Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Delayed Cracking also known as Hydrogen Induced Cracking or Cold cracking, occurs when the
following three factors are present at the same time; high strength steel, high stress level (residual or
mechanical/structural loading) and a source of hydrogen. Moisture in welding filler material or
environment and joint contamination all are the typical source of hydrogen in a weld metal.
Elimination of one or more of the factors can prevent the delayed cracking to occur. So all you need
to do is to control these factors to make crack free welds.
A weld joint with high stress level is more likely to prone to delayed cracking. It may include residual
stresses from cold working or shop fabrication and mechanical or structural loading (for example:
wind loadings). These stresses can be reduced by using streamline joint designs and elimination of
any sharp edges, corners or notches. Sharp joints and notches are stress raisers where stress
concentration may cause catastrophic failure.
Hydrogen Entrapment
As states above hydrogen comes from high moisture content in atmosphere, welding consumables
and joint. Thorough cleaning of weld joint at least 25mm on either side, inside and outside if joining a
pipe removes grease, oil, coatings, water etc. Preheat the base metal at the minimum of 200 F
degrees and maintain the preheat temperature throughout the whole process. It must be ensured
that coated consumables are dry stored and baked in ovens prior to use. The Use of low hydrogen
rods (H8 or less) helps to prevent cracking. If using SMAW process, the weldment after
completion of welding must maintained to about 500 F (260 C) degrees for about two hours without
allowing it to cool down to specified minimum pre-heat temperature.
1. Joint must be thoroughly cleaned, dried and free from any kind of rust, scale, mill, oil,
grease, coating etc. About one inch from either sides of joint must be cleaned using
specific type of cleaning process.
2. Make sure to complete at the minimum of 1/3 length of weld deposit without any
interruption to avoid any thermal stresses to develop due to high thermal gradient.
Before restart, make sure the metal temperature should not below the minimum pre-
heat temperature.
3. Rods must be oven baked according to manufacturer’s specific product details,
procedure and recommendation or sealed pack prior to use. Opened rods must be
discarded after 7-8 hour of exposure. Use diffusible-hydrogen designator H8 or less
filler metals.
4. Use of low strength materials with good weldable composition and properties, is a best
way to avoid cracking.
If you found a welder using AWS 5.1 EXX10 rods for root pass disallow him. Because it is a general
practice in several fabrication shop to use EXX10 rods for roots pass and EXX18 for subsequent hot,
fill and cap passes. For this I must say that it’s not a good practice as EXX10 rods are not low
hydrogen and not suitable for welds subjected to cold cracking. Try to use rods with low hydrogen
content and with essential pre-heat and post-heat requirements.
10 ways how to control Hydrogen Induced
Cracking
Hydrogen induced cracking (also referred to as cold cracking), is caused by the diffusion of
hydrogen in the crystal lattice of HAZ near the fusion boundary. Atomic hydrogen is dispersed
throughout the weld material, making it weak in mechanical properties. The entrapped hydrogen
makes cavities in metal that results in cracking due to weak ductility and tensile strength. When
metal is subjected to tensile stress with high level of hydrogen content, hydrogen induced cracking
occurs. Hydrogen cracking is also named as toe cracking or under bead cracking due to its location
of occurrence. It primarily occurs in High strength Low alloy steels. During welding hydrogen is
induced due to the moisture and organic compounds by the usage of cold cellulosic electrodes.
Proper cleaning of metal surface and pre-heating are the preventive steps to avoid alarming
hydrogen induced cracking. Below listed are the ways to reduce Hydrogen cracking in welded items.
1. Pre-Heat
Pre-heating is one of the best step to achieve good solidify microstructure as it slows down the
cooling rate to facilitate solidification. In this way controlled cooling provides the desired
microstructure that is not prone to hydrogen cracking. In worst the rapid cooling may result in
sensitive microstructure to HIC.
