CHAPTER # 1

INTRODUCTION
Brief History:-

Controlled year round irrigation began in 1859 with the completion of the Upper Bari Doab Canal
(UBDC) from Madhopur Headwork’s (now in India) on Ravi River. Until that time, irrigation was
undertaken through a network of inundation canals, which were functional only during periods of
high river flow. These provided water for kharif (summer) crops and some soil moisture for Rabi
(winter) crops.
The last inundation canals were connected to weir controlled supplies in 1962 with the completion
of Guddu Barrage on Indus River. UBDC was followed by Sirhind Canal from Rupar Headwork’s
on Sutlej in 1872 (also in India) and Sidhnai Canal from Sidhnai Barrage on Ravi in 1886. The
Lower Chenab from Khanki on Chenab in 1892, and Lower Jhelum from Rasul on Jhelum in 1901
followed suit. Lower and Upper Swat, Kabul River and Paharpur Canals in NWFP were completed
between1885-1914.

By the turn of the century, it became apparent that the water resources of the individual rivers
were not in proportion to the potential irrigable lands. Ravi River, serving a large area of Bari
Doab, was deficient in supply while Jhelum had a surplus. An innovative solution was developed
in the form of the Triple Canal Project, constructed during 1907 –1915. The project linked the
Jhelum, Chenab, and Ravi rivers, allowing a transfer of surplus Jhelum and Chenab water to the
Ravi. The Triple Canal Project as a land-mark in integrated interbasin water resources management
and also provided the key concept for the resolution of the Indus Waters Dispute between India
and Pakistan in 1960.

The Sutlej Valley Project, comprising of 4 barrages and 2 canals, was completed in 1933, resulting
in the development of the unregulated flow resources of the Sutlej River and motivated planning
for the Bhakra reservoir (now in India).

During the same period, the Sukkur Barrage and its system of 7 canals serving 2.95 million
hectares of land in Lower Indus were completed. Haveli and Rangpur from Trimmu Headwork’s
on Chenab in 1939 and Thal Canal from Kalabagh Headwork’s on Indus were completed in 1947.
This comprised the system inherited by Pakistan at the time of its creation in 1947.

At independence, the irrigation system, conceived originally as a whole, was divided between
India and Pakistan without regard to irrigated boundaries. This resulted in the creation of an
international water dispute in 1948, which was finally resolved by the enforcement of Indus Waters
Treaty in 1960 under aegis of the World Bank.

The treaty assigned the three eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej) to India, with an estimated total
mean annual flow of 33 million acre feet (MAF) and the three western rivers (Indus, Jhelum,
Chenab) to Pakistan with a transfer of irrigation supplies from the western rivers to areas in

Pakistan formerly served by the eastern rivers as well as some development potential to
compensate for the perpetual loss of the eastern waters. The Indus Basin Project including Mangla
Dam, 5 barrages, 1 syphon and 8 inter-river link canals, was completed during 1960-71, while
Tarbela Dam started partial operation in 1975-76.

After partition, Kotri, Taunsa and Guddu Barrages were completed on the Indus River to provide
controlled irrigation to areas previously served by inundation canals. Also, three additional inter-
river link canals were built prior to the initiation of Indus Basin Project.

Irrigation:-

Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular
intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance
of landscapes, and vegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include
protecting plants against frost, suppressing weed growth in grain fields and preventing soil
consolidation. In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed
or dry land farming.

Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining. Irrigation
is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and
sub-surface water from a given area.
Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many
cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, from Asia to
the Southwestern United States

Types of Irrigation

There are two types of irrigation.

 Flow Irrigation
 Lift Irrigation

Flow Irrigation

Flow irrigation is that type in which flow of water to crop field from the source takes place due to
component of gravity forced. This flow irrigation may be further classified into:
  Perennial Irrigation
 Non-Perennial Irrigation
 Inundation or Flood Irrigation
 Direct Irrigation
 Indirect Irrigation
 Combined Storage

Figure 1 Flow Irrigation

Perennial Irrigation

In this type source of water is from a river which is perennial. A weir or barrage is constructed
across this river. Sometimes dam may be constructed to form a reservoir upstream. Main canal
with a regulator is constructed where one or both banks supply water to the crop field this type is
reliable as water is available during the whole period of the water.
Non-Perennial Irrigation:

Also called restricted irrigation. Canal supply is generally made available in non-monsoon period
from the storage in small dams as in Kandi areas which inadequate to feed all the year round, and
or canal water is not required during monsoon due adequate rainfall in the command area.

