Incorporating several forms of literacies (students’ native languages, drawing, music, and
drama) can help to accelerate primary-age children’s acquisition of English literacy. Find out
how teachers facilitate the language-learning process.
Teaching English Language Learners:
Recommendations for Early
Childhood Educators
Sarah J. Shin
“If ESL newcomer students already know how to write
in their native language, should they continue to write in
that language in the classroom?” Teachers working with
young immigrant children frequently ask that question.
Some teachers are justifiably concerned that primary-
age students who continue to use their native language
skills might hamper their acquisition of English literacy.
After all, isn’t time spent in writing in the first language
time that could have been spent writing in English?
Many other teachers agree conceptually with the notion
that supporting immigrant children’s home languages and
cultures is good practice (Pattnaik, 2003; 2005). However,
with increasing pressure to help English language learners
quickly acquire academic English skills—so they can be
successful on state-mandated high-stakes tests—many
teachers wonder whether they can afford to have the
“diversion” of students’ native languages in their already
full instructional schedules.
Newcomer English learners are no longer exempt from
taking standardized tests under the No Child Left Behind
Act (2002), so there are enormous pressures to teach them
as much English as possible as soon as possible. Teachers
and schools are required to raise the test scores of their
English learners and are increasingly focusing their
instruction on the content covered by the tests (Crawford,
2004; Meier & Wood, 2004). In fact, many schools are
adopting scripted, one-size-fits-all curricular programs that
consume large amounts of instructional time, leaving less
time for best practices, including ESL and content area
instruction that is tailored to the English proficiency and
literacy levels of individual students (Wright, 2005).
This article contends that while the testing requirements
Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
may push teachers to focus only on English, incorporating
other forms of literacies—students’ native languages,
drawing, music, and drama—can help to accelerate
immigrant children’s acquisition of English literacy.
English Learner Population
Growth
In the United States, English learners are a rapidly
growing segment of the K-12 student population.
According to the U.S. Department of Education, the
number of limited-English proficient students in the
country’s schools doubled in the last decade, with more
than 5 million English learners currently enrolled in K-12
programs. In pre-kindergarten through grade 3 alone,
there are more than 2 million English learners (Abedi,
Hofstetter, & Lord, 2004).
While English learners can be found in every state,
some states have particularly high concentrations of
immigrant students. In Texas, for example, Latinos
accounted for almost half of the P-12 public school
population (46.3%) during the 2006-2007 school year,
and 16% of the total P-12 population was identified as
English language learners (Sheets, 2008).
Sarah J. Shin, Ph.D., is Associate Professor and Co-Director,
M.A. Program in ESOL/Bilingual Education, Department of
Education, University of Maryland Baltimore County,
Baltimore, Maryland. Her work has appeared in the
International Journal of Bilingualism, Bilingualism: Language
and Cognition, Multilingua, TESOL Quarterly, and the
Heritage Language Journal. She serves on the editorial board of
The International Multilingual Research Journal.
Volume 38, Number 2 13

Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger
If at all possible, English learners should
first be taught to read in the language
they know best (i.e., their native
language) while learning English. This is
because it is difficult for children to read
in a language that they don’t already
speak. English-speaking children learn to
read primarily by applying phonics to ar-
range sounds to match words in their
speaking vocabulary.
The English learner student
population is a diverse group.
Although 80% of this group speaks
Spanish, the rest of the group
represents speakers of more than 460
languages (Hepburn, 2004). Meeting
the needs of this diverse student
population is a significant challenge
because the majority of classroom
teachers have no preparation for
teaching linguistically and culturally
diverse populations (Daniel &
Friedman, 2005; Hawkins, 2004).
Reading and Writing
in More Than One
Language
Research evidence strongly suggests
that literacy skills transfer from a
child’s first language to a second
language, and learning to read in the
first language facilitates the
development of literacy skills in
English (Cummins, 1996; Lanauze &
Snow, 1989). Evaluations of various
14 Volume 38, Number 2
bilingual education programs show
that instructional programs that allow
immigrant children to develop their
native language to high levels of
proficiency while learning English are
more effective than English-only
programs (Garcia, 2005; Ramirez,
1992; Slavin & Cheung, 2004;
Thomas & Collier, 2002). On the
whole, reinforcing children’s con-
ceptual base in the native language
provides a foundation for long-term
growth in English academic skills
(August & Hakuta, 1997; August &
Shanahan, 2006).