2. Interpass Temperature
Welder associates must define the peculiar interpass temperature. Once this temperature is
specified, the base metal must be pre-heated to that temperature before depositing the other weld
pass. In this way cooling rate is controlled and the mechanical properties of both weld metal and
HAZ are secured, avoiding hydrogen cracking.
3. Post-Heat
After welding is finished, apply post heat to eliminate any remaining hydrogen. On post weld heating,
the metal gives off the hydrogen that lessens the risk of hydrogen induced cracking. Moreover post
weld heattreatment (PWHT) is also applied for the removal of harmful residual stresses, in order to
achieve the desired microstructure as per requirement of service.
Also see the usefulness of Post Weld Heat Treatments.
The formation of cracks during the solidification of a weld metal, is commonly termed as
Solidification cracking. The reason behind that the hot Weld metal lose the required ductility and may
be subjected to cracking. Since the solidification starts from fusion line to centerline, the low melting
components in composition of molten weld puddle remains liquid in the center even at low
temperature and as a result stresses are developed due to contraction of remaining solid zone.
These stresses are the major cause to make splitting of a weld bead. Learn What is a Fusion line in
Weldment? Normally in Fabrication industries, this problem is known by three common names; hot,
crater and centerline cracking.
Types of Cracking
Hot cracking – happens when the weldment is at high temperature.
Crater cracking – the appearance of small cracks at the end of bead.
Centerline cracking – the appearance of cracks at the centerline of
bead.
Causes
Following are the common reasons for above mentioned types to happen in a weld metal. A weld
metal is more subjected to solidification cracking when three conditions occur simultaneously.
1.
1. If the parent metal has chemical composition sensitive to
cracking.
2. If the welding parameters produce irregular size and
shape of weld bead.
3. If the weld has unfavorable stress level.
The Undercut is an imperfection which is characterized by a groove formation at the weld toe due to
overheating at the free edges of base metal or weld metal (of the previous run). This happens when
a welder tries to make weld either with high welding current or with fast travel speed.
Also, the use of incorrect angle directs the arc towards thinner edges where overheating can burn
the metal. See what are the angles which help to eliminate welding defects? Moreover, the incorrect
usage of gas shielding, wrong welding technique, and position are other primary causes of undercut
imperfection.
Undercutting always has been a serious concern in steel welding industries and efforts have been
made to resolve this problem in recent years.
Following are the preventions that effectively assist, in reducing the
concentration of undercutting in your weld.
1. Correct Heat Input
One of the major causes of undercut in the weld is high heat settings while making a run near to the
free edges. This may lead to the overheating and melting of near parent metal or previous weld
metal. In order to prevent this, one must take great care of weld heat by reducing the current, when
approaching to thinner and free edges.
Failure to complete amalgamation with parent metal or between the weld runs, is referred to as lack
of fusion in welding. The weld metal fails to blend with parent metal or sometimes two weld beads
are not completely fused to make as a whole. The problem occurs when the work piece not receives
adequate heat for fusion. Normally there are three locations where lack of fusion may occur.
Along the joint wall
Between the weld runs
At the root
Following are the possible causes of lack of fusion and the practicable ways to control them.
Specimen
Specimens are taken across the axis of weld metal or heat affected zone. The dimensions of test
specimen are demonstrated in codes and standards. A rectangular piece is cut in 10T x 1T x 2T (L x
W x H) where T is total thickness of weld. From the middle of rectangular specimen a V-cut is
indented inside. It is to be noted that V-cut is applied inside the notch, not at the surface of
specimen. See the figure.
Technique
Test technique is as simple as bending a long bar. The specimen with V-cut is inserted in bending
equipment and subjected to cyclic bending until a crack initiates. A bending former is pressed at the
bottom so that notch is in tension. Stress concentration at the tip of crack, causes the crack to open
widely. A gauge is connected to the opening which measures the length of gap created by the
widening of crack tip. The experiment provides the statistics about the increase in opening against
the load and the required CTOD value in millimeter is calculated.
Test Conditions
Temperature – The experiment is performed normally at low temperature. For this the
specimen is put inside the cooled liquid or gas to achieve the required temperature.