Inundation or flood Irrigation

Inundation irrigation is done by a canal taking off from a river in flood without any diversion work.
It depends on the periodical rise in water level of the river and the supply is drawn through open
cuts in the river bank or creeks which are called heads. Owing to changes in the river course the
heads have often to be changed. A regulator is, however, provided at the canal about 5 km
downstream from the off take, where the discharge passing below in the canal is controlled and
the surplus supply is escaped back into the river. Inundation canals usually flow only during the
summer months and bring in large quantity of silt beneficial to crops.

Direct Irrigation:-

In direct irrigation system water is directly diverted from the river into canal by construction of
diversion weir or barrage across the river without attempting to store water. This method is
practiced where the river has adequate perennial supply to feed the canal system at the times of
crops periods.

Indirect Irrigation:
It is also termed as storage irrigation. Here water is stored in reserved during monsoon period by
construction of a dam across the river for supply into the off taking canals. Evidently indirect
irrigation is adopted where the river is non perennial or flow in the river is inadequate during lean
period. Storage irrigation has greater irrigation potential the direct irrigation but is costly due to
the cost of construction of dam.
Combined Storage and Diversion Scheme
In this system a dam is constructed across a river to from a reservoir. This stored water is used to
produce electricity. A powerhouse is constructed just downstream of dam the discharge from the
lower house is fed back into river downstream of a dam.

Lift Irrigation:

In lift irrigation water is lifted from a river or a canal to the bank to irrigate the land which are not
commanded by gravity flow. Lift irrigation is being increasingly practiced in India. Every State
such areas exist where irrigation can be extended only by lift canals. Lift irrigation also includes
tube well irrigation but the latter is not feasible in areas where scarcity of water exists, climate is
dry and groundwater is low, i.e., groundwater is in insufficient quantity and unsuitable quality.

Lift canal then constitutes the only means of extension of irrigation to sound perched lands. A lift
canal can cater for much larger areas than a tube well and is suitable when supplies either from a
river or a canal are available for lifting to higher elevation.

Lift area is defined as the area the level of which is too high to permit irrigation by gravity flow
from the source, but which can be irrigated by lifting water to the necessary level by means of
pump Gross lift area is the portion of gross irrigable area which can be irrigated only by pumping.
Surface water may be lifted from a reservoir, a river, or from a gravity flow canal. From river,
water may be lifted by installing pumps either on the ground or on floating barges.

Floating barge installation envisages economical and expeditious execution of the project for lift
irrigation. Moreover, the pumping installation can be made mobile by rowing to the ne xt pumping
sit after completing irrigation at one installation. In a canal, water may be lifted at the point f the
off take of the lift distributary or in between the length of a canal wherefrom high tract to be
irrigated starts.
Optimal alignment of the lift canal is of paramount important because it involves dealing with
costly process of water lifted and then diverted to flow by gravity. The essence of the arrangement
is to command maximum area with minimum lift.

In lift irrigation mechanical devices like pumps, or electric motors and pumps are required to be
installed for lifting water. Electrical pumps are generally provided for lifting water. Diesel
pumping sets are also installed as standby. The provision of standby pumps is essential to cater
forget lack of facilities for immediate replacement of defective pumping sets and to switch over to
diesel set in case of power failure. Figure shows a typical pumping station at a lift canal.

Lift irrigation canals are essentially lined due to obvious advantages of a lined section and hence
low pumping lift and greater area commanded. Lifted water is costly and transmission losses are
required to be cut down to the minimum. Water surface slope is kept the minimum possible to
command greater area with minimum lift. Escape is provided upstream of pumping station so that
in the event of failure of pumping equipment, the supply reaching upstream is disposed off.

Figure 2 Lift Irrigation

Necessity of Irrigation System

Water is necessary for plant growth and maturity. Irrigation, the artificial means of supplying
water, becomes important for plant growth in the following cases.