If at all possible, English learners
should first be taught to read in the
language they know best (their native
language) while learning English. This
is because it is difficult for children to
read in a language that they don’t
already speak.
Literacy skills transfer from
a child’s first language to a
second language.
English-speaking children learn to
read primarily by applying phonics to
arrange sounds to match words in
their speaking vocabulary. For
example, an English-speaking child
who comes across the word crow may
initially read it as /kraw/ by assuming
that it is similar to other words with
the same spelling pattern (e.g., brow,
cow, how, now, wow). However, an
English-speaking child knows that the
word cannot be pronounced /kraw/
because she sees the accompanying
picture of a black bird, which she
knows is pronounced /krow/. She
then makes the connection that there
is another set of words in English with
the -ow spelling pattern that is
pronounced /ow/ (e.g., low, mow, row,
tow, throw). By using her knowledge
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
of the oral language, the English-
speaking child arrives at the correct
pronunciation and meaning of the word.
However, a young English language
learner who does not know what a
crow is called in English may think
/kraw/ sounds fine since he does not
know what the bird is called in
English. This is why phonics and
sight-word instruction for English
learners should be based on words
that students have encountered many
times. However, if the child already
knows Spanish and sees the word
cuervo (crow in Spanish) printed with
a picture of a crow, he may recognize
and pronounce it correctly as /'kwerβo/.
Children who are literate in
Spanish have already grasped two key
principles: the alphabetic principle
and phonemic awareness.
•The alphabetic principle is
the knowledge that letters
represent sounds. This refers
to the knowledge that the “c”
in cuervo stands for the
sound /k/, the “u” stands for
the sound /w/, and so on.
•Phonemic awareness is the
knowledge that spoken words
are composed of a sequence
of separable phonemes. Thus,
the word /'kwer o/ has six
distinct phonemes, /k/, /w/,
/e/, /r/, /β /, and /o/. A
Spanish-speaking child who
has can apply these principles
in Spanish might be better
prepared to read English
than a child who is puzzling
over what word is formed
out of the sounds /k/, /r/,
/o/, and /w/.
What can early childhood teachers
do to help English learners develop
native language literacy? The surest
way is for teachers to draw on the
Spring/Summer 2010
expertise of those who are already
literate in those languages—parents,
grandparents, siblings, and other
relatives. Teachers can encourage
families to read to children in the
home language and teach their
children to read and write in that
language (Hepburn, 2004; Shin,
2005). Teachers can also urge families
to enroll their children in weekend
heritage language programs in the
community.
If the school has family/community
liaisons who speak students’ native
languages, teachers may enlist their
help in educating families about the
How can early childhood
teachers help English
learners develop native
language literacy?
◆ Encourage family members to
read to children in the home
language and teach their
children to read and write in
that language.
◆ Urge families to enroll their
children in the community’s
weekend heritage language
programs.
◆ Enlist the help of family/
community liaisons
who speak students’ native
languages.
◆ Integrate diverse language
materials in the classroom.
◆ Group English learners and
English speakers together to
investigate topics of mutual
interest.
◆ Share children’s books in
students’ native languages.
English learners can play the
role of experts in pronunciation
and vocabulary.
◆ Display classroom signs and
messages in various
languages.
◆ Learn to say and write simple
greetings and phrases such
as “Hello” and “Thank you” in
each language.
Spring/Summer 2010
importance of dev-
eloping first lang-
uage literacy skills
while learning English.
In addition, comm-
unity liaisons may
be able to help teachers
to secure bilingual
children’s books for
classroom use.
