
0.05- ~,~ 1.0 ~ or so beca use the high geothermal gradient results in a shallow brittle-to-ductile
~ 0 0 transition.
Low se ismic velocities are observed for the upper mantle beneath the Basin
and Range Province (Fig, 4.15). consiste nt with very shallow asthenosphere. The
a) Normal Continental Uthosphere high geotherma l gradient suggests that, at 45 km depth. the temperature is around
l300°C (Fig. 10.15b). The pressure on the hot asthenosphere is so low at that depth
•.
"' 35 km ~~~~:200'C .wo·
800'
800'
that significant partial melting occurs (Fig. 2.7): the low<::r crust may be underplated
by new gabbroic material, as suggested by sub-horizontal events on seismic reflec-
1000' tion profiles (Figs. 6.23, 6.24). The crust/mantle transition is new and flat
120P' (Fig. 10.16b). resulting from..the magmatic differe ntiation of gabbro overlying peri-
. 14Ctl'
dotite: this new Moho is revealed by strong reflections from about 30 to 32 km
1~
~ t50km.--..-~.-~--.-.-.---.-~~~~­ depth throughout the Basin .~)1d Range Province.
·-·-------------·- Asthenosphere ·--- - ----- -·---· - ·-· · 1~

Remnant Subduction Zone The Siara Nevada Mountains in Ca li fornia and

b) Continental Rift Zone N.:vada are the eroded roots of a volcanic arc that <::xisted prior to the <kvc lopment
<:= ==::> of th<:: San Andreas transform plate boundary (Fig. 2.17a). Low heat tlow

8-~-~:20/rC
(Fig. 10.14) suggests the presence of thick. cold lithospher<::. a remnant of the former
.wo· subduct io n zone (Figs. 10.15b. 10.16c). Similar lithosphere slabs have bt:en recog-
c35km ~
nized th rough seismic delay-time studies of the eastern Alps and southern
800'
1()(}(l' Carpathians in Europe (Fig. 7.34). Through time. these cold slabs will heat up to
1200'
more normal temperatures fo r the upper mantle, and th<:: li thosphere/asthenosphere
14Ctl'
~~
boundary will return to a shallower, flatter configuration.
· - --- - ---·-· 1~
Oceanic Regi ons
c) Remnant Uthosphere Slab Oceanic regions arc generally hon er than the continents. because their lithosphere
is younger. Through time, the upper mantle cools. lowering the li thosphere/

1;::cc~-
20 ' ~~--
asthenosphere boundary. Transects across mid-ocea n ridges show correlations of
600'" .. 35 km crusta l age. ba th ymetry. and heat flow consistent with the generation of new li thos-
600'
phere. At subduction zones, heat flow profiles highlight regions of downgoing
==::> 1000' • <::=
li thosphere and magma emplacemen t.
1400'
1600' Mid-Ocean Ridge At mid-ocean ridges, both heat flow values and topo-
graphy decrease exponentiall y with distance from the ridge axes (Fig. 10.1 7a.b). For
a given spreading rate, the farthe r from the ridge, the older the: li thosphere; decreas-
ing heat flow values thus indicate cooling of the lithosphere as it ages (Fig. 10.17c).
At the same distance from ridge axes. fas t-spreading ridges are more elevated
than slow-spreading ridges (Fig. l0. 17b). The elevation is a fu nction of temperature:
FIGURE 10.16 Models explaining hem flow observed in rlrree regions of Norrlr America (Table 10.3; ho tter regions have thermall y expanded mantle and. hence. are more elevated.
Fig. 10.14). Regions of high geothennal gradien t have closely-spaced temperatur~ contours: contours are Fig. l0.17c thus shows that, for both slow- and fas t-spreading ridges, the wate r deep-
far apart where the gradient is low. a) Typical values of heat Oow (= 0.06 W m · '. or 1.5 HFU) and ens exponentially relative to the age of the lithosphere.
geothermal gradient ( • 20. C/ km) on the cra ton result in temperature and pressure conditions that Collectively, the observations in Fig. 10.17 suggest that. as matt:rials move
establish the base of the lithosphere at about 150 km depth ( Fig. lO.l5b). b) A high geothermal gradient
away from a ridge axis, they cool and contract, causing the top of the crust to sin k
e levates the lithosphere/ast henosphere boundary in the Basin and Range Province. ~nhancing partial
melting of the asthenosphere (Fig. tO. t5b). Temperatures may be hot enough so that a brittle-to-ductile deeper be low sea level. The cooling follows an exponen tial decrease with time, so
transition occurs within the upper crust above 20 kon depth (Fig. IO.l5a). c) Subduction brought cold that the top of a given age of li thosphere will be at a predictable water d.;pth. Fast-
lithosphere to a deeper level beneath the Sierra Nevada Mountains. depressing the geothermal gradient spreading ridges remain hot and elevated some distance from the ridge axis, leading
and heat now. to a very broad profile (East Paci fic Rise; Fig. 10. !Sa). Slow-spreading ridges are
326 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Tecton ics and Heat Flow 327

a) Heat Flow vs. b) Bathymetry vs.

Distance From Ridge Axis Distance From R1dge Axis a) Fast-Spreading Ridge
. - - - - - - - - - _ . : : . - - - . , . . . 5.0
;;--
0.2 Age {Ma)
s:: 4.0 1 0 1
~ 0.15
- 3.0 S'
S: 0.,
L[ Oceanic Crust
2.0~
~
!ij 0.05 1.0
~ 0
0 ...J-"'--~-~~-~~
Distance From Ridge Axis (km) Distance From Ridge Axis (km)

c) Bathymetry vs.
Age of Uthosphere

50 0 50
Distance from Ridge Axis (km)

b) Slow-Spreading Ridge
Age (Ma)
5 0 5
FIGURE 10.1 7 Correlations nf hem flm•·. h'lltc•r depth, ll[;c. am/ di.<tanet· from mid-nccan ridl!e 11xcs. a) lne
raqcr I he sprc;•ding. ralc.lhc hroadcr I he region or high heal now. b) Fasl·srrcading ridges show a wider arCil
or hi~h cle\'alion I han •lnw·•rrcadmg ridge'- c) The ocean Ooor suhsidcs as mid-ocean ridge lilhosphcrc cools
lhrough lome.

older and cooler a simil u distance from the ridge. producing steeper profiles (M id-
Atlan tic Ridge: Fig. IO.lSb).

Subdu ction Zone At a subduction zone: i.he thermal effect is much like
putting an ice cube in a cup of hot coffee. It takes some time before e nough heat is
transferred from the coffee into the ice. causing melting. In the meantime. the tern· 50 .· 0 50
perature of the icc is less than that of the surrounding coffee.
Distance from Ridge Axis (km)
When a slab of lithosphere subd ucts. it perturbs temperature contours. FIGURE 10.18 Fas1-spreading leads 10 a broader mid-ocean ridg.e (a), wilh more genllc dips of the wa1er
decreasing the geothermal gradient in the region of the subduction zone bollnm. Moho. and lilhosphcre/aslhcnosphcrc boundary. compared 10 slow spreading (b).
(Fig. 10.19). Heat now measurements commonly show a broad low in the forearc
region, with a local high at the volcanic arc.111e low is a result of the cold slab, while
the high reflects transfer of heat within the ascending magma. The map in
Fig. 10.14a shows this low/high heat now pattern at the Cascadia Subd uction Zone
in the Pacific Northwest (Fig. 2.17).
A consequence of rapid subduction is that cold material ma y descend to great
depths. remaining rigid e nough to fail brittely through earthquakes (Figs. 2.22. 7.23).
Through time the slab heats up. but the cold may linger for tens of millions of years.
Lithosphere roots have thus been recognized beneath areas of fairl y recent plate
convergence. like the Alps (Fig. 7 .34) and Sierra Nevada Mou ntains (Figs. 10.14,
l0.15b.l0.16c).
 328 Chapter 10 Heat Flow Exercises 329

-;;-. 0. 15 _..--- - - - - - -- - ----.- - - - -- .-4.0 10-4 Ca lculate the depth of. and discuss the reasons for. magma generation beneath colli-
sional mountain ranges. Be sure to state your assumptions about rock type and geo-
§_
~ 0.1-
'"
ii
i \
; \
r- 3.0
~
-...}
thermal gradient.
10-5 Using thermal considerations. explain t he generation of magma and magmatic underplat-

&0.05
$
.
i '•
~
~
r- 2.0 ~ ing at a continental rift zone. Include a discussion of the age and geometry of the ~loho.
~ -~~-nnwnn-nnw""wr.~~. ....~.~
••~.-
.-
• •- ,-. -••----------------/~.~--~a---~----~--~ 0 ~ 10-6 a) Using the graph in Fig. 2.7. explain t he difference in the amount o f magma that
~ ...................... -~"' r- 1. would be generated at a mid-ocean ridge if: i) the ast henosphere rises rapidly:
ii) thc a s t hc n osp he ~e rises more slowly.
0 0 b) To generate magma at a mid-ocean ridge. is it necessary that mantle material actu-
ally rise? Explain your answer.
Trench l0-7 At t h..: ending phases of cont inen tal collision. the topography. ~f oh o. and litho-
sphere/ast henosphere boundaries have the depth configura tions illustrated in the
cross sc:ction below. Draw ske tches and explain how and why the depths to the bound-
aries will continue to chan ge through time.

Asthenosphere

FIGURE 10.19 Tt•mperoftlf~ commtrs am/ ht•tlf Jlow profile.• fo r a sululm:tion :.m~t:. Temperature contours ctre dcprc:sscU as lh\! coi<.J
slab subducts. lc:.uing to low heat Oow in the forea rc region. Hot Ouids that migrate upward from the top uf the subducti ng plate
prc.lduc..: magma and high h«:tH now at the volcanic arc.

