Chapter 1

Introduction to multivariable
functions and vectors

1.4 Projections and orthogonal complements

Definition 1.4.1. Given two vectors ~v and w,
~ we can split ~v into the sum
of two components
~v = ~v1 + ~v2
where ~v1 is parallel to w
~ and ~v2 is orthogonal to w. ~ The vector ~v1 is called
the vector projection of ~v onto w ~ and is denoted projw~ (~v ). The vector ~v2
is called the orthogonal complement and is denoted orthw~ (~v ). We have the
following formulas:
 
~ · ~v
w
projw~ (~v ) = ·w
~ (1.4.1)
~2
|w|
orthw~ (~v ) = ~v − projw~ (~v ) (1.4.2)

To see why these formulas hold consider the situations shown below

1
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 2

~v2

~v
~v
~v2 θ
θ ~v 1
w~ ~
w
~v 1

If θ is acute then basic trigonometry gives

|projw~ (~v ) | = |~v1 | = |~v | · cos θ.

Now, from
~ · ~v = |w|
w ~ · |~v | · cos θ
we get
~u · ~v
|projw~ (~v ) | =
|~u|
Finally,
  since projw~ (~v ) is parallel to w,
~ it can be obtained as normalization
1
~u = |w|
~
·w ~ scaled by |projw~ (~v ) |:
~ of w
 
w
~ ~ · ~v w
w ~ ~ · ~v
w
projw~ (~v ) = |projw~ (~v ) | · = · = ·w
~
|w|
~ |~u| |w|
~ ~2
|w|
Observe that this formula works for any angle between w ~ and ~v , not only
when θ is acute (the sign of w ~ · ~v determines the direction of the vector
projection).
Example 1.4.1. For ~u = ~i + ~j + ~k and ~v = ~i − ~j + ~k find the splitting of ~v
into the sum ~v1 + ~v2 such that ~v1 is parallel to ~u and ~v2 is orthogonal to ~u.
Solution. Observe that ~v1 = proj~u (~v ) and ~v2 = ~v − proj~u (~v ). Hence, we
compute

~u · ~v = (~i + ~j + ~k) · (~i − ~j + ~k) = 1 · 1 + 1 · (−1) + 1 · 1 = 1

|~u|2 = 12 + 12 + 12 = 3
and
1 ~ ~ ~ 1 1 1
~v1 = proj~u (~v ) = · (i + j + k) = ~i + ~j + ~k
3 3 3 3
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 3

It follows that
 
1~ 1~ 1~ 2 4~ 2~
~v2 = ~v − proj~u (~v ) = (~i − ~j + ~k) − i+ j+ k = ~i − j+ k
3 3 3 3 3 3

Orthogonal complements are useful to compute distances.

Example 1.4.2. Let ` : y = −2x + 3 be a line in R2 and let P = (2, 2) be a
point. What is the distance from ` to P ?
Solution. We can solve problem with or without calculus. If X = (x, y) is
a point on `, then it X = (x, −2x + 3) and the distance

d(X, P )2 = (x − 2)2 + (−2x + 3 − 2)2 = 5x2 − 8x + 5 = d(x).

which we can minimize using calculus:

d0 (x) = 10x − 8

so we have a unique critical point at x = 4/5, which since d(x) is quadratic

with positive leading coefficient, must be at a global minimum. We get the
3
squared distance d(4/5) = 9/5, so the distance is √ .
5
We can also write ` : 2x + y = 3 from which we read off the the normal
vector ~n = h2, 1i and setting x = 0 gives the point Q = (0, 3) ∈ `. Geomet-
rically, the shortest path connecting P to ` should form a right angle with `.
Consider the following illustration (which is to scale)

 ~n
 ~P
Q
j ~n
pro
Q
Q~P

P

 ~P
Q
j ~n
pro
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 4

~
~  = ~n · P Q which is
  
So the distance is proj~n QP

|~n|
h2, 1i · h2, −1i 2 · 2 + 1 · (−1) 3
√ = √ =√ .
22 + 12 5 5
The exact same reasoning can be used to compute the distance from a
point in R3 to a plane.
Definition 1.4.2 (Work). If a force is applied to an object with a direction
and magnitude F~ , and displaces it by a vector d~ then the work accomplished
is
W = F~ · d~ (1.4.3)
Example 1.4.3. Jun-seo is pulling a sled across some level snow using a
rope. The tension in the rope is 45 newtons and it forms an angle of 30◦ with
the ground. How much work W is done to pull the sled 100 meters.
Solution. We may assume ~ = h100, 0i and that the force vector F~ =
* d√ +
45 3 45
45 · hcos(π/6), sin(π/6)i = , . Therefore
3 2
√
W = 2250 3 ≈ 3897J.

We note that this is similar to the formula that is typically taught in

physics. Let’s consider an example where vectors are more useful.
Example 1.4.4. The rudder on a boat forces it to move in the direction it
is pointing. Suppose a barge is pointing at an angle of 42◦ and the wind is
exerting a force F~ = h2, 200i, what is the net force that acts by moving the
boat?
Solution. What is being asked for here is really the vector projection of F~
on a vector that is pointing in the direction of the boat. It is convenient in
this case to take the unit vector ~u = hcos(42◦ ), sin(42◦ )i ≈ h0.74, 0.67i, in
this case since |~u| = 1 the projection formula is much simpler:
 
proj~u F~ = (~u · F~ ) · ~u ≈ h100.56, 90.54i
  
In particular the resulting force is proj~u F~  = |~u · F | which is about
 
135.31. It is worth noting that sailboats don’t just get pushed around by
the wind.
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 5

1.4.1 Exercises
1. For each pair of vectors compute projw~ (~v ) and orthw~ (~v ). Do the last
two without a calculator

(a) ~v = h1, 2i , w
~ = h−3, 4i
(b) ~v = h1, 2, 3i , w
~ = h−3, 4, 7i
(c) ~v = h1, 0, 0i , w
~ = h0, 1, 0i
(d) ~v = h1, 0, 0i , w
~ = h1, 1, 0i

2. Compute the following distances:

(a) The distance between the line ` : y = −3x + 5 and the point
P = (−1, 2).
(b) The distance between the plane Π : x + y + z = 1 and the origin
O = (0, 0, 0).
(c) The distance between the plane Π : x + 2y + 3z = 4 and the point
P = (5, −6, 7).
(d) The distance between the planes Π1 : −x + 2y + z = 1 and Π2 :
−x + 2y + z = 2.
(e) The distance between the planes Π1 : −x + 2y + z = 1 and Π2 :
−x + y + z = 2.

3. Manuel attached a crooked jet engine to train wagon. The jet exerts a
force given by F~ = h1, 320i and the train track goes in a straight line.
The train travelled from P = (23, −75) to Q = (2, 3), what was the
work accomplished by the jet engine?
CHAPTER 1. MULTIVARIABLE FUNCTIONS; VECTORS 6

Answers:

1. (a) projw~ (~v ) = − 35 , 54 , orthw~ (~v ) = 85 , 65 .




(b) projw~ (~v ) = 13 , 26 , 39 , orthw~ (~v ) = − 34 , 2, 10



7 7 7 7 7 7
.
(c) projw~ (~v ) = h0, 0, 0i, orthw~ (~v ) = h0, 1, 0i.
(d) projw~ (~v ) = h1, 0, 0i, orthw~ (~v ) = h0, 1, 0i.
q
2
2. (a) 6 17
q
1
(b) 3
q
(c) 5 27
q
1
(d) 6

(e) 0 since the planes cross.

3. 24939