Furthermore,
teachers can foster
multilingual sens-
itivity of all students
by integrating diverse Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger
language materials What can early childhood teachers do to help English learners
in their daily teaching develop native language literacy? The surest way is for teachers
practices. For example, to draw on the expertise of those who are already literate in
English learners and those languages—parents, grandparents, siblings, and
English speakers can relatives. Teachers can encourage families to read books in the
be grouped together home language and teach their children to read and write in
that language.
to investigate the
writing conventions of English you” in each language. This sends a
language learners’ native languages. strong signal to immigrant students
Students can find out whether a that their languages and cultures are
language is alphabetic (e.g., English, not simply tolerated in school but are
Spanish, Korean), syllabic (e.g., actively valued (Shin, 2007). As
Japanese), or logographic (e.g., students realize that their teachers are
Chinese), and whether it is written language learners, too, and make lots
from left to right, from right to left, of errors in learning how to say simple
or top to bottom (Crystal, 1997). things, children are likely to have
Children’s books in students’ more positive views of their own
native languages may also be shared. English language learning efforts.
This activity is a great multilingual
lesson for all students, and is Developing Oral
especially empowering for English
learners who play the role of experts Proficiency in English
As teachers encourage immigrant
on pronunciation and vocabulary, for
example. This technique is very children to develop native language
appropriate for students in the early literacy skills through home- and
elementary grades whose reading community-based efforts, they can
also create a classroom environment
skills are rapidly developing.
In addition, teachers can display in which English learners can best
classroom signs and messages in acquire spoken English, which is
various languages, and learn to say critical for their acquisition of literacy
and write simple greetings and skills. Mainstream teachers and
phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank English-speaking peers play a vital role
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 15
in helping immigrant children
develop oral proficiency in English by
modeling academically and socially
appropriate language use in various
school contexts. In general, well-
informed teachers provide plenty of
opportunities for English learners to
hear comprehensible English, and to
read, write, and speak English in a
meaningful way (Garcia, 2005).
Teachers can make their English more
comprehensible by
•adjusting their speech (slow-
ing down, paraphrasing, giv-
ing examples, and asking
questions),
•using somewhat exaggerated
gestures and facial expressions,
•pointing to pictures or
showing objects when
explaining concepts.
To promote social interaction,
teachers can use a variety of grouping
configurations, including whole class,
small groups, and pairs to provide
students with frequent opportunities
to talk with one other and receive help
if necessary (Echevarria, Vogt, &
Short, 2004).
For non-English speaking new-
comers, teachers may arrange group
activities that encourage nonverbal
participation. For example, if a group
is working on a mural, the newcomer
might draw or color a picture while
other group members may do the
bulk of the writing. This way, the
English learner contributes actively to
the group project while interacting
through context-specific oral English.
Most English learners go through
a period of silence in the classroom
(Igoa, 1995). The length of silent
period varies from child to child—it
may range from a few weeks to several
months depending on the language
proficiency and personality of the
16 Volume 38, Number 2
child. While there is a great deal of First, read the poem aloud, modeling
individual variation in how quickly not only pronunciation but also
English learners start speaking in dramatic stress and intonation. Then
English, remember that children are students read the poem chorally and
more likely to speak when the talk is act it out in pairs or groups.
meaningful and useful. A great example of a multilingual
variation is including diverse language
Poetry and songs facilitate translations of songs in English that
oral language development. are familiar to children. Teachers can
play a recording or have a bilingual
assistant or volunteer sing the song
One way to make classroom talk while the children sing along with the
meaningful is to encourage informal help of a phonetic transcription. This
collaboration in activity centers by enables students to appreciate the
offering various games, interactive sounds and rhythm of another
learning tools, and props. Activity language sung to a familiar tune.
centers enable children to perform
hands-on tasks in small groups and Scaffold Reading
develop functional language in a low-
stress environment, both of which are Instruction for English
conducive to language acquisition for Learners
learners of all ages (Krashen, 1982). Like English-speaking children,
Poetry and songs are a great way to English learners benefit from a print-
facilitate oral language development rich environment that provides a large
of English learners (Peregoy & Boyle, number of different reading ex-
2001; Weed & Ford, 1999). Provide periences—reading aloud, shared
song lyrics and poems accompanied reading of predictable big books, as
by pictures for students to keep in well as guided and independent
their personal poetry and song books. reading. Expose English learners of all
Figure 1. Sample content web to organize what students are learning
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010
Ways to Scaffold Reading
Instruction for English
Learners
◆ Establish a print-rich environment
with many different reading
experiences—reading aloud,
shared reading of predictable
big books, as well as guided
and independent reading.