EXERCISES
150 km
10-1 Given the followi ng temperatures encountc rc:d in a borehole:
5X2m 17.1 "C
114\1 m 35.7°C
1951 m 57.0°C
2666 m SI.O•c
3262 m 9X.\I"C
4X43 m 1<12.:>· c
63\17 m 1\10.\I"C
a) Plot a temperature vs. dept h graph and determine t he geothermal gradient.
b) Assuming the we ll was drilled through a stratified seq uence of sedimentary rock
and basalt. ca lculate the heat flow.
c) I nterpre t the tectonic setti ng. giving geological as well as geophysical reasons for
your interpr..:t<ttion.
10-S a) D raw a cross section and geophysical profiles o f the Uni ted States along 40° N lat-
111· 2 a) From the values in Fig. !0.6, estimate the amount of heat (i n Joules) produced per itude. including the following informat ion: i) depth to Moho from Fig. -1.16; ii) com-
year by the total volumes of: i) continen tal crust: ii) oceanic crust: iii) mantle. pressional wave vdociti..:s from Fig. 4.15: iii) gravity anomalies from the back.
h) Expla in why heat now is so high at mid-ocean ridges. inside cover of this book: iv) positions of earthquakes from Fig. 7.20: v) heat now
JU-3 a) For a geothenmll gntdien t characteristic of a con tinental craton. estimate the depth from Fig. 10.14: vi) topography from tht: front. inside cover o f this book.
where: i) granite will begin to melt; ii) granite will completely melt. h) Based on the informat ion in (a). intc rpret the depth and configurat ion of the
b) Repeat (a). bu t for gran itic crust in a cont inental rift setting. lit hosphere /asthenosphere boundary.
c) Based on results from (a) and (b), discuss the maxi mum depth of crustal ea rt h- c) Discuss ho w the heat flow profile relates to the configurations of t he topography.
quakes one migh t expect at each of the two seuings. Moho. and lithosphere/asthenosphere boundari<:s.
330 Chapter 10 Heat Flow
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conuncntal crust. in: Thr Strucwrt and /'hysical
Propeflics of rile £afills Cflll"/. edilcd by J. G.
Heacock. W~shing10n: American Geophysical
Union. Geophysical Monograph Scric> 14,
pp. 169-184.
Blackwell. D. D.. 1989. Regional implicalions of heal
now of 1he Snake River Plain. nonhwcslcrn
Uni1cd S1a1es. Twonuphpics, "· 164, pp. 323-343.
Blackwell. D. D.. and J. L. S1celc (cdi10rs). 1989.
Gcorhumal Map of North America. Boulder.
Colorado: Geological Socicly of America. map
CSM-007.4 shecls.scale 1 :5.000.000.
Ularkwcll. D. D., J. L. S1cclc. and L. S. Caner. 1991.
Hea1-now pallcms of lhc Nonh American conli·
nem: A discussion of lhc geo1hermal map of Nonh
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l>y D. B. Slemmons. E. R. Engdahl. M . D. Zohack.
and D. D. 131ackwcll. Boulder. Colorado:
Geolo2ical Sociel\' or America. Decade Map
Volum-e I. pp.423 --436.
Blackwell. D. 1).• K. W. Wilson. and J. L. S1cclc. I\195.
G..:othcmwl rccimc in the central and cnstcrn
Unilcd Swle> ~as1 of lhc Rocky Mounwins. in:
1\orldn·idr Urilr~arion of Grmlrcrmal Energy: An
/ncli.t:riWU.\ Enl"ironmcmnlly Rcnign RciiC'"'nhlr
F.ncrgy Rr.wurcc. Florence. llaly: Proceedings of
1hc World Geolhermal Congress. 1995. ,._ 1.
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Bon. l\1. H. P.. 1982. T/1(· lmaior of rile £arrlr: Irs
Srrucrurr. Ccm.<tirwimr nnd f.,·olurion (2nd ed.).
1\ew York: Ebevier Science Puh. Co.. 403 pp.
Brune. J. 1\.. T. L. Hcnve\'. and R. F. Rov. 1969. Heal
Oow. sires.<. and ral~ ~f >lip :rlong I he 'san Andrea•
Faull. Californoa. lou mal of Groplry.<ical Hc<rorclr.
'· 74. pp. :\~21-~S27.
Chapman. R. E.. 1995, /'iry.<irs for Geologist.<. London:
l 'CL l'res~ Limi1ed. London. 14:- pp.
De Brcmaechcr. J. C.. 1985. Groplrysics: 7111' J:arrlr :,
Interior. i'\cw York: John \Vilcy ;md Son~. Inc..
:>-12 pp.
Eld,·r. J. \\'.. 1965. Physical processes in geolhcnnal
areas. in: Trrresrrralllrar 1'/ou·. edilcd h,· W. H. K.
Lee. Washin~lon: American Gcoph"sical Union.
Gcophysic:ol Monograph Series 8. pp. 211-2~9.
Elder. J.. 19SI. Grot/ramo/ S\·.<trms. l'e" York :
Academic Press. 508 pp. · Schlalcr. J. G.. R. K Anderson. and M. L. Bell. 1971.
Fowler. C. M. R.. 1990. Tire Solid Earth: An
lwroduclwn 1u Glahn/ Gt•ophyJics. Cambridge:
Cambridge Universil)' Press, 472 pp.
Garland. G. D.. 1979. lnrroducrirm to Gcoplr_nir.1 (2nd
ed.). Tororllo: \\'. B. Saunders Company. 494 pp.
Jessop. A. M.. 1990. Tlrrrmal G<·oplrysic.<.
Devclopmcnls in Solid Earlh Geophysic>. No. 17.
New York: Elsevier. 306 pp.
Lachenbruch.A . H .. and J. H. Sass. 1977. Heal now in
lhe Uni1cd S1a1es and lhe lhermal regime of lhc
crust. in: Thr Enrtlr S Crwa. it.f Nnwrr nnd Pln•sicnl
Properties. cdi1cd hy J. G. Heacock. Washi~glon:
American Geophysical Union. Geophysical
Monograph Series 20. pp. 626-675.
Lachenbruch. A. H .. J. H. Sass. and !'.Morgan. 1994.
Thermal regime of Ihe soulhcrn Basin and Range
Pro,~nce: 2. lmplicalions of heal now for regional
ex1ension and mc1amorphir core complexes.
Journal of Geophysical Rcscordr, "· 99, A P P E N D X A
pp. 22121-22133.
Lee, W. H. K.. 1965. (cdilor). Tcrresrrial Hcnr Flow,
Washinglon: American Geophysical Union,
Geophysical Monograph Serres 8. 276 pp.
Morean, 1'.. and W. D. Gosnold. 1989. Heal now and
Sequenced \fvriting
lhermal regimes in lhe continenlal UniiCd S1a1es,
in: Geophysical Frame~vork of lht cominenlal
United Srnrcs, edi1ed hy L. C. Pakiscr and W. D.
Assignment For Whole
Mooney. Boulder. Colorado: Geological Socie1y of
America. Memoir 172. pp. 493-522.
Phil polls. A. R.. 1990. Principles of Igneous and
Earth Geophysics Course
Metamorphic Perrolugy, Englewood Cliff" New
Jersey: Prentice Hall. Inc.. 498 pp.
Roy. R. F.. D. D. Blackwell. and F. Birch. 1968. Heal Geophysical observations comprise a wealth of information about Earth's crustal
gcnera1ion of plulonic rocks and con1inemal heal
now provinces. £arrh and 1'/anrrary ScrMa
structure and tectonic evolution. A course in Whole Earth Geophysics can be used
Len~rr. v. 5. pp. 1- J 2. to train students to compile and interpret many aspects of a particular region. and to
Roy. R. F.. D. D. Blackwell. and E. R. Decker. 1970. express their understanding of the region's structure and evolu tion through writing.
Conlincmal heal now. m: Tire Nat"" of tire Solid TI1e course for which th is book is designed differs from conventional geo-
Earth. ediled h\' E. C. Robenson. Harvard
Uni,·crsily sympa;ium. pp. 506-5~3 . physics courses. in that it focuses on writing as a method to learn course content.
Sahus. R. \\'., and G. A. Thompson. 1995. Why is il Many colleges and universities now require students to learn concepts in their own
downhill fr om Tonopah 10 Las Vegas~: A case for discipline through •·writing intensive" (or "wri ting across the curriculum") courses.
manllc plume supporl of Ihe high nonhcrn Basin The assignment discussed below is thus designed for an upper division, writing
and Range. Tccrnnic.<. "· 14. pp. 123~- 1244.
Sass. J. H .. A. H. L.1chenhruch. and A. H. Morgan.
intensive cour$e in a geology or geophysics curriculum.
199~. Thcnnal rc2imc of 1hc sou1hcrn Basin and The assignment differs from a normal term paper in that it is nor done all at
Ranee: J. Heal riow dala from Ari1.0na and lhe
once. near the end of the term (that traditional approach often results in disastrous
Moja,·c Descn or California and Nevada. Jo11ma/
of Grnplry.rical Rrunrch. ,.. 99. pp. 22093-22119.
quali ty and consequences!). Rather. the paper is developed gradually throughout
Sclaler. J. G.. C. E. Corry. and V. Vacquicr. J969, 1n silu the term. with critique from the instructor and revision at each step. Students thus
mcasuremeniS of lhe 1hcnnal conduclivil\• o f learn that writing is an ongoing process. not something done at the last minute.
occan-Onor 'cdrmcn1s. lo11mal of Groph_~sical
The writing sequence follows the content of this book. Students conducl liter-
Hr.<rarch. v. i4. pp. 1070- JOSI.
atu re research and write about geophysical observations from a selected region of
Sclaler. J. G.. and J. Franchelcau. 1970. The implica·
liOnS or ICTTCSirial he:ll now OOSCTY31ions on CUT· the Earth at the same time each type of observation is discussed in lectures.
rcn1 1cc1onic :ond ccochemical models of 1he crus1 Geophysical techniques thus have a context; they constrain specific aspects of geol-
and upper mantic of lhc Eanh. Geophysical
ogy in the region studied.
Jrmr11nl nf tlrr Royal AstrnmmuC'nl SoCirty. ,._ 20.
pp. 509~~42. One of the problems with the traditional approach to term paper writing is
Sclalcr.·J. G.. E. J. W. Jones. and S. 1'. Mrllcr. 1970. The thai students are overwhelmed by large volumes of informat ion. A student may
rclalion~hip or heal now. bo11om 1opography and wri te about the Mid-Atlantic Ri dge. for example. with observmions from seismic
uasemcnl relief in Peake and Freen Deeps. norlh
Allantic. Trct()lroplry.<ics. ,._ J0. pp. 283-300.
refraction, earthquake. gravi ty. magnetic, and heat now data. The student may
review so much literature all at once that the paper is a composite of facts and
EIC\'alion or ridccs and evolulion of lhe cenlral assorted opinions. with poor organization. insight. and comprehension. The instruc-
caslcrn l'acifrc. j"""'"' of Gcoplrysrcnl Hcscarch, tor might offer comments and suggestions after the paper is turned in; that feedback
\'. 76. pp. 7888-7915.
is in vain. however. if the stud ent is not required to revise. The incorporation o[
Skinner. B. J.. and S. C. Po ncr. 19Si .1'/ry.•ica/ Geology,
New York: John Wiley and Sons. Inc.. 750 pp. information a liule at a rime. accompanied by cririque and revision. allows students
Smilh. R. B.. and L. \\'. Braile. 1994. The Yellows1one to remain organized and focused on studying aspects of the Earth in their regions.
Holspol. io11mal of l'o/canology and Grorlrrrmal
Hcscarclr. ' '· 61. pp. 121-187.
Smilh. R. B.. R. T. Shuey. Jr.. R. Pelion. and J. P. Bailey.
1977. Yellowslone H01sp01: Conlcmporary leeton·
OUTLINE OF PAPER
ics and cruslal propcnies from eanhquake and
aeromagnelic dala. io11ma/ of Geophysical During the course of the term each sludent i.s asked to write about the crusra/ srruc-
Rescnrclr, , .. 82. pp. 366~-3676. rurr and rec1onic evolwion of a region. as vie,ved through different types of geo'phys-
Wheildon. J., P. Morgan, K. H. Williamson. T. R. Evans,
and C. A. Swanberg. 1994. Heal Flow in Ihe Kenya
ical data. Information is incorporated gradually. with feedback from the instructor
Rill Zone. Tecro,wplrysics. ,._ 236. pp. 131- 149. at each step. The paper thus improves as it expands.
331
 332 Appendix A Sequenced Writing Assig.nment For Whole Earth Geophysics Course Writing Sequence 333

The assignment emphasizes concise writing. Students summarize the con tent iv) Western Europe
. of publ ished articles, but in their own style and with their own thoughts incl uded. v) Antarctica
Each step of the writing process has all the components outlined below: it is impor- vi) Margins of Gulf of Mexico
tant that students visualize their final product. and that they revise each part as the vii) Margins of Red St:a
paper evolves during the term.
C) Mid-Ocean Ridges:
• TITLE i) Mid-Atlantic Ridge
ii) East Pacific Rise
• ABSTRACT iii) Central Red-Sea
• MAIN BODY (with appropriate subheadings): 2. Convergent Tectonic Settings:
• INTRODUCTION A ) Trench/Arc: Sys1ems:
i) Japan

I • OBSERVATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS (added as paper evolves):

•
•
S<::ismic Refraction
Seismic Reflection
.•
ii)
iii)
Western South. America
U.S. Pacific Northwest

II •
•
Earthquake
Gravity
iv)
v)
Philippines
Aleutians
• Magnetics B) Collisional Mowuain Ranges:
• Heat Flow i) Himalayas
\
ii ) Alps
I
• DISCUSSION
• CONCbUSIONS
iii) Ca rpathians
iv) Appalachians
• REFE RENCES CITED v) Ouachitas
vi) Caledonides
• FIGU RES (with appropriate captions) vii) Canadian Rockies
viii) Australia/Banda Arc
3. Strike-Slip Settings:
POTENTIAL PAPER TOPICS i) San Andreas Fa ult
ii) Nt:w Zt:aland
During the fi rst week of the course. each stude nt selects a feature on Earth's surfnce iii) Southern Oklahoma Aulacogen
that fascinates him/her. The feature should be on a ··tectonic scak," perhaps the
Basin and Range Province or the Himalayan continental coll ision zone, or ont: of 4. Hotspot Settings:
the other regions suggested in the list below. In consultation with the instructor. the i) Hawaii/ Emperor
studen t should insure that there are sufficient published articles presenti ng gt:o- ii) Columbia Plateau/Snake River Plain/ Yellowstone
physical observations in the region (pe rhaps including some, or all. of seismic n:frac·
Lion, seismic reflecLion, ear1hquake, g ra vily, magnelics, and heat }low). The Selected
Bibliography at the end of Chapter 2 inay se rve as a starting point.
WRITING SEQUENCE
1. Extensional Tectonic Settings:
11JC seque nce below is used for a one quarter course (10 weeks) tha t emphasizes
A) Continental Rifts:
refraction, earthquake. gravity, magnetic, and heat flow data; modifications would
i) Basin and Range Province be necessary for classes of differing length and/ or content. The instructor's time for
ii) Keweenawan Rift
reading and critique is about the same for each iteration-papers are generally eas-
iii) East Africa
ier to read as they expand in length during the term.
iv) North Sea
The percentage grades for each iteration reflect the overall va lue of the paper
v) Rhine Graben
as 35% of 1/ze tow/ course grade. A value of 5% for the first iterat ion acknowledges
vi) Reelfoot Rift
that papers ini tially may be poorly researched , organized. and written. The instruc-
B) Passive Continerrw/1\tfargins: tor can send a message with grades of I to 3. out of the 5 percent, while still leaving
i) Eastern North America the student opportu nity to achieve a decent overa ll score for the assignment. By the
ii) Eastern South America last iteration many papers arc of professional quality. earning scores of 11 or 12. out
iii) West Africa or the possible 12 percent.
334 Appendix A Sequenced Writing Assignment For Whole Earth Geophysics Course Components of Paper 335

First Iteration (Due 4th week of term; 5% of course grade).
Write an overview of one to three papers that discuss the crustal strucwre of the
region based on seismic refraction observlltions.'Ille paper should be typed. double
spaced. including a Title, Abstract, Main Body, Reference List, and Figures.111e Main
Body of the paper should be about 2 pages long at this stage.
Pot ential co nstrai nts now available:
1. Seismic refraction:
a) Overall crustal thickness:
h) Pattern of crustal thickness changes:
c) Internal crustal velocities:
d) Uppermost mantle velocities.
Pot ential new observations/interpretations:
• TI1in crust at a continental rift or mid-ocean ridge?
• 1l1ick crust at a mountain range?
• Transition from thick continental to thin oceanic crust at a continental
margin ?
• Low upper-mantle velocities at a continental rift or mid-ocean ridge"
Second Iteration (Due 6th week; 8% of course grade).
2. Earthquake (sec above).
3. Gravity:
a) Density distribution;
b) Crustal thickness changes;
c) Lithospheric thickness changes:
d) State of isostasy of the region.
Potential new observations/interpretations:
• Thick crust beneath high topography of mountain ranges?
• Crustal thinning where water deepens at cont inental margins?
• Shallow asthenosphere supporting weight of elevated mantle and topo-
graphy at conti nenta l rifts and mid - ocet~n ridges?
• Deviations from loca l isostasy. suggesting lithospheric strength?
Fourth Iteration (Due 1Oth w eek; 12% of course grade).
Revise and add material on magnetics and/or heat flow. AI this stage. the DISCUS-
SION section should include many of the student's own interpretations and ideas
on the crustal structure and tectonic evol ution of the region, based on integration of
many types of data. "Ille Main Body is now 8 to 10 pages long.