 If rainfall is less than the demand of plants, irrigation is necessary to fulfill the water
requirement of plants.
 The difference in water holding capacity of the soil plays important role in the Necessity
of Irrigation supply. For example, sandy soil requires frequent irrigation than clay soil.
 If rainfall is sufficient but spatial distribution is not as per requirement, irrigation becomes
necessary.
 If rainfall is sufficient, spatial distribution is also good but temporal distribution is not as
per requirement, irrigation water is necessary for plants.
 An advanced scientific development like High Yielding Varieties Seeds (HYV) demands
irrigation. Actually, irrigation is the most important input for HYV.
 The productivity of irrigated land is more than the un-irrigated land. Crop yields
everywhere in the developing world are consistently higher in irrigated areas than in rained
areas.
 Seeds cannot grow in dry soil as moisture is necessary for the germination of seeds. With
the help of irrigation supply, the required moisture content of soil for the growth of seed
can be ensured.
 Multiple cropping in a year is possible through irrigation. This will enhance production &
productivity. In many areas of India, two or three crops in a year are cultivated with
irrigation facilities.
 Through the irrigation, it is possible to supply the required amount of hydrogen & oxygen,
which is important for the proper development of plant root.
 A plant can absorb mineral nutrients from the irrigated soil. Thus irrigation is essential for
the general growth of the plant.
 Bringing more land under cultivation is possible through irrigation.
 Insufficient rain may also cause drought & famines. Irrigation can play a protective role
during the period of drought & famines.
  Irrigation contributes to the economic growth and poverty reduction2. As income and
employment are closely related to output and irrigation increases production, substantial
increase in income is achieved in the countryside.

Advantage and Dis-Advantage of Irrigation

Advantages of Irrigation:

 For proper nourishment of crops certain amount of water is required. If rainfall is

insufficient there will be deficiency in fulfillment of water requirement. Irrigation tries to
remove this deficiency caused due to inadequate rainfall. Thus, irrigation comes to rescue
in dry years.

 Irrigation improves the yield of crops and makes people prosperous. The living standards
of the people is thereby improved.

 Irrigation also adds to the wealth of the country in two ways. Firstly as bumper crops are
produced due to irrigation it makes country self-sufficient in food requirements. Secondly
as the irrigation water is taxed when it is supplied to the cultivators, it adds to the revenue.

 Irrigation makes it possible to grow cash crops which give good returns to the cultivators
than the ordinary crops they might have grown in absence of irrigation. Fruit gardens,
sugarcane, potato, tobacco etc., are the cash crops.

 Sometimes large irrigation channels can be used as a means of communication.

 The falls which come across the irrigation channels can be utilised for producing
hydroelectric power.

 Domestic advantages should not be overlooked. Irrigation facilitates bathing, cattle

watering etc., and improves freshwater circulation.
  Irrigation improves the groundwater storage as water lost due to seepage adds to the
groundwater storage.

 Along the banks of large irrigation channels plantation can be successfully done which not
only helps introducing social forestry but also improves environmental status of the region.

 New irrigation works are started at the time of famines to provide employment to a large
number of population. These works are called famine works or relief works.

 When watering facility is provided to a barren land, the value of this land gets appreciated.

Disadvantages of Irrigation:

 Excessive seepage and leakage of water forms marshes and ponds all along the channels.
The marshes and the ponds in course of time become the colonies of the mosquito, which
gives rise to a disease like malaria.

 Excessive seepage into the ground raises the water-table and this in turn completely
saturates the crop root-zone. It causes waterlogging of that area.

 It lowers the temperature and makes the locality damp due to the presence of irrigation
water.

 Under irrigation canal system valuable residential and industrial land is lost.

 Initial cost of irrigation project is very high and thereby the cultivators have to pay more
taxes in the form of levy.

 Irrigation works become obstacles in the way of free drainage of water during rainy season
and thus results in submerging standing crops and even villages.
Components of Irrigation System
The irrigation system consists of following main components.

 Main intake structure and pumping station

 Conveyance and distribution system
 Field application systems
 Drainage system

The irrigation system consists of a (main) intake structure or (main) pumping station,conveyance
system, a distribution system, a field application system, and a drainage system

Figure 3 Irrigation System

 The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of
supply, such as a reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.
 The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or
main pumping station up to the field ditches.
 The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated
fields.
 The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.
 The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from
the field.
Main Components

 Main intake structure

The intake structure is built at the entry to the irrigation system . Its purpose is to direct water
from the original source of supply (lake, river, reservoir etc.) into the irrigation system.

Figure 4 Intake Structure

 Pumping station
In some cases, the irrigation water source lies below the level of the irrigated fields. Then a
pump must be used to supply water to the irrigation system.