Position – location of notch on weld metal or HAZ.
What information it gives?
CTOD value assists to determine the toughness and brittleness of weld metal. Tougher the test
weld, wider will be the tip opening. In this case considerable tip opening is observed when applied
load is increased. Bending load pulls the crack edges apart. On the other hand slight loading may
cause fracture in brittle test piece. Here brittle crack is developed without any widening.
It also assists in determination of maximum crack size that can cause fracture. This information is
quite helpful when a crack is inspected in weld metal during service. It gives an idea about the extent
to which the crack can withstand particular conditions of temperature and load. Moreover
determination of maximum load/stress that can cause failure for specific crack size at particular
temperature hence, making it easier to make judgments accordingly to prevent failure.
Solid Inclusions that impair Weld characteristics
The entrapment of unwanted solid particles impairs weld metal strength. Such weld imperfections
are developed by the inclusion of solid substances like slag, flux, foreign metal or oxide. These
inclusions are appeared singly or in clustered form. On the basis of shape they are categorized in
linear and rounded forms. Common causes are defected consumables, welder’s negligence,
inadequate shielding gas flow and joint contamination. They are liable to occur in multi-pass welding
method when proper slag removal is not exercised prior to new weld bead. Unlike cracks the solid
inclusion have no wedge shape spots for crack propagation. These imperfections are primarily linked
with flux using welding processes like Stick welding, submerged arc welding and Flux cored arc
welding. So proper joint cleaning, gas shield, well maintained consumables and welder’s proficiency
are foremost elements in order to avoid unwanted inclusions in weldment. Below is the brief
description about possible causes of solid inclusions and their practicable prevention.
Flux Inclusion
The entrapment of flux in weld metal due to incomplete fusion and melting of flux, primarily in
manual metal arc welding, SAW and FCAW. Common causes are defected consumables (damage
electrode coatings, flux core wires and spoiled SAW flux) and incorrect welding parameters voltage,
arc length, current etc. To fix flux inclusion problems, trained welder must;
Use well maintained consumables
Deposit good profile weld by correct configuration of welding parameters.
Slag inclusion
The entrapment of slag appears in linear form along the weld metal length when spotted with the
help of radiography. Slag is the product produced by the de-oxidation reaction of flux during the weld
bead deposition and must be removed before the next weld bead. In worst situation poor
overlapping of beads allows cavities to develop. On the other hand rough surface of previous beads
can also cause cavity formation. These cavities are the primary source of slag inclusions in your
weld. Moreover, incorrect electrode angle creates slag overflow, impairing the arc characteristics. In
order to prevent this; well maintained flux coated consumables must be used and welder must have
good experience to tackle slag inclusion problems. Moreover correct current, voltage and good arc
characteristics are essential elements, to produce smooth and quality welds with complete fusion
among multi-pass runs.
Metallic Inclusion
The absorption of other metals in liquid weld, is referred to as metal inclusion. This problem
frequently occurs in Tungsten Inert Gas welding where tungsten metal may entrap due to a slight
negligence in welding. Tungsten inclusion looks white when observed on radiography film. (where
the procedure and identification is same as the X-ray examination of a broken bone). Besides
tungsten, other metals like copper can also be captured in weld deposits. Tungsten inclusion is
primarily caused by welder’s incompetency, inappropriate welding parameters, improper gas shield
and defected consumables. In order to fix it, one must prevent above mentioned causes. TIG welder
must use accurate welding variables and ensure the proper gas shield during bead deposition.
Oxide Inclusion
The entrapment of oxides in weld metal (especially in case of welding aluminum alloys). Oxide
inclusion occurs due to the presence of mill scale and rust on the joint surface. Such imperfection
can harm the mechanical characteristics of weldment. To prevent this, welder must prepare rust and
scale free joint surface by suitable procedures like grinding, chipping and brushing.
Last Comments
Solid inclusions genesis is mainly promoted by inept welders. Only the qualified welder must be
authorized for specific arc process. Pre-cleaning and post cleaning must be employed. On the other
hand consumables must be stored in good condition to avoid any damage.