Rewrite thr cmirc p<~per. consid..:ring the instructor's comments and adding infor- Potential constraints now :wailable:
mation based on papers at>out carthqut1ke Icismic observations. (Main Body now 3 1. Seismic refraction (see above).
to 4 pages). 2. Et~rthquake (see above).
Potential constraints now available: 3. Gravit y (see above).
l. Seismic refraction (sec above). 4. Magnetics
2. Earthquake: a) Susceptibility. size. and orientation of magnetic bodies:
a) Positions of li thospheric plate boundaries: b) Depth to crystall ine basemen t beneath sedimeutary basins;
b) Types of st resses in the region: c) Record of magnetic reversals.
c) Lithospheric thick ness changes based on seism ic delay times. 5. Heat F/o11·
Potential new observations/interpretations: .. a) Geothermal gradient:
• Shallow earthquakes at divergent and .transform boundaries? b) Depths to brittle/ductile transitions within the crust and upper mant le.
• Earthquakes to considerable depth at convergent boundaries? Potential new observations/interpretations:
Normt~l fault focal plane solutions showing areas of extension? .· Magnetics:
• Reverse fault focal plane solutions showing areas of compression? • Recognition of continental vs. oceanic basement?
• Strike-slip fault focal plane solutions showing areas of sheari ng stress? • Age of seafloor created at m id-ocean ridges?
• Thin lithosphere at a continental rift or mid-ocean ridge? • Age of continental sedimentary deposits?
• 1l1ick lithosphere at a subduction zone or :ollisional mountain range? • Latitudes of rocks as they formed?
Heat Flow:
• Thickness of the lithosphere?
Third Iteration (Due 8th week; 10% of course grade). • Proximity to magma sources?
Revise entire paper. adding a part based on gravity interpretation. (Main Body now
5 to 7 pages).
Potential constraints now available:
1. Seismic refraction (see above).
336 Appendix A Sequenced Writing Assignment For Whole Earth Geophysics Course

COMPONENTS OF PAPER
Each component of the paper accomplishes certain tasks. Although good writing is A P P E N D X B
concise. some redundancy may be desirable. For example; you may wish to state
your conclusions in the ABSTRACT and INTRODUCTION sections, as well as in
the CONCLUSIONS; the reader may otherwise loose sight of the objective of your
paper.
Units, Conversions, and
TITLE
• The title can be interesting, clever, and provocative, as long as it tells the
Abbreviations
reader what your paper is about.
ABSTRACT
• A concise summary of your paper.
UNITS/CONVERSIONS
• Entices the reader to want to read on; makes the reader curious about the
details contained in the rest of your paper.
INTRODUCTION Fundamental Units
• Introduces geography and tectonic selling of the region to the reader. Fundamental Unit
• Defines the objective of your paper ("to understand the crustal structure Quantity and Abbreviation
and tecconic evolution of . ..").
• Summarizes how you went about achieving your objective (" researched distance meter (m)
constraints on crustal structure and tectonic evolution offered by geophys- electric current ampe re (A)
ical observqtions"). mass kilogram (kg)
temperature degree Kelvin (°K)
• States specific geophysical studies reported on in the literature.
(increase I°K = increase 1°C}
• Offers conclusions, perhaps in the form of general mode ls (or competing time second (s)
models), that can be developed from those studies.
OBSERVATIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS
• Gives specific observations for each type of geophysical data.
Systeme lnternationale (SI) Un its
• Summarizes the constraints on crustal structure and/or tectonic evolution
offered by each data type.
Qu<Jnt ity Sl Unit Fundamental Un its
• Presents interpretations offered in the literature.
DISCUSSION electric charge coulomb (C) As
en.:rgy joule {1) kg m2 s- !
• Presents your own discussion on how the constraints contribute to under- fore!! newton (N) kg m s- !
standing the crustal structure and tectonic evolution of the region. frequenc y hertz (Hz) s-1
CONCLUS IONS magnetic field tesla {T) kgA- I s- 2
pressure pascal (Pa) kg m- 1 s- 2
• States what you conclude from your synthesis/analysis.
power watt (W) kg m! s- 3
REFE RENCES CITED
• Includes all papers cited in your paper.
• Includes only papers cited in your paper.

337
338 Appendix B Units, Conversions, and Abbr eviat ions
Units/Conversions 339
Geophysical Properties in 51 Units and Conversions
Property and Equivalent U nits
Propert y and E qui\'alent U nits Abbreviation SJ Unit and Conversio ns
A hbreviati on SJ U nit and Conversio ns
heat production J kg- l s-l Wkg l
area (A ) m-' 4
10 cm 2 1o~L;w kg- 1
10- 6 km 2 10 7 erg kg - 1 s- 1
JO'ergg- 1 s- 1
bulk modulus (k) Pa 1 kg m - 1s- 2 3.16 X 1011 erg g- 1 a- l
1 N m- 2 4.19 X 10- 3 cal g- 1 s- 1
1.32 X 105 cal g- 1 a - 1
density (r) kg m -> 10-::.g cm -::.
m agnetic
d istance m 106 micron sus~eptibility (x) Dimensionless
(x. y. z. h. l. L, r, R) 10' mm
102 em magnetic fi eld
1o- > km imcnsity (F) T kgA -Is- 2
39.37 inch (in) kg c-l s-l
3.281 fee t (ft) cs- 1 m- 1
6.214 x 10- 4 mile (mi) Am- 1
(1 in = 2.54 em) 109 nT
(I ft = 12 in = 30.48 em = 0.3048 m) 109 gamma ("y)
(1 mi = 5280 ft = 1609 m = 1.609 km) 4r. X 10-> Oersted (Oe)
(1 em = 0.394 in ) kgA- 1 s- 2
magnetization (J) T
(1 km = 0.6215 mi = 3282 ft ) kg c-l s-l
energy (E) cs - 1 m - 1
1 kg m 2 s- 2
Am - 1
Nm
107 dyne em 10 9 nT
107 erg 10 9 gamma ('y)
2.39 X 10- 1 cal 1/ 4r. x 10' gauss (G)
2.39 x Jo - • kcal mass (m) kg 10::. g
force (F) N 1 kg m s-2 power w J s- 1
105 dyne 106 fJ.W
... w-> kW
geothermal
2.39 x 10- 1 cal s - 1
gradie nt (aT / riz) ocm - 1 oK m- 1
2.39 X 10-• kcal s- 1
IO' ~Ckm - 1
1.8 X 10::. °F km - 1 p ressure (P) Pa kg m - 1 s- 2
2.90 x 10::. °F mi - 1 N m-2
w-<• MPa
gravi tational 10- 5 bar (h)
_,
acceleration (g) ms - 102 em s- 2 10- 8 kilobar (kb)
10 2 Gal 9.87 X 10- 6 atmosphere (atm)
105 mGal
(1 Gal = 1 em s- 2 ) shear modulus (fl.) Pa kg m - 1 s - 2
(1 mG al = 10-> em s- 2) N m- 2

heat now (q) wm - 2 2.39 x w-

5 cal em - 2 s- 1 temperature (T) oc °K- 273.16
2.39 X I 0 1 HFU . 0.5556 (0 f - 32)
(1 HFU = 10- 6 cal em -l s - 1
them1al
= 4.1 8 X J0 - 2 W m- 2) conductivit y (k) W m -loc-1 2.39 X 10-::. cal cm - 1 oc -l S- 1
340 Appendix 8 Units, Conversions, and Abbreviations Abbreviations Used in Text 341

Property and Equivalent Units A, amplitude of reflected wave

Abbreviation sr Unit and Conversions A(t) amplitude of seismic trace at timet
BC Bouguer correction
time (T) BC, Bouguer correction at sea
l03 ms COP common depth poi nt
1.667 X l0- 2 minute (min) CMP common midpoi nt
l.l57 X w-s day 0 flexural rigidity of elast ic plate
3. 168 X lO-s year (a) E energy
(1 min = 60s) E Young's modulus
( 1 day = 8.64 x 104 s) f frequency
(I a= 3.157 X 107 s) F fo rce
(1 Ma = l06 a) FAC free air correction
g gravitationa l acceleration
velocity (Y) m s- 1 w-J km s- 1 theoretical gravity at equator
(1 mm/a = I km/ Ma) th<::oretical gravity
g,
( I em/a= lO km/ Ma) h eleva tion
volume (Y) mJ h layer thickness
106 cm3 thickn<::ss of air colum n
w-•) km 3 h:o
h,, thickness of asthenosph<::re column
h< thickness of crust
(h,)o thickm:ss of oc.:anic crust
ABBREVI ATIONS USED IN TEXT (h,)c thickness of continental crust
( h,),, thickness of crust at mountains
hm thickness of mantle column
Units thick ness of water column: water depth
hw
a annum (year) magnetic inclination anglt:
c coulomb I acoustic impedance
·c degree centigrade l(t) amplitude of input signa l at time t
em cen timeter k bulk modulus
g gram k thermal conductivity
Hz hertz I length. distance
in inch L length. distnncc
1 joule m mass
km kilometer m body wave magnitude
m meter M mass of Earth
Ma million years M., seismic moment
mGal milligal M, surface wave magnitude
mm millimeter Mw moment magni tude
N newton N(t) amplitude of noise at timet
Pa pascal P pressure
s second q heat flow
T testa q(x) load applied to the top of elastic plate at x
w watt q(z) heat flow at depth z
gamma Q seismic atten uation (qual ity factor)
'I
r distance
Variables R distance from observation poin t to center of Earth
RC retlection coefficient
a acce leration RC(t) amplitude of reflection coefficient at timet
A area time
A ground displacement T-axis intercept for reflected wave
A; amp litude of incide nt wave T-axis intercept for critically re fracted wave
342 Appendix B Units, Conversions. and Abbreviations Abbreviations Used in Text 343

t,d refraction T-axis intercept when shooting downdip

refraction T-axis intercept when shooting updip p density
tlu
t, vertic~!. two-way traveltime within the i'h layer
densi ty of air
densi ty of mat erial above ela~tie pla te
t n- 1 T-axis intercept for refraction along layer n
T travel ti me densit y of asthenosphere
density of material below elastic plate -
TAU refraction travel time: shot at A. receiver at B
TC terrain correction densit y of crust
travel time of direct wave density of mantle
Td
traveltime of renected wave density of water
Tr
traveltime for critical refraction along layer n period
Tn
latitude (degrees)
T>:~10 normal moveout time
arrival ti me of compressiona l wave l) Poisson's ratio
Tr
T, travel time of critically refract ed wave X magnetic susceptibility
T, arrival time of shear ~~·ave
u fa ult displacement Co nstants
vo initial velocity G Universal Gravitational Constant (6.67 x 10- 11 Nm 2/ kg 2)
v volume ratio of circumference to diameter of circle (3.1416)
v veloci ty
\1
•r apparent velocity Vectors
v :i\ average veloci ty
v, seismic velocity of i'h layer f. tot aI m<Jgnetic field
interval velocity f.,. e;tst component of horizontal magnetic field
VIOl

\In seismic veloci ty of lavern r,; horizontal component of magnetic field

v,. compressional wave ~·eloci t y F" north component of horizontal magnetic field
\1 (nl\
root mean square velocity f,. vertical component of magnetic field
shear wave velocity fomh Earth's ambient field
Vs
vI true 1·elocity F;.d induced magnetic field
w deOection of elastic plate f,..m remanent magnetic field
j total magnetization
w width
X horizontal distance j ind induced magnetization
X< critical distance jr~m remanent magn etization
XCt crossover distance !.\g change in gravity
z vertical distance ..'.g, horizon tal component of change in gravity
Ag, vertical component of change in gravity
a dip angle of interface ·· ··
a Mathe matical Symbo ls
correction factor for earthquake magnitude determinat ion
& magnetic declination angle a .. proportional to
~ earthquake epicentral distance {degrees)" t:. change in
!lgn Bouguer gravity anomaly dT/dX first derivative ofT. with respect to x
..'.gr, free air gravity anomaly aT /in partial derivative ofT. with respect to z
llg magnitude of change in gravity fAg, dx integral of ng,. wi th respect to x
~g, magnitude of horizontal change in gravit y * convolution operator
t.g, magnitude of vertical change in gravity
(H/iJz geothermal gradient
e angle
e< critical angle
e, angle of incidence
e, angle of refract ion
A wavelength
A Lame's constant
iJ.. shear modulus
 A P P E N D X . c 8.
>-
1-
> ~
Cll
'ijjc: >
Cll u
·c:0
<11 'iii

Igneous Rocks:
(f)
<{
~
-
~ a:

- .g ?!.
0
en
"'g :::l
....
)(
w
~
0
:::l
.... "5
a:
:E .......
C) I c Q) Q)

Classification, Properties of
Q)
<{ > ~ (.)
(.)
0) ctl
0 ctl
'ii) 0 ' t
~ c (j) ' t
0 .0<( ::::::1 ::::::1
a.. (f) CD (f)
·Magmas, and Tectonic "0
c
0
0
co 0 <ll !:
Occurrence (f)
~ a:
(U
(i)
ctl
LL.
0
(f)
.· 0
0
a:
CLASSIFICATION CHART (f)
:::J
The chart on the next page ill ustrates the classification of igneous rocks according 0
w z
to silica comem1chemical composition) and texture (grain si::e). The seven rock
z 0
names are a rough guide because igneous rocks commonly have compositions C) 1- .....
falli ng between the si lica and heavy mineral percentages shown. Properties of the
igneous rocks and the magmas that form them also exhibit gradations between the
rock types shown. -
0
(f)
(f)
0
0..
«S
en
«S
co
4
Silica (Si04 }- Content w 2
I- 0
Silica is si licon (S i) and oxygen (0), the stuff that makes common window glass. An a: 0 .....
(])
w
example of a mineral that is pure silica is quartz (che mical formula Si0 ). Common
2
mine rals found in igneous rocks that are high in silica include: quartz; orthoclase or
potassium fe ldspar (KA1Si30s): albi te or sodium plagioclase feldspar (NaAISi;Os);
Q_
0
_.J
<t:
en
(])
'0
c
-
(])
·;::
0
a: 0 0
and micas (m uscovi te, KAI 3Si30 10(0 H) 2; biotite, K(Mg,FehSi;0 (0H) ]. Common
10 2 Q_ - <(
minerals in igneous rocks low in silica are amphibole [hornblende, 2
NaCa(Mg,Fe) 5AISi70 22 (0H)2]; olivine ((Mg,Fe)2 SiO~J; calcium plagioclase feldspar "0
c w
-
(])
(CaAI2Si20 8 ); and pyroxene (Ca,Fe,Mg-Silicate). co I .-=: Q)