Figure 5 Pumping Station

Conveyance and distribution system

 Open canals

An open canal, channel, or ditch, is an open waterway whose purpose is to carry water from
one place to another. Channels and canals refer to main waterways supplying water to one or
more farms. Field ditches have smaller dimensions and convey water from the farm entrance
to the irrigated fields

 Canal structures

The flow of irrigation water in the canals must always be under control. For this purpose, canal
structures are required. They help regulate the flow and deliver the correct amount of water to
the different branches of the system and onward to the irrigated fields. There are four main
types of structures: erosion control structures, distribution control structures, crossing
structures and water measurement structures.

Field application systems

 Surface irrigation
Surface irrigation is the application of water to the fields at ground level. Either the entire field
is flooded or the water is directed into furrows or borders.

Figure 6 Surface Irrigation

 Furrow irrigation

Furrows are narrow ditches dug on the field between the rows of crops. The water runs along
them as it moves down the slope of the field.

The water flows from the field ditch into the furrows by opening up the bank or dyke of the
ditch or by means of syphons or spiles. Siphons are small curved pipes that deliver water over
the ditch bank. Spiles are small pipes buried in the ditch bank

Figure 7 Furrow Irrigation

 Border irrigation

In border irrigation, the field to be irrigated is divided into strips (also called borders or
border strips) by parallel dykes or border ridges.

The water is released from the field ditch onto the border through gate structures called
outlets. The water can also be released by means of siphons or spiles. The sheet of flowing
water moves down the slope of the border, guided by the border ridges.
 Figure 8 Border Irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation

With sprinkler irrigation, artificial rainfall is created. The water is led to the field through a pipe
system in which the water is under pressure. The spraying is accomplished by using several
rotating sprinkler heads or spray nozzles

Figure 9 Sprinkler Irrigation

Drip irrigation

In drip irrigation, also called trickle irrigation, the water is led to the field through a pipe system.
On the field, next to the row of plants or trees, a tube is installed. At regular intervals, near the
plants or trees, a hole is made in the tube and equipped with an emitter. The water is supplied
slowly, drop by drop, to the plants through these emitters.

Figure 10 Drip irrigation

Drainage system

A drainage system is necessary to remove excess water from the irrigated land. This excess water
may be e.g. waste water from irrigation or surface runoff from rainfall. It may also include leakage
or seepage water from the distribution system. Excess surface water is removed through shallow
open drains. Excess groundwater is removed through deep open drains or underground pipes.

Figure 11 Drainage system

Classification of Canals based on discharge of canal
Classification of canals on the basis of discharge are as follows:

 Main canal.
 Branch canal.
 Distributary canal.
 Minor canal.
 Water courses/Feeder channels.

Main Canal
Canals having discharge greater than 10 cumecs are called as main canals.

 A main canal carries discharge directly from river.

 It carries large amount of water and cannot be used for direct irrigation.
 Main canal supplies water to the branch canals.

Branch Canal

Canals having discharge in the range of 5-10 cumecs are called as branch canals.

 These are the branches of main canal in either direction at regular intervals.
 Branch canals also do not carry out direct irrigation but sometimes direct outlets are
provided.
 Branch canals are actually the feeders for major and minor distributaries.

Distributary Canal
Canals having discharge 0.25-3 cumecs are called Distributary canal.

They are further divided into two types:

 Major Distributary.
 Minor Distributary.
Major Distributary

These take off water from branch canals. Sometimes they may get supply from main canal but
their discharge is less than branch canal. These are irrigation channels because they supply water
to the field directly through outlets.

Minor Distributary

Canals in which discharge varies from 0.25-3 cumecs are called as minor distributaries.

 These take off from major distributary or sometimes may get supply from branch canal.
 They also provided water to the courses through outlets provided along with them.
 The discharge in major distributary is less than in the major distributaries.

Field channels (water courses)

These are the small channels which ultimately feed water to the irrigation fields.

 The discharge in water courses is less than 0.25 cumecs.

 Depending upon the extent of irrigation, a field channel may take off from a major
distributary or minor.
 Sometimes, it may even take off water from the branch canal for the field situated very near
to the branch canal.