Weld Porosity is referred to as cavities produced in a weld due to the entrapment of gas. The
introduction of gas in a weld is supported by some mistakes that ought to be eliminated.
In weld metal porosity is categorized according to shape and location of occurrence. Some gas
cavities occur in the spherical shape, some in elongated (like in case of wormholes) while on the
other hand, some cavities occur throughout weld metal and some on the weld surface.
These gas cavities appear either singly called voids or uniformly distributed throughout the weld and
sometimes developed in clustered form. These voids and cavities are produced primarily by gas
entrapment during the solidification procedure of weld. So making the prediction about mistakes that
may cause porosity and their removal is an essential part of welding.
Given below are the 10 reason for weld porosity and their solution.
1. Moist electrodes
It is recommended to use baked electrodes in Stick welding process in order to avoid
involvement of moisture content in the weld metal. In worst, steam can be driven out,
during the heat of welding which creates small cavities in the weld metal. Porosity
eventuates when stainless steel electrodes or low hydrogen electrodes are not properly
kept in dry condition. Although in low hydrogen electrodes some moisture is required within
a limit, for better performance but is some case if moisture exceeds from the limit, the weld
metal will prone to porosity. For prevention following are the steps to follow;
Parent metal must be preheated in order to remove any moisture.
The electrodes must be stored in dry conditions.
Apply final backing before use.
Electrodes must not be oven baked before use because a little amount of moisture is
required for better performance and weld-ability of the electrode.
2. Contaminated surface
Parent metal or electrodes may be subjected to atmospheric contamination. Any grease, oil or
moisture content on surface contribute gas formation when exposed to welding temperature and
may cause porosity problems in your weld. In order to fix it, clean the material by specified surface
preparation procedures.
The possibility of air entrapment due to inconsistent gas shield may also cause porosity problems.
For this, the welder must check gas hose attachment with the equipment and remove hose
contamination if any. Correct connection prevents any loss of gas shield and consequently no air
entrapment. Moreover, airflow and draughts in the shop can cause the restriction in gas flow. Some
sort of screening is required to avoid such kinds of restrictions in the gas flow.
The High flow rate of the gas shield may cause turbulence due to which air can be drawn into the
weld metal. Optimize gas flow, provides quality welds with no gas loss. Moreover, it saves cost on
the other side.
During solidification, the excess oxygen comes out from weld metal due to reduced solubility and
may undergo carbon monoxide formation that may cause porosity too. For this, some deoxidants are
added in electrodes, filler metals and even in parent metals to remove the oxygen content (which is
so-called deoxidation). Therefore inadequate deoxidants may result in poor deoxidation and are
responsible for weld defects. In order to prevent this, use electrodes with adequate deoxidants.
Too much longer arc length (in other words high voltage) is also a cause of weld porosity. If the
welding gun is held away from the joint keeping arc length longer, the magnitude of shielding is
reduced which may lead to air entrapment from atmosphere. Correct arc length is recommended
primarily to avoid draughts/breezes.
7. Incorrect surface treatments
Release of gases, during painting/surface treatments, can impair weld characteristics. Treatments
like zinc coating or galvanizing produce gas and other unwanted particles. In an endeavor to fix this
problem, make predictions about the outcome of chemical reactions before specific surface
treatments.
8. Openwork surface
Any surface which is open to atmospheric air can be contaminated. Air introduction from the back
side through root opening gets entrapped in the weld puddle. Make sure that weld joint is protected
from such kinds of air crevices.
9. Laminated surface
Laminated surface also creates disturbance in welding. In case of welding a laminated workpiece,
prepare un-laminated parent metal to conduct quality weld procedure.
Welding flux must be treated with great care as they have the capability to absorb moisture
(granular SAW flux). They must be supplied in dry condition. On the other hand, use of low
activity flux results in surface porosity. That is why it is recommended to use high activity
flux which offers quality welds with no porosity.