The percentage of silica is an important factor in the properties of magma. As z 0 ·c:

magma cools, the silica begi ns to form molecules wh ile the magma is still liquid. .._
«S
0 C)
This early bonding of si lica tends to make the magma more viscous (that is, more
sticky), like grease or molasses. Magmas high in silica thus tend to flow sluggishly.
I-
<{
while those with lower silica content flow more freely, like foun tains or rivers of 0
water. High silica minerals also tend to have lower melting temperatures than those u_ Q)
with low silica, so that when rocks begin to melt, magmas with high silica content are -
(f)
Q) en
....._
generated before those low in silica. c «S
When magma cools to rock, the amount of silica determines the minerals
(f)
<{
u: 0
0
formed, hence affecting the rock's physical properties. High silica mi nerals tend to _J
be light in color and weight; the rocks formed therefore have a pink to white 0
appearance and low density (granite, rhyoli te). When rocks are low in silica, they
have a larger proport ion of heavy, dark mi nerals that are high in iron and magne-
z
<(
sium; those rocks have higher density and arc dark brown, dark green, or black
(basalt, gab.b~o, peridotite).
a:
C)
344
346 Appendix C Igneous Rocks Description of Igneous Rocks 347

Size of Minera l Grains (Texture) • pyroxene:

As magma cools. mineral crystals begin to form. If the rock cools quickly, the • minor amounts of olivine.
crystals are so small tha t they cannot be seen with the naked eye. Slow cooling. b) D ark colored (dark green to b lack)
however. gives crysta ls enough time to grow large. Igneous rocks are thus classified c) Relatively high density (- 2.8 to 3.0 g/ cm3)
as fine grained (or aphaniric, from Greek "invisible") and course grained (or d) Common in lower part of both continerllal and oceanic crust.
phaneritic, from Greek "visibl e'').
Texture can be used to understand the genesis of an igneous rock . Fine 4) Peridotite
gra ined igneous rocks result from magma that cooled at or near Earth's surface, a) Mostly composed of:
forming ex1msive (volcanic) and shallow imrusive rocks. Magma that cooled slowly, • olivine and pyroxene;
deep within the Earth. formed coarse grained imrusive (plutonic) rocks. • perhaps some calci um-rich fe ldspar.
b) Dark green color
DESCRIPTION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS c) Very high density (3.3 to 3.4 g/cm 3)
d) Not common in the crust , bu t forms the mantle part of the lithosphere:
1l1e descriptive classification scheme below relates to the chart on the previous
page as fo llows: • generally fo rmed from magmat ic diffe rent ia tion as hot asthenosphere
rises at a mid-ocean ridge:
• Capirallerrers refer to the texture (grain size) of the rock. • low silica magma cools first. crystallizing as the heavy minerals pyrox-
A) Coarse (phaneritic) ene and olivine ( the rock peridotite):
B) Fine (aphanitic) • the remaining sil ica -rich magma is ligh ter, so it moves upwa rd to form
the crust (gabbro and basalt).
• Numbers correspond to the chemical composition:
1) High sil ica content (gra nite/rhyolite) B) Aphanitic (Fine Grained) Textures:
2) Inte rmediate silica content (diorite/andesite)
1) Rhyolite
3) Low silica content (gabbro/basa lt)
(a). (b). and (c) same as for granite
4) Extremely low silica content (peridotite)
d) Occurrence:
A) Phaneritic (Coarse Grained) Textures: • not fo und in ocean crust;
• generally occurs as volcanic eruptions on continental crust , where
1) Granite
magma intrudes and melts s ilica-rich minerals.
n) Most common minerals:
• potassium (K) feldspar (orthoclase); 2) Andesite
• quartz: (a). (b). and (c) same as for di orit e
• some sodium (Na) feldspar (a lbite); d) Comm{)n in volcanic rocks at con vergent p late boundaries:
• min or amounts of mica (muscovite/biotite), which stand out as clear • the down going ocean crust and sediments are heated, releasing fluid s;
or black nakes. '•.. the fl uids work their way to the surface. partially melting mantle and
b) Ligh t colored (generally pink ) crust of the overriding p late;
c) Relatively low density ( -2.6 to 2.8 g/c m ~) • silica-rich minerals have lower melting temperatures. enriching silica
d) Common in upper and middle portions o f continental crust. content o f the resulting magma.

2) Diorite 3) Basalt
a) Most common minerals: (a). (b). and (c) same as for gabbro
• sodium-calcium feldspar (plagioclase): d) Originates from cooli ng lava nows. commonly at divergent plate bound;
• only minor amounts of quartz: aries:
• might have dark minerals amphibole and pyroxene. • upper part of ocean crust;
b) Grayish color (looks like "salt and pepper") • continental rift zones.
c) Density between granite and gabbro ( -2.8 g/cm~) 4) Fine-grained equivalents to peridotite are very rare:
d) Common in the mid-crust beneath volcanic arcs. • too d ense to extrude through the crust:
3) Gabbro • normally, only the course-gra.i ned peridotite forms, because it cools
slowly at depth . within the m antle;
a) Most common minerals:
the rare examples, called komariiles, are very old rocks. formed when
• calcium-rich feldspar (plagioclase): the Earth was much honer.
 Tectonic Setting 349
348 Appendix c Igneous Rocks

PROPERTIES OF MAGMA Cinder Cones

Magma strewn high into the air generally is of the more fluid variety. ~e mater!al
The physical properties of magma depicted in the chart depend. to a large degree. that rains down. forming cinder cones. is generally o t basalt to basaltic andesne
on the silica content of the magma.
composition.

Color.
TECTONIC SETTING
The less silica. the more dark colored minerals. Low-silica magmas the refore form
igneous rocks that are dark green to black , while lighter colors (pink to white) occur I Numbers on the chart refer to the tectonic settings where specific igneous rock.s
as silica content increases.

Density
I commonly occur (Chapter 2) . Lower case le tter~ indicate whe re the magma sohdl-
fi ed within the crust or mantle. The occurrence tor t:ach rock type 1s a rough gUide,

The less silica. the more heavy m inerals (like those with iron and magnesium); the
I indicati ng se u ings whe re substantial amounts of that rock fo rm.

magma and resulting igneous rocks are thus more dense. ··

Melting (Solidification) Temperature

II
The more silica, the lower the melting temperature. As rock melts. high-silica mag- I
mas generally come out first. Conversely, as magma cools, lower silica m inerals
solidify first. followed progressive ly by those with higher and higher silica. I
Viscosity (Resistance to flow; "stickiness") I
Silica molecules (tetrahedra) begin to fo rm while the magma is still liquid. High-
silica magmas (rhyolite/andesite) a re therefore more paste-like than low-silica mag-
mas (basalt), which tend to erupt like fountains of water and flow like rivers.

Extent of Lava Flows

The viscosity determines how easily (and how far) lava is likely to flow. Low viscos-
ity magmas (those with low silica) will therefo re flow much farther (and a re much
thinne r) than those with high viscosity (high silica).

Percent Volatiles
Volatiles (water vapor and ca rbon dioxide) escape easily from fluid magmas, but are
trapped when magmas are sticky. High viscosity high-silica magmas therefore have
a much higher percentage of trapped gasses than low-silica magmas.

Types of Volcan ic Eru ptions

As magma rises and cools, gasses escape from free-flowing, low-silica magma, but
are trapped (under high pressure) with in sticky, high-silica magma. Sudden
release of press ure causes violent e ru ption of magmas with andesite to rhyolite
composition.

Types of Major Volcanoes

Low-viscosity magmas (basalt) flow freely, forming volcanoes with gentle slopes of
only 1° to 2° ("shield" volcanoes). High-viscosity magmas (a ndesite to rhyolite)
stick to the sides of volcanoes, making the volcanoes much steeper (10° slopes:
"composite" volcanoes).
 Answers to Selected Exercises 35 1

4·5 a) V 1 = 3.9 km/ s: V2 = 6.11 km/ s

A P P E N D X D b) cr = 14.5 • (in B to A direction)
c) z., = 2.08 kl'l (below A): z~ = 0.94 km (below B)
S-1 a) Shale: I = 5.50 X 101' kg m -~ s- 1

Answers to Se;ected Tight Sandswne: I = 9.12 x 10~ kg m- 2 -s-•

Porous Sandstone: I = 6.30 X 10~ kg m- 2 s· •

Exercises r)
Shale: I = 5.50 X 10'' kg m- 2 s-•
1''1nterface:T=O.ROOs:RC= +0.241!
2"~ 1merfacc: T = 0.!{26 s: RC = - 0.183
Below arc answers to some exercises that have specific solutions. The importance of 3"1 Interface: T = 0.859 s: RC = -0.068
each exercise is the steps taken to get to th e solution. A solution alone is therefore S-2 Om 2.000 m 20.000 m
not an appropri ate response: the assu mptions and steps th at lead to th e solution are Direct P 2500 m/s 2500 m/s 2500 m/s
also required. In all cases, ske tches are essential: illustrate h orv the problem relates to Rayle igh 1250 m/s 1250 m/s 1250 m/s
understanding the earth. Refracted P Doesn't Exist 3000 m/s 3000 m/ s
P Primary 2795 m/ s 2503 m/ s
2-i a) 10-11 em/year: N45" W-Nso• W "'
P Multiple 3536 m/s 2512 m/ s
b) 4.5-5.5 em/ year "'
S-4 h = 243R m
3-3 a) TI1e mantle is lower in silica (silcon and oxygen) and higher in heavy clemems
7-1 a) 10.000
(iron and magnesium) than the crust. The mantle is denser (higher p) than the
crust: the higher density actually tends to slow the waves down. Seismic waves h) = 575.000
travel fn.<tl'r in the mantle than in the crust because the mantle is more incompress- 7-2 d ) P-wave o nset: ,. 6:02:05: Z down: N-S to south: not on E-W
i/Jic (higher k) and m ore rigid (higher ILl than the crust. c) S-wa,•c onset: ... 6:03:28
d) The oute r core is heavy clements (iron. nickel) while the mesosphere is mantle
material (iron-magnesium silicate). The outer core is denser than the mesosphere.
I) Love wave onset: =
6:03:52: on E- W: not on Z or N-S
Seismic waves travel slower in the outer core than in the mesosphere because the
g) Rayleigh wave onset: "' 6:04:00: on Z and N-S: not on E-W
outer core is drn.<er (higher p) and has no rigidity (fl. = 0). 7-5 i) IL and k increase more than p
3-5 0m 2.500 m 25.000 m ii ) IL and k decrease
Direct I' 2000 m/s 2000 m/s 2000 m/s iii ) p increases and IL = 0
Refracted I' Doesn't Exist Doesn't Exist 4000 m/s iv) IL o# 0
Rcncctcd P 3774 rn/s 2025 m/s H-2 a) i) g, = t.IX0.9(Kl.91mGo/
3-7 Com p:~rcd to surrounding sedimentary strata. granite is higher velocity and higher ii) FAC = 150.27 mGa/
density. while salt is higher velocity and lower densit y. Both materials result in critical iii) BC = 54.5SmGol
refraction. hut the granite intrusion produces a gravity high, while a gravity low occurs
over a salt dome. i") U£FA = -33.24 mGn/
4-1 n) h=35km:Yr=6km/s '') A£ 11 = -R7.R4 mCol
h ) Vr=8 km/s ··1!-3 a ) h,(conti nent ) = 32.07 km
h) X ,= 79 km b) i) X = -:x:: .6.gFA(water) = 0
i) t, = 7.7 s X= -2.5 km: AJ!rA(watcr) = -S5.9mCnl
j ) X«= 185 km X =0: AgFA(water) = -171.R mGol
k) L = 370km X= +2.5 km: AgFA(watcr) = -257.7 mGnl
4-3 b) Direct: V1 = 1.5 km/s X= +oc: .6.gFA(watcr) = - 343.6 mGnl
I'' Refraction: V2 = 3.3 km/s: t1 = 4.1 s ii) X= -oc: .6.gFA(mantlc) = 0
znd Refraction: V3 = 5.3 km/s: t = 5.8 s = -22.54 km:
2 X .6.gFA(mantle) = +85.9 mGol
3"1 Refraction: V, = R.3 km/s: t_, = 8.0 s X= 0: .6.gFA(mantle) = + 171.8mGn/
c) h1 = 3.4 km X = +22.54 km: .6.gr.. (mantle) = +257.7 mGol
h 2 = 3. 1 km
X= +:e: t.gFA(manlie) = + 343.6mGol
h; = 6.3 km
8-7 a) i) Maximum .6.g(topo) = + lll.9 mGal