Classification of canals based on the function of canal

Classification of canals on the basis of their functions are given below:

 Irrigation canal.
 Navigation canal.
 Power canal.
 Carrier canal.
 Link canal.
 Feeder canal.
Irrigation canals

These are the canals which carry water to the fields. The canals having outlets are called irrigation
canals. For example

 Distributary canals.
 Minor canals.

These canals carry water to the fields. In these canals, the velocity of flow is kept high so that
the water may carry silt in suspension.

Navigation canal

These are the canals which are used to provide transport and voyage facility from one city to the
other or from one country to the other. Main canal is navigation canal.

Power canal

The canals which are constructed to supply water with very high force to the hydroelectric power
station for the purpose of moving turbine to generate electric power is known as power canal. Main
canal is also used as power canal.

Link canal

The canal that is from river to river is known as link canal. For example

 Sidhnai Malsi link canal in Pakistan.

 Taunsa Panjand link canal in Pakistan.

These are the canals which are constructed to transfer water to the other conveyance structure
which contains in-sufficient quantity of water. These transfer water from river to river system.
Carrier canal

Carrier canal is a canal which besides doing irrigation carries water for another canal. It is a
canal that is link canal and has outlet.

 Upper Chenab canal in west Punjab in Pakistan is an example of carrier canal.

These canals not only serve for irrigation but also provide the link between two channels and serve
to provide water to other conveyance structure. The total flow through carrier canals is more than
the flow required for input to the other conveyance structure. The excessive water is used to serve
irrigation purposes.

Feeder canal

A feeder canal is constructed with the idea of feeding two or more canals. When main canal is
divided into two canals then it is called as feeder canal. Example

 Lower Chenab canal feeder.

 Rajastan feeder canal and sidhnai canal.

These are constructed to provide water to other conveyance structures and is not used for irrigation.
These canals feed two or more canals.

Canal Outlets

The canal water has reached near the fields to be irrigated, it has to be transferred to the
watercourses. At the junction of the watercourse and the distributary, an outlet is provided. It is a
masonry structure through which water is admitted from the distributary into a course. It also acts
as a discharge measuring device. The discharge though an outlet is less than 0.085 m3/s (3). It
plays a vital role in the warabandi system of siting water. Thus, an outlet is like a head regulator
for the watercourse.
The main objective of providing an outlet is to provide ample supply of water to the whenever
needed. If the total available supply is insufficient, the outlets must be such suitable distribution
can be ensured. The efficiency of an irrigation system depends on proper functioning of canal
outlets which should satisfy the following requirements.

The outlets must be strong and simple with no moving parts which would require periodic
attention and maintenance. The outlets should be temper-proof and if there is any interference in
the functioning of the outlet, it should be easily detectable.

Types of Canal Outlet

 Non-Modular Canal Outlets

 Semi-Modular Canal Outlets

 Modular Outlets

Non-Modular Irrigation Outlets:

It is provided in the form of a simple opening made in the canal banks which leads water from the
parent channel to the field channel. The opening may be circular or rectangular in shape. In the
former pipeline may be used. The rectangular tunnel or barrel may be constructed of masonry.
Figure 13.1 shows the longitudinal section of a non-modular pipe outlet. The diameter of the pipe
may range from 10 to 30 cm. The pipeline is laid on a light concrete foundation to prevent
possibility of settlement.

Figure 12 Non-Modular Irrigation Outlets:

Semi-Modular Outlets

This category outlet discharge is independent of the water level in the field channel. Hence, this
type may be correctly recognized as intermediate type to modular and non-modular outlets. It is
designed to utilize the advantages of both the types in a limit.

When the water level in the parent channel is high all outlets derive proportionately more discharge

and protect the channel from being damaged. Also when the level in the parent channel is low all

the outlets derive correspondingly smaller discharge to maintain equitable distribution even at the
tail of the channel. Thus, this is most suitable type of irrigation outlet and hence widely used.

There are various types of semi-modules namely. Free discharging pipe outlet, Kennedy’s gauge

outlet, Scratcheley outlet, Harvey Stoddard module, Crump’s open flume outlet. Crump’s

adjustable proportional module, etc. Out of all these types Crump’s adjustable proportional module
is widely used in Punjab.

Modular Irrigation Outlets

As the outlet discharge of this type is independent of the difference of water levels of the parent
channel and field channel it is also called rigid module. Modular outlets may be constructed with
movable parts. But then the movable parts are liable to be damaged or choked. Hence, this type is
not used in practice.