350
352 Appendix D Answers to Selected Exercises
ii) Maximum ug(Moho) = +26.4 mCnl
b) h" = 82.5 km (lith/asth boundary 47.5 km below sea level) Index
c) i) Maximum ug(lithlasth) = -l38.3 mCal
8·8 a) uz(Moho) = l l.2 km (Moho 46.2 km below sea level)
b) i) Maximum t>g(Moho) = -234.6 mCal: z = 40.6 km
ii) Maximum t>g(topo) = +234.6mCal: z = I km
9-4 b) = 6 em/year
9·5 = 4.7 em/year
10-1 a) iJT/iiz = 29.7 •c;km
A Appalachian Mountains. 29. 92.
b) q = 0.08 W/ m2
10·3 a) i) ""35 km Aar Massif.177.1 7ll (figure)
Absolute gwvity. 234,235,236
ii) = 60 km .· Absorption. 113
b) i) "'20 km Accele ration. See Gravitational
acceleration
ii) ""35 km Accretionary wedges. 26 (figure),
27,37,146
chaotic expression of deformed
sediments, 171
earthquakes a nd. 205
in Nankai Trough. 147-50
in subduction zones. 168. 169,171
Acoustic impedance. 4, 57
in continental rift zones. 159,
161-62
in forearc basin sediments. 171
re fl ected a rrival and, 64
reflection coefficient and, 122-24
seismic reflection and, 102
seismic waveforms and. l l8.
122-24
Acquisition. See Seismic acquisition
Advectio n, 315,316.3 17 (figure )
Aeromagnetic surveys. 296
Airy model. 255,260-61.262. 272
for mountain ranges, 256.259.
274
properties of. 237-41
Alaska Peninsula. 272
A le utians, 272,276
Allmendinger. R. W.. 159
Alpine Fa ult, 29
Alps. 29. 92 .96 (figure), 175,177,
178.262
gravity anomalies for. 269-70,
274 (figure)
gravity a nomaly ma ps for, 272
heat now in, 325.326
Amphibolite,319 (table)
Ana tolian Fault, 29
Anderson. R. E .. 160, 161
Andesite, 319 {table), 345.347
Andesitic volcanism, 34
Andes Mountains. 258
Ando, C.J.. I7S, 178
Angle of incidence. 60,61 (figure),
64
A ngle of reflection, 64
Angle o f refraction, 60,61 {figure)
An ta rctica. 286 (figure)
Anticlines, 143, 152-53
series of. 144- 46
Aphanitic tex tures. 346,347
177. 178.322 (figure)
Apparent velocity. 68.75
·earthquakes and, 206.208
(figure)
from several horizontal inter·
races. 79
"ftom single dipping interface.
S~-89
Argon. 302
Arkoma Basin, 177 (figure )
Asthenosphere, 15. 16. 19.215. Sa
also Lithospht.:rc/aslhc nos·
phere boundary
continental rift zones and. 24.325
defined. 14
description of. 17 (figure)
earthquakes and. 186, 187, 201.
205
gravity and, 38
properties of, 2 17
seismic re frac tion and.37
seismic waves and. 46
volcanism and. 31, 32.34
Atlantic Ocean. 95 (figure). 164
(figure )
Ath.:nuation. 4
1\u1omatic Gain Control (AGC),
113
Auxiliary fault planes. 198
Average velocity, IIJ-16
Axial dipolar model. 285.288
"-'ial magma chamber (AMC).
162-63
B 260
Bachmann, G. H.. 175
Baker, D. M.. 175
B:llly. A. W.. 177
Banda Arc. 175
Bangs. N. L. B.. 171
Barbados Ridge Complex, 149
(figure). 171, 172 (figure)
Basalt
chemical composi1ion of. 345
in continentloctan boundary, 167
description of. 347
magnetization of. 290,291
(table), 302
in oceanic crust, 20,84
thermal conductivity of. 319
(table)
Basaltic volcanism. 32.34
Basement
chaotic expression of. l71
llc.,ural normal (;lUlls offscuing.
169- 71
magnetic. 296,297,299 {figure)
struc tures. 177
Basin a nd Range Province. 24.25
(figure). 26 (figure). 28
{figure), 90. 92.96 (figure)
gravity a nomalies for. 264-65.
266
gravity anomal y maps for. 272
heal now in, 321 (table), 322
(figure ), 323 (figure). 324
(figure ), 325
seismic renection intcrprclouion
in. 159. 160. 161 (figure). 162
Bath hurs t Island, 286 (figure)
Bathymetry. 260,262,263.268
Batman anomaly. 259 (figure). ?60
(figure)
Beamish, D.. 178
Bento n Uplift. 175
Bimodal volcanism. 34
Blue Ridge. 177
Body waves. See also
Compressional waves; Shear
waves
earthquakes and, 190, 196.206,
207
propagation of. 4 7
travel-time curves for. 53. 54
velocity of, S0-51
Bohemian Massif. 92
Bouguer corrections. 229. 230
(figure), 231,232.248.263
Bouguer gravity anomaly, 229-34,
complete, 232
in composite tectonic model, 270
at continental rift zones, 264.265
equations for. 232-34
on land. 230-31.233 (figure). 234
maps of, 272.273 {figure)
at mid-ocean ridges. 268-69
at mountain ranges. 259,274
at passive continental margins.
254 (figure), 255-56.267
for regions in local isostatic
equilibrium. 262. 263
a t sea, 231-32.233 (figure), 234
simple. 230-3 1
at s ubduction zones, 275-76
Bow tic effects, 144. 146, 148
(figure). 162
Braile, L. W., 92
British Is les, 167
353
354 Index
Brilllr deformation. 46
Brillle failure . I $7
Brown. L. D.. 16~
Bull: modulu,.,47. 51 (f•r.ure).54.
206.211.217
Bur~cr. H. R .. RO
Buried domcs.IS~-55. 1 57 (figure).
ISR (figure)
Buried focus cffccts.l44. 146
(figure). 147 (figure)
Buller. R. F.. 288. 300
c earthquakes at. 204
CalcdoniM Mountains. 29. 178
C:mada. 272
Ca pe. C. D.. 162
Cape Cod.l66 (figurc).l67 (figure)
C:•pc Hallcr:t!.. 256 (fi gure)
Ca ribbean. 272.276
Carpathian Mountains. 22 (figure).
29. n. 175.272.274 (figure).
32.'
Cascade ~ lountains. 27. 2S (fieure).
322 (figure) - curved surface of. 206-7
C.1<eadi:1 S~hduction Zone. 92.95
(figure). 326
Caucasus Mountains. 22 (figure).
29
Central America. 276
Chaco-L..1ccadivc Ridec. 35
Chc~nical rcm:tncnt m~enc ti?...ation.
300.301 (figure) -
ChronoSiratigr;phy. 305
Classical divisions of Earth. 15-16.
I S(figurc) .~I.S
Collisional mountain ranges.
27-29.76. Se-c also
Continent al colli~ion z.oncs
heat now in. ~9
!-ci~mic rcncctio n inte rpretation
in. i71 -7~
Columllia l'la~c:lU. 30.35-36. 90
Common depth point (COP). 105
Common depth point (CDP)
gathe r. 106
Cnm'OJ(In midpoinl (CM P) gather.
106. 107 (figure).IOS. 109.
Ill. 114 (f1eurc)
Common midp~inl (CM P)
method. IOS-6
Cmnplele Bouguer gra vi ty anom-
aly. :?3~
Compression. 196. 197-99
Compressional slress. 38. 45. 46
Comprc~sional waves. 49 -50
at asthenosphere. 217
di rect. 102. 103 (figure)
earthquakes :md. IRS. 190. 193.
1%.1 97.1 98 (figurc).206.
207.209
at inner core. 21 ~
at Moho. 217
renectcd. 57.58 (figure). I 02.
103 (figure)
refracted. 57. SR (figure)
travel-time curve!' for. 54
"elocit,· of. S0-51. 211.213
(fig~rc). 2 1 5.2 1 7
Conduction. 312 (figure). 313
(figure). 315.316 (figure)
Conductivny. SrrTI1crmal conduc-
ti vitv
Conoco. 'Inc.. 53
Constants. abbreviations. 343
Constrai nts. 6-10. II (figure)
hierarchy of. 7
plate tectonic. 37-39
Continental collision zones. 27-29.
See nlso Collisional moun tain
ranl!cs
gravity anomalies in. 274 (fi gure)
volcanism in. 34.35 (figure )
Continental cratons. 90. 262. 263.
321
Continental crust. 2 1
cross-sections of. 92
extended. 166 (figure).J67
heal now in. 314 (figure)
seismic reflection and. 37
thickness of. 76-77.251.257
volcanism and. 35
Contincnllll drift. 15
Continen tal mnrp.in~ Src
Convcre.cnl continen tal
mar!!inS: Passive continental
margins
Contine ntal rift zones. 21.25
(fi gure). 38.77
description of. 24
examples of. 28 (fig.ure)
gravity anomalies for. 262.
26-l-67. 271 (figure)
heal now in. 39.324 (figure ). 325
~cis mi c rcncction interpretation
in. 158-62
seismic refraction in. 37
"olc:mism in. 31.34
ContinenVocea n houndarv. 166
(fi gure). 167 · manilc. 239-4 1. i53
Con,·e~tion. 312 (figure). 3 15.3 16.
317 (fi gu re)
Convergent continental margins,
27.275-76. Ser nl.m Oee~n/
continelll subduction zones
Convergent plate houndarics. 22
(figure). 23 (figure). 25-29
eanhquakes at. 38. 185. 187
(figure). 201-5
examples of. 2R (figure)
Converge nt plate bounda ry vol-
cnnism. 32. 34
Conversions. 337.338-40
Convolution.l26-27
Cook. F.A .. l 77.178
Core.l6.211 - 18.215
inner. 16. 17 (figure). 215.218
outer.l6.17 (figurc).215.2 17
Coruh. C.. 167
Costa in. J. K.. 167
Crater Lake. 34
Critical a ngles. 60.61 (figure). 63.
68. 76. 79.89
Critical dista nce. 63. 66. 76
Critically refracted waves. 54. 125
earthquakes and. 206
true and apparent velocitv of.
68-70
Critical refraction. 59-63
problem situations and. 84-85
from several horizontal inter-
faces, 78-79. RO
from a single horizontal inter-
face. 76
Crossover distance. 63. 73. 76.77
Crust. 16. 18.211-18.325
in classical division of Eanh. 215
continental. See Continentnl
crust
heal nowin.314
lower. II. I 59. 167-68
of mid-ocean ridges. 3~5
oceanic. See Oceanic crust
of passive continental margins.
253
thickness of. 73.76-77.90-92.
93 (figure). 94 (figure)
upper. 159. 167-6R
Crust:Jl blocks. 237- 41 ..'\06
Crustal roots. 237.257.258. 269
Crustal-scale cross sections. 92
Crust/mamle lrnnsition. Srr Moho
Cultural noise. 124. 125
Curie depth. 285.297.299
Curie tcmper:Jiure. 285.297. ,'\()(1
D causes of. 31
Deccan Trap. 35
Deconvolution. 113
Deep focus earthq uake" 187.201.
203 (figure)
Deep ocea1; basin sed iment" 169
Dee p Sea Drilling Project
(DSDP).302
Deep-sea trenches. 27
Dei:J\' time. 76
Dcn~i l v. 206.213 (fieurc)
at nwuntoin ranges. 256-57
at passive contincnlal margins.
25 1
in Prall and Airy models. 237-41
reduction. 230
Densil\' contrasts. 263.264
Densit;. dimibution. 260
Depth .
Curie. 285. 297. 299
gravit ~· anomolies and. 250
Moho. 90-'.12. 262.270
Depth conversion. 111-12.114
(figure). 138.139. 147.150
Depth of compensation. 239-41.
260.263
Depth 10 bedrock. 73. 77
Detrital remanent magnetiz:ation.
300.301 (figure)
Devils River Uplift. 177
Dhok Pat han Forma tion. 305
Diffraction. I 25
point-souree.l 43
Dilation. 197-99
Dimagnctism. 291-92.300
Diorile
che mical composition of. 345
description of. 346
magnetization of. 290.291 (table)
thermal conductivitv of. 319
(table) - Elevation)27. 22'9
D1pping interfaces
connecting two horizontal inter-
faces. 142
single. 87-90
Dip-slip faults. 198. 199.200 (figure)
Direct waves, 54.57-68. 125
compressional. 102.103 (figure)
Divergelll plate boundaries. 21-25
eanhq uakes at. 31. 38. 185. 187
(fi gure). 199-201.203 (figure)
examples of. 28 (figure)
Divergent plate boundary volcan-
ism. 32-34
Dix Equation. 116
Ductile deformation. 46
E (figure). 167
Eanh
complexil\' of. 209
divisions of. Sec Classical di vi-
sions of Earth: Modern divi-
sions of Eanh
hem Oow across surface o( 318-21
rowtion of. 225
Eanhquakes. 4. 12. 17. 25. 38. 52.58
characteristics of. 186-99
conti nen tal rift zones and. 24
deep focus. 187.201.203 (figure)
defined. 185
effects of. 193-94
epicenter of. Sec Epicenter of
carthauakcs
focal depth of. 187.203 (figure)
focal mechanisms of. 197-99
focus (hypocenter) of. I 87
inlcnsil\' of. 189.191-93
in term~di:ll c focus. 187.201.203
(figure). 204.205
location of. 187-89
macnitude o f. 189-91. 192
(iablc).J93. 199-201
phases of. 21 1
pla te tpctonics a nd. 199-205
shallow focus. Src Shallow focus
canhq uakes
strencth of.J89-94
travci-timc cu rve' for. 206-9.
212 (fi gure)
Earthquake seismograms. 194 -97.
198 (figure)
Eanhquake seismology. J85-22 J.
See also Earthquakes
East African Rift . 24. 25 (figure),
265.266
East Pacific Rise. 25. 164 (figure).
307 (fi gure). 325
Edge effects. 253. 258.272
Elastic constants. 47-49.50.51
(figu re)
Elastic limit. 46
Elastic plate model. 241- 43
Elastic rcboundJ hCOI)'. 186
Elastic thickness.. 241
Elastic waves. 45-52
Electromal!,nelic wa,es. 315
Ele\'ation Slatics corrections. 113
(figure)
Eotvos correction, 237
Epicemer of earthquake. 206
defined, 187
location of.l88-89
Equator. 225.226.227.288.295
(figure). 296. 30,S-6
Erosion.316
Europe. 216 (figure)
crustal thickn= in. 94 (figure)
gravity a nomaly maps for. 272.
273 (figure)
Moho depth in . 92
European Platform. 92
Extended continental crust. 166
Extensional stresses. 3S
Extrusive rocks. 346
F G:~bbro
fast-spreading ridges. 325.327
(figure)
Faull zone renections.l61-62
Faults
dip-slip.l98.199.200 (figure)
normal. Sec Nonnal fa ults
of oceanic crust. 162
reverse. See Reverse faulls
strike-slip. See Strike-slip faults
thrust. See Thrust faul ts
tra nscurrent. 201.204 (figure)
tr:msform. 201.204 (figure)
Felsic rocks. 290
Ferromagnet ism. 291 (fi~u rc ). 292.
297.300
First motions.J96. 197.198
f lexural bull!.e. 243.259,275-76
flexural nor';nal faulls.l69-71. 175
Flexural rigidity. 24 1-42
Flexural strcnclh. 260
Ruids. 50-51 '
focal dept h of emt hquakes. 187.
203 (figure)
Focal mechanisms of earthquakes.
197-99
Focal mechanism solutions of
earlhquakes. 198-99.200
(figure). 201 (figure). 202
(figure)
Focal spheres. 19~- 99
Focus (hypocenter) of earth-
quakes.I87
Fold of stack. 106.111
Force
gravity and. 235-36
magnetic. Srr M"gnetic force
Forearc basins
defined. 27
eart hquakes at. 205
sediments of. !71
Foreland basins. 175, 243
Foreland fold-and-thrust belts.
!75-77
Index 355
Forward modeling. 6, 8 (figure). 75
Forward modeling equa tions. 76
Fourier series, 127- 28
Fracture zones, 29. 201
Free air corrections. 227.228
Free air gravity anomaly. 227-29.
230.260
in composite tectonic mode!, 270
at continental rift s. 264.265
equations for. 232-34
maps for. 272
a t mid-ocea n ridges. 268-69
at mountain ranges, 257,258.
259. 260 (figure)
at passive contine ntal margins,
253.254 (figure). 255.267
for regions in local isostatic
equilibrium. 262,263
at subduction zones. 275-76
Frequency fi llering. 112
Frequency spec1rum. 127- 29.130
(figure)
G
chemica) composition of. 345
description of.346-47
magnetization of.290. 291 (table)
in oceanic crust. 32.84
thermal conducti vity of. 319
(table)
Gcldan. L. P.. l08. 116.127
Geochronology. 300. 302
Geologic cross sections. 101 .103
(figure)
Geologic slructures. l02
Geomagne tic Polarity Tome Scale.
302.305
Geomagnetic poles. 285.286
,(figure). 288.306
Gcophone groups. 104-5
Geophones.53. 102.125
Gcosynclinaltheof)·. 14
Geothermal gradients. 5. 299
(figure). 3 18.319.320 ( table)
for continental areas. 321
defi ned. 311
Grabens.24.37. 158.160-61
Gradients
defined. 3 11
geothermal. Sec Geothe rmal
gradients
gra,·ity. 249.250.251.253.257
the rmal, 3 15
Grain size (texture). 345.346-47
Granite •
chemical composition of. 345
description o!.346
heal now and.321 ' 323 (figure),
325
magnetization of. 290.291 (table)
seismic velocities of. 51
thermal conducti vitv of. 319
(table) ·
Gravimete rs. 235.236-37 .
Gravitational acceleration. 4. 224,
225. 227. 235-36
isostasy and. 239-40

356 Index
G ravitational attraction. 4
Gravity. 12. 20. 38.223-37. Sa also
G ravity a nomalies: Gravity
field
absolute. 234.235. 236
de fi ned. 223
meas urement o r. 234- 37
mode ling o r. 244-59
observed, 226. 228.234
relative. 234.235-37
tectonic settings and. 260-76
• theore tical, 226-27.228.233
G ravi ty anomalies. 8 ( figure).
225-34. See also Bouguer
gravity ano maly: Free air
gra vity a no ma ly
from bodies \vi th simple geomc·
tries. 244-5 1
deviations fro m local isostasy
and,272-76
magne tic anomalies c ompared
wi th. 296.297 (figure)
fo r regions in local isostatic
equilibrium. 262-70. 27 1
(figure)
Gravity anomaly maps. 270-72
G ravity fie ld, 223.224-25.284.
(figu re). 285
G reat Valley. 27.96 (figure)
G reenland, 167
G reen Mo untai ns. 175
Gro und roll. See Rayleigh wa,·cs '
G row, J.. I67
G ulf of Californ ia. 25 ( figure)
H 187.201. 203 (figure). 204.205
Hague.T.A., I60
Halite.291
Harris. L. D.. 177
Hawaiia n lslands.30.31 (figurc).35
Head wa ves. See Crit icall y refracte d
wa ves
Heat now. 3. 5. 12. 39. 311-29
across Eanh's surface. 318-21
defined,3 11
measure me nt of, 319-21
pla te tectonics and, 321-28
Heat now equatio n. 3 18-19
Heat now un its ( HFU). 321
Heat of forma tion. 312-13
He at transfer.315-16.3 17 (figure)
He rman. A., 153
Himalayan·Aipine collision zone.
204
Hi malayan Mou ntai ns. 27- 29, 175.
178,237
gravity ano malies for. 269
paleomagnetic stratigraphy in,
305.308 (figure)
Hindu Kush, 22 (fi gure). 29
Hooke's Law. 46, 186
Horizontal Moho rencctions. 160.
162-63
Ho rsts, 24
Hotspot volcanis m. 21,29-30.33
(figure), 34-36
H ubbard.S.S .. I77
H umayon.M. R.. l 75
·~
Hum mocky surfaces, 144-46. 148
(figure). 149 (figure)
Hyd rophones. 53. 104
Hyd rosta tic p ressure. 238
Hype rbol ic renection events
defi ning top of oceanic crust.
167, 17 1
at mid·ocean ridges. 162
Hypocente r (focus) of earthquakes.
187
Icela nd. 34
Igneous rocks. 100.2 15, 344- 49
cla.sification a nd pro perties of.
345
descrip tion o f. 346
magne tization of. 296.298
(figure)
thermal conductivity of. 319
(ta ble)
volcanism ~ nd , 32
Incompressibility, 47.48
India. 35
India n Ocea n Ridge. 25
l nduc~d magnetizatio n. 290. 292.
298- 300
Infi nite slabs. 229.230.232.248 -49
lnnercore. l6. 17 (figure). 215
Inner Piedmo n t, 177
Input seismic s ignals. 118-22. 123.
126-27
Inte nsity of e a rt hqua kes. 189.
191-93
Intermediate focus earthquakes.
Inte rna tiona l A ssociatio n of
Geodesy. 226
- Inte rnational Standard ($1) un its.
290
geophysie<tl propert ies in. 331!-41)
of heat no w. 319-2 1
list of.337
Inte rval velocity. 11 5 (figure).
116- 17
lntra·crusta l str ucture. 270
Inverse square law, 225
lnvc rs io n.6. 7 (figure). 75.76
Inve rsion equations. 76
Irela nd. 168
Iro n, 2 15
Isla nd arcs. 26 ( figu re). 34, 168
defined,27
Isostasy. 37,237-43
defi ned. 223
local. See Local isostasy
regional. 241-43
Isostatic equilibrium. 253, 255,
257. Su also Local isostatic
equilibrium
Isostatic rebound, 3 16
Isotropic matt! rial. 47.48
Iverson. W. P., 177
J Mass distribution. 227
Jadoon. I. A. K.. 175
Ja umc S.C.. 175
Jeffreys. H.. 15
Juan de Fuca Ridge. 28 (figure).
92.95 (figure). 164 (figure)
K classification and properties of.
Kar ner. G. D.. 175
Kelvi n. W.. 3 12-IJ
Keweenawa n Rift. 265-67.272
Klcmpc re r. S. L.. 160
Kraka ta u. 34
L in subductio n zones. 326
Lame 's consta nt. 49
Laccral mass v:~riatio ns.. 229
La teral velocity cha nges. 147-50.
152
La titude. 227.228
Lava. 35. 161. 34S
La y.T.. 19 1
Lcft·latcra l strike·slip fau lts. 19S
Lesser An tilles. 272
Lillie. R. J .. 175, 177
Limesto ne. 51.319 ( table )
Liq uids. 16. 17. IS
Lithosphe re. 15. 16. 19.24 (figure).
See also Lithosphere/
as thenosphere! boundary:
PIale h.:ctonics
ddine <l. 14
descrip tion of. 17 (figure)
earthquakes a nd. IS6. 187.201.
204.205
heat !low ;unJ. .39
properties o f. 215- 17
in subduction zones.. 326
Li 1hosp he rc/asthc nosp here
bo unda rv. 17-20.37
at contineo'tal cratons. 263. 32 1
a t conti nenta l rift s. 264.265
gravity anomalks for. 262
a t mo untain ra nges. 269
:u passive contincnral margins.
267
at rem nant sutxl uction ZOIH.!S. 3'25
Lithosphe ric ncxure. S"' Regional
isostasy
Lithospheric plate boundaries. Srr
Plate bounda ries
Lithosta tic pressure. 238
Lithostra tigraphy. 305
Loca l isostasv, 237-4 1. Sa also
Airy model: l' ran model
deviations fro m. 272-76
Local isostatic equilibrium. 258-59
gravity anomalies fo r regions in.
262- 70.271 (figure)
Logarith mic scales. 1!19
Long·path mul tiples. 117. 118
(figure)
Love waves. 52. 53 (figure). 193.
196-97.209
Lower core. 21 S
Lower crust. II. 159. 167- 68
Lower mantle. See :VIcsosphcrc
(lower ma ntle)
Lower ma ntle/o uter core boundarv.
214 (figure )
Low.velocity layer. 84-85
Low-velocity zone, 217
M a t passive conti nen tal margi ns.
Magma. 11.20
345
heat now and, 39
hotspots a nd. 29
in ocean/ocean subduction zones.
27
properties of. 348-49
'Me ta morphic rocks. 100.215.319
volcanism and. 32. 34
Magma cha mbers. 27.38
Magnesium. 2 15
Magne tic a no malies. 293-97,299
(figure)
across mid·ocean ridges. 302.
304 (figure), 305 (figure)
Magnetic baseme nt. 296.297,299
(figure)
Magne tic declinatio n. 286.287
(figure). 288.289 (figure)
Ma gne tic dipo les. 285
Magnetic field. 4-5.223.28-1-90
axial d ipolar model of. 285.288
defi ned. 284
overa ll (ambient).292
strcn~t h and directio n of. 286-88
Magne ~c fo rce. 223
defi ned,284
Magne tic inclination. 286.287
( fi gu re). 288.289 ( figure )
Magnetic inte rpretatio n. 284-310.
See also Magnetic ano malies:
Magne tic fi eld: Magnetization:
Pa leoma gnetic studies
Magne tic poles. See Geomagnetic
poles
Magnetic storms. 285
Magnetic susceptibility. 5. 290.291
(table). 293
Magnetite. 290.291 (table). 296
Magne tization. 4, 38-39.288-93
induced. 290. 292. 298-300
remanent. See Re manent mag·
netiz:ation
Magnitude of earthquakes. 189- 91.
192 ( table).l93. 199-201
Ma kovsky. Y.. 178
Mantle, I6.211 - 18.Seealso
Mesosphere (lower mantle):
Upper ma ntle
in classical divisio n. 215
density of. 239-41.253
heat now in. 314
Ma ntle/outer core boundary, 2 11
Mass. 224,225. See also Bougue r
gravity a no maly
Mass deficits. 237,244 (figure).
245, 248,250
at conti ne ntal rifts. 264
at mo untain ranges. 257.258
at passive continental mnrgins.
252,253
· Mass excess. 237.244 ( figure). 245.
247-48. 250
a t mountai n ra nges. 259
251. 253. 267
Ma thematical symbols. abbrevia-
tions. 343
Mercalli Scale. 191. 192 (table)
Mesosphe re (lower ma ntle). 16.
19.215
description of. 17 (figure)
earthquakes and . 186.205
properties of. 2 17
(ta ble)
Mexico. 272
Mid· Atla n tic Ridge. 25. 92,95
(fi gure ), 307 ( figure ). 326
gravity a noma lies fo r, 268-69
gravity anoma ly maps for. 272
volcanism a nd, 34
Middle A merica Tre nch. 132. 172
(figu re)
Mid:ocean ridges. 20. 2 1. 24
"(fi gu re), 38
description o f. 25
earthq uakes at. 204 (fig ure)
examples of. 28 ( figure)
gravity a no malies for. 262.
267- 69.271 ( figu re)
heat n ow in. 39. 325-26.327
(figure)
magnetic anomalies across. 302.
304 (figure ). 305 ( figure)
seismic rencction intt:rprctalion
a nd. 162-63
seismic refraction a nd. 37
Mid·ocenn rid ge volcanism. 31. 32.
33 ( figu re). 34
Migrated depth sectio ns. 114
(fi gure). 139 (figure). lSI
(fi gu re)
in Nnnka i Tro ugh. 140 (figure)
raypn th bending e ffect and. 155
( fi gu re)
Migra ted seismic sections, 147
( fi gure )
Migra ted time sections. I ll , 114
( fi gure), 138. 139 (figure). 146
(figure). 148 (figure). 151
( fi gu re). 156 (figure)
anticlines in. 145 (figu re). 152-53
in Bar bados Ridge Complex.
149 (figure)
in Na nkai Tro ugh. 140 (figure )
raypat h be nd ing e ffects and. 154
(figu re). 155 (figure)
Migra tio n, I l l. 114 (figure). 137-39.
See also Geometric effects
Minimum phase pulse, 120. 124
(figure),l28, 129 ( figure)
Modem divisions of Eart h, 16-17,
18 (figure). 2 15
Moho. ll.l9.37.2 11,2 14 (figure)
Airy model and. 260,262
-Bouguer gra vi ty a nomaly and.
256.259
of continen tal cratons. 263
of continenta l rift zones. 159.
160, 264-65.325
delay ti me from, 76
Index 357
de pth of. 90-92.262.270
discove ry of. 73
of mid·ocenn rid ges. 268
of mountai n mnges. 259,274
of passive conti n~ntal margins.
267
properties of. 2 15-17
seismic renection and, 37
at s ubduc tion zones. 275
Mo ho re nectio ns
in co llisional mountain ranges.
178
horizontal. 160. 162-63. 171
in passive continental margins.
167- 68
Mohorovi~ic. A .. 73
:1-tohorovi~i< discon tinui ty. See
:Vtoho
Molasse Basin. 175. 178 (fi gure)
Momem magni tude. t 90-9 1
Montecci. P. A .. 175
~l ooney. W. D.. 92
Moore. G. F.. 169. 171
~ l ountain ranges. See also
Collisional moun ta in ra nges
gcosynd inca l theory on. 14
( figure )
gravity anomalies for. 262.
269-70.271 (figure), 274
gra vi ty at. 256-59.260 (figure )
hea t now in.3 16
lithospheric nc xu re in. 243
seismic refraction a nd.37
~·fo un t Fuji. 34
:VIount Kc nva. 34
~fount Kilimanjaro. 34
Mo unt Mn>.ama. J.J
~fo unt Pelee. 34
~fo u n t Vt!suvius. J~
~l u lt iples. 117-IS. 126
long·path. 117. 118 ( figure)
pcg·lcg. 117
primary rctlt!ctions distinguisht!U
from. 119 (fig ure)
short·path.ll7. 118 (figure)
source of. 106
surface. 108 (fi gure). I 17- 18
watcr·bouom.ll:l. 119 (figure)
~l u te, 110. 112 (fig ure)
~f uller. J. C.. 167
N
Nagr1 Formation. .305
Nan kai Trough. 138. 140 (fig ure).
147-50, 153 (fig ure). l 71. 173
(figure)
Nanotesla. 290
Nasu. N.. 171
Nelson. K. D., 175. 177. 178
Newberrv Volca no. 34
Newton·~ Law of Gravitation. 224
Newton's Second Law of Motion.
224
Nicholas. R. L.. 177
1967 Reference G"'vity
Fo rm ula. 226
:"-Ioise. 118. 1:!4-26
cultu ral. 124. 125
 Index
358
induced hy ~ci~mic acquisition
an d p roccs.ing. 12:\-26
t>ntural. 124.125
Non un iqu t!n c!':~. 7
Norma l continental lithosphe re.
32~ (Iieure)
Normal fault s.25.3K 146.1 98.199.
200 (figure). 205
in conti nental rift zones. 159
nexural. 169-71.175
focal mechanism solutions for.
200 ( figure). 202 (figure)
plate tectonics and. 20 1
Normal incidence raypalhs. 102.
142. 146 (r,gure). 148 (figure)
ant idi nc~ and. 14~
he n dine effects in. I 54 (r,curc)
Normal i~cidcncc sections. i I I.
1:;7-:;s
. ' ormal mm·cout (N MO ) corrcc·
tions. !06. 107 (r,gure). II O.
Il l (r,c urc)
Normal polarity. 302
l'onh A me..· rica
crust althickncs~in. ~3 (r,cur c )
!!f:t\'it y anomaly m:1p~ for~ 272
hea l n ow \'a lues for. 321 (tahk )
Moho depth in. 92
No rt h Ame rican !'late. 36
North pok. 295 (figure ). 296.297.
~()(t
NMW;I\·. 167
Notre Dame 1\nt iclinorium. 175
Nuclc;tr tc~t s.. 53
0 Pfiffner . G. A .. 178
Obse r\'ed cra,•it \'. 226. 228. 2.'4
Occasional fau lt ~zonc rcn cctions.
!61-1\2
Ocean /continent ~uhduction
wncs. 27 ..1~. 35 ( r,gurc )..5t-c
a l.w Convergent contincnt::ll
marc.in~
Ocean b;sins. 17. 21.25 (r,g urc). 77
Oceanic crus!. 20. :!I. 2:\. 162.!66
(r,gure)
cro~~-~cc tion$ of. 92
heat now in. 314 (fig ure).
~~ 5-26
hyperbolic eve nts dcfi nin£ top
of. l 67. 17l
refrac tion su rvcvsof.~l-fW
sedim ents co veri nc fault blocks
o f. l 62 • li Ihosphcrc/asl hcn osphere
~cis mi c reflection omd. 37
seismic refraction and. 37
thi ckne" of. R:;-!>4. 251
vo lca nism and. :15
O cean/ocean s uhduction zonc r.. 27.
34. :1~ (figure)
Oliver .J.. IOO
Ophiolites. 34.:17. Sl-84
Oregon. 35-36
O uachita M ounta in& 175
Oute r core. 16.1 7 ( figurc). 21 5.
217
Outer core/inne r co re boundan·.
2 1 1.2 1 4(fi ~urc) · Prall model. 237-4 1
I'
l':~ cir, c-An ta rct ic Ridge. :105
(figure)
Pttcific Northwest. 35
Pacific O ccmt, 92
Pacir,c Plate. 30.31 (figure)
l'alcolatitud c st udies. 300.305-6
l':tlcom agnetic stral i~raphy. 300.
302-5.308 (figu re)
Paleomag netic studi es_ 297-308
l'amirs. 22 (fig ure). 29
Pannonian Basin. 22 (figure). 24.
92.265.272.275 (figu re )
l'itramagnetism. 291 (figure). 292,
297. 300
Partia l me lts. 18. ~0. 178
Passive continental m argi ns. 21. 77
gra\'i ty ano malies for. 262.267.
271 (figure)
gra\'ily 31.251-56
seismic rcncction interpretation
in. ~i. 163- 68
Peg-leg mult iples. 11 7
Pendulum oscillillion. 23~
Peridotite. IX-19. 20 (fi gure). 215
chemical comp osition of. 345
description of. 34i
heat now and.32 1. 323 (figure)
magneti>.otion of. 290.291 (tnhlc)
in occanir cru s\. R4
seismic velocities of. 51 (figure)
volcanism and. 32-34
Perip hera l hulgc. 243
Pcli\'.O.S.. IOO
Pha neriti c textu res. 346-47
Phase spec trum. l 2i-29.130
(fi gure)
Pine Mountain. 177 (figure)
Pl:-~ t c houndarics.. Sr,· af.,·n
Convcr!!cnl plate hou nd nric~:
Divcr!!cnt plate houndarics:
Transform plate hounda ries
earthquakes at. 203 ( figure) ..
manifestat io ns of. 30-31i .. ·
Plate tectonics. 14-40
houndari cs in. Sec Plate
boun da ries
constraints in ..'\7-:19
defin cd . l4
earthq uak es and. ! 85. 199-20:\
heat now an d. 321-2R
boundary in. Sc<' Lithosphere/
asthe nosphe re boundaries
oricins o f th eOr\'. 15
Point:sourcc diffraction. 143
Poisson·s nuio. 49
Poles. 223.225. 227
geomagnetic. 285.286 (fi gure).
288.306
Potassi um. 302.314
Po tential fields. 3, 4 -5
Pouer. C. 1.1 59, 160
Potwar Pla teau. 147 (figure)
Powers. P.M .. 175
Index 359
critically. Sre Critically refracted renections from postdrift, 165-67 Seismic resol ution. 129-32, 133
Pressure
wave s trench·fill.168.!7l ( figu re)
gravity and. 260
h\·drostatic. 238
shear. 57. 58 (figur e) Seismic acquisition. 102-6 Seismicscctions,I02, 103 (figure)
Refract ion spread length. See
is.o stas\' and. 2~S-:W no ise induced by. 125-26 Seismic sourccs
Spreild length Seismic definition. 129-32.133 dynamite. 120
lithost;tic. 23R
Refraction surveys. 8 1-84 (figure) vibroseis, 53, 120
p hysical sta te of upper man1le
Regional isostasy. 241-43 Seismic measurements, 3-4 - Seismic st ratigraphy. l 02
a nd. 18-19
volcanism and. 3j -32 Relative gravit y. 234.235-37 Seismic processing. 106-18 Seismic traces, 54. 56. See also
Remanem ma~net i zat ion. 5. general sequence in. 108 -12 Seismic waveforms
Primary rencctions. lOS (figure).
292-93. 296. 297-300 noise iuduced by. 125-26 acoust ic impedance changes and,
I 17.125
chemical. 300.301 (figure) types or velocities in, 1i3-l7 118.122-24
mult iples distinguished from.
detrital, 300.301 (fig ure) Seismic pulses in commo n m idpoi nt m et hod,
I 19 (figm c)
thermo. 300.301 (figu re) with b road bandwidths. 129-32 106
source o f. I 06
Remnant lithosphe re sla b. 324 minimum ph ase. l20. 124 (figure) freque ncy and phase compo·
Pri mary waves. Src Compre ssional
(figure) width (wavefor m ) of. 120-22 ne nts of, 127-29
waves
Remn:mt subduction zones. 325 zero phase. Sec Zero phase pulse in put seismic signals and.
Proce ssing. Srr Seismic processing
Resolution . 10 Seismic rcn ectiou . 37-38.56. 11 8-22. 123.126-27
P ucci Sound. 27
Reversed polarity. 302 100- 135. Sec also Muhi p les: noise and. li S. 124-26
P '~·aves. See Compressional wa ves
Reversed refraction profile. 87-~R Primar•• rencctions: R c nected stacked, ! 06. !07 (figure), I 14
Pyren ees. 22 (figu re). 29
Reverse faults.38. 197.198. 199. waves: Seismic acquisition: (figure)
Q 200 (figure). 202 (figure). 205 Seismic p rocessing: Seismic Seismic veloci ty. 4. 11. 37. 67, 73
Rhyolite. 3 19 (table). 345. 14? rcncction interpretation; apparenl. Scr Apparent velocity
Ouam.Sl. 3 18
Rh\'olitic volcanism. 34 Seismic wa veform s average. 113 -1 6
Quartzite. 3 18.319 (table)
Ri~lnc r scale. 190 attenuation of seismic signals by. of body waves. 50-51
R Ridee axe,, 201 113 of compressional waves. 50 -51,
Rid~c push hypothesis. 20 c ommon midpoi nt method and. 211.213 (figure). 215.217
Radiation. 315
Rift graben wedges. !63. 166 105-6
Rc1dioacti,·c dcta\'. 313 -14 critically rcfr01ctcd arrival and.
( fi~ure ). l 67 seismic sectio ns and. 102. 103 59-60.62
Raivcnnan. V.. 17~<.
Rigidity. ~ R . 50. S1.206. 21~ (figure ) (figure) o f earthqu ake waves. 206-9,
Ra\'lCigh waves. 51 - 52.53 (fi ~urc).
ncxura l. 241-~2 from scvcntl interfa ces. 124 211. 214 (r,gurc).215
104-5. 125
Rio Grande Rift. 161 (r,gure). 162. from sin!!lc intcrfa cc.:. 122-23 in tcrval.ll5 (ftgure ). ll6- 17
earthq uakes and. 190.1 93. 197.
322 (r,curc) Seismic r cncction intcrprclation. in oceanic crust. 8 1-83
209
Rollinson. E. A .. 10~ 37. 137-81 in red uced tra vel-time plots.
travel· time Cllr\'CS £or. ~~
Rocky Mounwin&92. 272 in collisional mountain ranees. 8)-87
Ra ypat hr..S4. 66-68. 102.215
Root mean squ:trc (RMS) vcloc- 171-78 - renectcd arrival and, 64-66
hcndi ne of. D9-4l. I 50·5>. I 54
(fi gu;e). l 5S (figure )
ity. ll5 (ftgure). l l6. I I i in comi ncntal rift zones. 158-62 root mean square ( RMS), I I 5
Rotat ion of Earth. 225 defmed. 137 (figure).ll6. 11 7
for criticall\' refra cted arri,·al.
Rm.c nd al. R. A .. 177 geometric effects in. 139-141-46 seismic renection and. 106.139,
59. 63 .
for d irecl. criticalh· refracted. s in mid-ocean ridges. !62-63
in passive contincmal margins.
146-50
from seve ral horizontal inter-
:md renccted wiwcs. 58
SL Ju lien. P. /\ .. 175 ! 63-li8 ' races. 78.80
earthquakes and. 206-7.209
S:tll.51. 21JI (l:lhlc).2%.298 raypath hc ndi ng and. 150-53 of shear waves_ SO, 51.211.213
nomwl incidence. Srr Normal
(figure) struct ural. 137-55 (figure).2 17
incidence raypaths
San Andreas FaulL 21\ (ftgure). 29. in subductio n zones. 161':-71 from si ngle horizontal in terfa ce,
for primaf\· rcn ecti on and sur·
~0 (figure). 96 (figure). tectonic. 155-79 76
face multiple. lOR (figure )
l 97-9K 199 (figure) three-dimensional (side'"''ipe) stacking. I 10. 116, 11 7
for rcnectio n. 64
Sa n And rea~ Transfo rm boundarY. e ffects in. 141.153-55 tru e. See True velocit y
for shot and common midpoin t 92 • velocit y effects in. 146-50 types oL 113-17
cathers. 107 (Iie ure). 109
Sa ndst on~. 5 l. 290.291 (tahlc). J !S. Seismic ref raction. 4, 7 (fi gtlTe). II. of uppermost mantle, maps of,
(figure) •
3! 9 (tahl e) 37. 56. Scr nlm Critica l r e frac· 90-92
ve rti cal incid ence. !39 (figure)
Schlee. J. S.. I 6i lion: Refra cted waves: Seismic Seismic wa veforms. 102, 118-34
Receiver aruvs. 104-5
Scholl. D. W.. l69 refraction inte rpretalion acoustic impedan ce changes
Reciprocaltimcs. 88
Schuhe rl. G .. 242 earthquakes a nd. 206 and. l i S, 122-24
Rcdbeds.300
Schweig. E. S.. Ill. 175 inversion of. 6 defined, I 00
Red Sea. 25
Sca-n onr sprcadin~. 17 seismic ren cction and. W0 -101 examples on seismic pro m e.
Reduced lr:t\'el·time plot&85- Si
Seaward-dipping wedges. 163. 167 Seismic refraction inte rpre1:nion. 132- 34
Reduction d ensil\', 230
Scrondarv wa ves. Sec Shear wa ves 73- 98 input seismic signals and. 11 8-22.
Renected uri val.· 64-66
Scdiment~ry rock&319 (ta ble) defined. 73 123. 126-27
Ren ectcd waws. 4. 54.57-68. Sre
SedimentarY strata. 100 dipping intcrf;tcc connecting. two. noise and. ll 8. 124-26
nlso Seismic renection Sedime nts · 142 seism ic resolution and definition
compressional. 57.58 (figure).
chao tic expression of deformed horizontal interfaces in. 129-~2
102.103 (figure)
accre tio nar\' wedl!.e. 171 m odels of. 75-90 Seismic wa ves. 3-4, 12. 15,45-72
shear. 57. 58 (figure). !02. l 03
covcrinc fault. block's of oceanic problem si tuat ions in. 84-SS hcnd ing of. 21 I
(figure)
cru st.'l 62 several. 7S-87 body. Srr Body waves
Rc n ection coefficicnl. 122-24.
deep o cean hasin. 169 si n gle. 76 -77 controlled source techniques for.
126-27
Refracted waves. 57-68. Sec nlso
nexu ral normal faults offse lling. sin~lc dippin g interface in. 52-70
169-71 87-90
Seismic refraction direc t. Scr Direct waves
forearc basin. 171 ICCIOnic. 90-92 canh quakesa nd.189.191-93.196
compressional. 57.58 (figure)
 360 Index Index 361

and earlh's im~rior. 205-18
elasticity of. 45-52
renected. See Renected waves
refracted. See Rdracted waves
surface. Sec Surf:tcc waves
transmission of. 211
velocity of. 50.51 (figure). 52
(figure). 211.214 (fi gure). 215
Seismology. 185. See nlso
Ear1hquake seismology
. Scismometers.3-4
Semi-infinite slabs. 2-W. 248-5 1
gravity models using approxi·
mat ions of. 251-59
Serpa, L.. 160
Serpentinite. 319 (table)
Sevier Dcserl, 161 (figure). 162
Shadow zone. 217
Shale, 51,319 (table)
Shallow focus ear1hquakes. IllS.
187. 199-201.203 (figure). 20-1
causes of. 3 I
epicenter for. 189
Shallow intrusive rocks. 346
Shearing stresses. 38. 45.46
Shc.>r modulus. 48.51 (figure). 211
at mesosphere. 217 '
trave!l-timc curvt:s and. 54
Shear strength. 50.217
Shc:or waves. 49-50
at asthenosphere. 217
earthquakes and. 138. 190. 193.
206. 207. 209
at inner core. 218
rcnected. 57.58 (figure). 102.
103 (figure)
refracted. 57.58 (figure )
tmnsmis.•ion of.21-l (figure)
lravcl-limc curves (or. 5-'
velocity of. 50. 51. 211. 213
(figurc), 217
Sheriff. R. E.. 108. 116. 127
Shield volcanoes. 35
Shipky, T. H., 169
Shorl·path multipks. 117. 118
(figure)
Shot gathers. 106. 107 (figure}. 108
(figure). 109 (figure)
Sideswipe effects. See Three·
dimensional (sideswipe)
effects
Sierra Nevada Mountains. 27. 92.
96 (figure)
gra vity anomalies for. 269-70
heat now in. 321 (table). 322
(figure). 323 (figure). 324
(figure). 325.326
Signal-to-noise ratio. 127. 129
Sijica.J 8.~ 15, 346. 348
''Properl\l:s of. 344. 345
volcanism and, 32-3J. 31\
Silicates. 16
Simple Bouguer gravity anomaly.
230-31
Slab pull hypothesis. 20
Slow-spreading ridges, 325-26.327
(figure)
Smith. M. J.. I71
Smithson, S. D.. 177
Smythe. D. K.. 178
Snakehead thrust faults. 152. 156
(figure)
Snoke River Plain. JO. 35-36
Sn~ll's Law. 59-60.62.64. 70
earthquakes and. 206-7.209
raypath bending and. 141.150
root mean square velocity and.
116
sdsmic wave bending and. 211
several horizontal interfaces and.
78
single dipping interface and. :19
Socorro, New Me.~ico. 162
Solids. 16. 18. 50
Sound waves. -19-50
South America. 92.95 (figure).
258.276
Spheres. gra vity anomalies fro m.
244 - 41!
Spherical divergence. 113
Spike seismic signal. 129
Spreading centers. 20 1
Spread length. 73.74 (figure). 101
(figure)
Stack. Ill. Il-l ( fi~ure )
fold o f. 106. Ill-
Stacked seismic sections. 106
Stacked seismic traces. 106. 107
(figure). 114 (figure)
Stacking velocity. 110. 116. 117
Static:< corrections. 110- 11
Stewart. D. B.. 175
Stock mal. G. S.. 171
Strain. .15--16. H-.1\l
Strain rate. 46
Str<s.scs. -15--16
compressional. JM. -15.-16
C.<tensional. 311. -15, -16
shearing. JS. -15. -IIi
Streich modulus. See Young's
modulus
Strike-slip faults. 38. 205
focal mechanism solutions for.
202 (figure)
left-lateral. 198
plate tectonics and. 201
right-lateral. 197-98
Structural rcncction interpreta-
tion. 137-55
Subductio n zones. 20.25-27
Cascadia. 92.95 (figure). 326
earthquakes at, 201,204 -5
examples of. 28 (figure)
gravity anomalies for, 275-76
heat now in. 39.326
lithospheric ncxure in. 243
ocean/continent. 27. 34.35
(figure)
ocean/ocean. 27. 34.35 (figure)
remnant. 325
seismic rcncction interpretation
in. 168-7l
Sulaiman Range. 175
Sun. 315
Surface multiples. 108 (figure).
117-18
Surface waves. -1. H
earthquakes and.l90.193. 196.
207
motions of. 51-52
travcl·timc c:urvc:s for. 53
Suture zone rencctions. 177-78
S waves. See Sh.:ar waves
Synclines. 144. I.W-46. 147 (figure).
See also Bow tie effects:
Buned focus effects
T (figure). 199-201.203 (figure)
Talwani. M.. 92. 2.W
T-ax1s intercepts. 67.68
for rcncctcd waves.lili
for seismic r.:nection. lOti
for st:vcral horizontalintcrfa~;cs.
$0.31 . for cri1ically refract ed waves.
fo r single dipping interface. 37
for sinQie horizontal interface. 76
Tectonic i ntc.:rprctation
of seismic rc tlcction. 155-79
of seismic rt:fraclion profiks.
90-92
Tectonics. See Plat.: teclonic-s
Tectonic settings
gravity and. ::!60-7/i
for i~nc ous rocks. 3-15
fo r ,;-, agmas. 3-15. 34\l
seismic renection and. 155-178
'lclfurd. W. \>1.. SO. lOS. 127.232
1cmpcrature
Curie. 285.297. 3tJO
ddined.JI I
in heat now equation. 3 I X
physical state of upper mantle
and. lll-19
vnlcani.\nt and.Jl-32
Terrain cnrn:cuons. 232. 233
(figure}
'!Csla, 290
'lcxture (grain size). 345. 3-16- -17
1llcoretical gra vity. 226-27. 22S.
233
Thermal conducti\'ity. 5. 31ll. 319
(table). 320 (tahle}
Thermal gradient. 315
Thermoremanent magnctizarion.
300.301 (fi gure)
Thickness
of continental crust. 76-77.251 .
257
of crust. 73. 76-77.90-92.93
(figure). 9-1 (figure)
clastic. 241
of oceanic crust. 83- 84.251
Thorium, 314
Three-dimensional (sideswipe)
effects. 141. 153-55
Three-dimensional migration. 158
(figure)
Thrust d~collemcnt. 169. 172
(figure). 175.177
1l1rust faults. l-16. 316
s•wkehead. 152. 156 (figure)
Tibetan Plateau. 178.269
1idal waves. 19-1
Tomek. C. L.. 175
Topography. 257. 260. 262. 263
Total magnetic field anomalies.
293-96,302
Total magnetic field vector. 286-$8
Transcurrent faults. 201.20-1
(figure)
Transform faults. 20 I. 20-1 (figure)
Transform plate boundaries. 22
(figure). 23 (figure).30 (figure)
description of. 29
earthquakes at. 31. 38. 185. 187
examples of. 28 (figure)
volcanism at. 32
Travel lime. 4. Su a/su Two-way
travel time
of average velocity. 113-16
60-63
fo r renee ted WO\•es. 6-1-66
fo r seismic rcnection. 106
from several horizontal inter-
faccs.SI
from a single dipp•ng interface.
Si-89
from a single honzontal inter-
face. 76
for surface muhiples.I17- IS
three-dimensional effects and.
I-ll
Tr;IVcl-timc curves (graphs). 56.
66-68.215
for apparent velocity. 70
fo r critically refracted waves. 58
for direct waves. 5:1.59
for earthquakes. 206-9.212
(figure)
for rcncctcd waves. 5~
for seismic wavc.:s. 53-57
for several horizontal interfaces.
79
fo r shot and common midpoint
g:Hhers. 107 (figure)
for single dipping interface. 89
for single horizontal interface. 76
reduced. 85-87
Travel-time equations. 80
Treitel. S.. 108
Trench-fill sediments. 168.171
True velocily. 68.75
earthquakes and. 206
from single dipping inte rface.
89
from a s ingle horizontal inter-
face. i6
Tsunamis. 194
Turcotte. D. L.. 242
1\vo-dimensional gravity modeling.
244
Two-dimensional migratio n. 158
(figure)
Two-way traveltime. 138
raypaih be nding effects and. 155
(figure)
velocity effects and. 1.16-49. 150
(figure). 151 (figure). 152
(figure)
u convergent plate boundary. 32.
Unbounded material. -17.48
Undcrthrustcd strata and struc-
tures. 177
Unit abbreviations. 337.340
Universal Gravitational Constant.
i24. 229. 2-19
Uriniigratcd seismic sections.
137-33. l-17 (figure)
Unmi~ra t cd time sections. 102. 103
(figure). 111.11-1 (figure).l37.
146 (fi gure). l-IS (figure). 156
(figure). 158 (figure)
anticlines in. 1-15 (figure)
in Barbados Ridge Complex.
14\l (figure)
geometric effects and. 141 - -12. 152
in Nank:li Trough. l-10 (fi gure)
raypath b.:nding e ffects and, 15-1
(figure). 155 (figure)
Upper crust. 159. 167-6.q
Upper mantle. II. 20
of continental rift zones. 325
heat now and. 321
physical state oi. IM-2U
velocity and. 90-92
Uranium. 314
v Wilso n Cycle. 1511. 263
Valley and Ridge Province. 177
VanArsdale. R. B.. 175
Variables. abbreviations. 3-10--IJ
Vectors. abb reviations. 3-13
Velocity. See Seismic velocity
Velocity analysis. 108- 10
Velocity effects. 146-50
geometric and raypath bending
dfects with. 150-53
Velocity pullup.IJ9.1-17.150. 15-I
(figure). I 55 (fi gure)
Ve rtical incidence raypaths. 139
(figure)
Vertical incidence sections. See
Migrated time sections
Vibroseis. 53. 120
Vibroscis Correlation. 120
Vibroscis swcep.120. 121 (figure)
Volcanic arcs. 26 (figure). 168.205.
326
Volcanic eruptions. II. 348
Volcanic rocks. 3-16
Volcanis m. JO. 31-36.3-15 (chart)
andesitic. 3-1
basaltic. 32. 3-1
bimodal. 3-1
34
divergent plate boundary. 32-3-1
hotspot. 21.29-.10. JJ (figure).
34-36
mid-ocean rid~c. 31. 32. 33
(figure). 34 -
rh volitic. 34
winsform plate boundary. 32
Volcano.:s. 2-1 (fi~u rc ). 27. 3-15
(chart). 3JI! -
shidd. 35
w
Waco uplift . 177
Wadati-Benioff zone. 20-1
Wallace. 'I'. C.. 191
Water-bottom multipk<. liS. 119
(figure)
Watts. A. B.. l75
\V3vcrorms. s~l! S.:ismic W:lYC·
fo m>s
Wave fro nts. 5-1.55
Wegener. A .. 15
Wcighl drop method. 235
Westbrook. G. K.. 171
Willamette Valle,·. 27
Wilson.J.T.. ISS.
y
Yellowstone National Park. 30.
35-36. 90.32~ (figure)
Young's modulus. -13--1\l
Yousuf. M .. 175
z
Zagros. 29
Zero phase pulse. 120. 121. 124
(figure). 128. 129 (figure). 131
(figure)
Zhao, W.. I7S
J {)9 5 7
North America
Gravity Anomaly Map

mGal
340
300

100

·100

-700

-300

-350

Missmg Data
<.

.•

. .<.· ,_ .