◆ Provide a wide range of children’s
literature including alphabet
books, picture books, pattern
books, concept books, bilingual
books, multicultural books, and
fairy tales, as well as teacher-
and student-written and
illustrated books. Read them
more than once.
◆ When reading aloud to students,
facilitate comprehension by
stopping at various points in the
book to discuss an illustration or
to review the plot. Ask
comprehension questions. Ask
students to predict what might
happen next in the story. Tell
stories with puppets.
◆ Pre-teach key vocabulary by
selecting words that are critical
for understanding the text.
Provide a variety of tools such as
word walls, personal dictionaries,
and mnemonic strategies to help
students recognize and use the
words.
◆ Teach vocabulary in thematic sets.
For example, if the word aunt
appears in a text, teach themati-
cally related words such as
uncle, cousin, nephew, niece,
brother, and sister.
◆ Offer repeated exposure to print
during regular learning events
such as morning message, circle
time, journal time, and writing
workshop.
◆ Select books about experiences
that are familiar to children. This
helps to activate students’ prior
knowledge about a given topic
before the text is introduced.
◆ Choose bilingual books and
books in English that are translat-
ed into other languages to boost
reading comprehension.
◆ Use graphic organizers before
and after reading. Webs help
readers organize information
when the text contains many
details.
Spring/Summer 2010
ages to a wide range of children’s
literature including alphabet books,
picture books, pattern books, concept
books, bilingual books, multicultural
books, and fairy tales, as well as
teacher- and student-written and
illustrated books.
When reading aloud to students,
teachers can facilitate comprehension
by stopping at various points in the
book to discuss an illustration or to
review the plot. Teachers may also ask
comprehension questions and ask
students to predict what might
happen next in the story. Use puppets
to encourage children to focus and for
dramatic effects.
English learners usually need more
time to formulate their responses
orally in English, so wait longer before
prompting them to answer a question.
On occasion, English speakers might
offer their answers first as a way to
model the language and format of
acceptable responses for English
learners. In addition, repeated
exposure to a text is always helpful to
English learners, so multiple readings
are encouraged.
There are several ways to scaffold
reading instruction for English
learners. One way is to pre-teach key
vocabulary by selecting words that are
critical for understanding the text.
Provide a variety of tools such as word
walls, personal dictionaries, and
mnemonic strategies to help students
to recognize and use the words
(Echevarria et al., 2004).
English learners particularly benefit
from learning vocabulary in thematic
sets. For example, if the word aunt
appears in a text, teach thematically
related words such as uncle, cousin,
nephew, niece, brother, and sister
because they are often used together.
DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD
English learners also acquire basic
vocabulary through repeated exposure
to print during regular learning events
such as morning message, circle time,
journal time, and writing workshop
(Peregoy & Boyle, 2001). These
maintain the same predictable str-
ucture and provide repetition of
familiar language that is conducive to
vocabulary learning.
To make reading meaningful, select
books about experiences that are
familiar to children. This helps to
activate students’ prior knowledge
about a given topic before the text is
introduced. Multicultural literature
that is written by and about members
of specific ethnic groups can offer
stories and feelings that are en-
gaging and directly accessible to
immigrant children.
In addition, bilingual books and
books in English that are translated
into other languages can boost reading
comprehension because they help
students transfer their understanding
of the content from one language into
another. For example, Shel Silverstein’s
The Giving Tree has been translated
into more than 30 different languages.
The different translations can be used
in group or whole-class reading so
children of different language
backgrounds can appreciate their
peers’ as well as their own language(s)
while learning English.
Graphic organizers used before and
after reading are useful for introducing
specific vocabulary and activating
students’ prior knowledge. Creating
content webs (see Figure 1) helps
readers organize information when
the text contains many details.
Teachers stimulate students’ interest
and teach new vocabulary as they
construct the web with students,
using key words and connecting
Volume 38, Number 2 17
 text into English
with the help of a
bilingual classmate
or an instructional
assistant.
If a child speaks
some English but is
not able to write it,
suggest that the
student dictate the
story to an adult or
older student. The
teacher can share
the dictation with
the student to help
the child make the
connection between
speech and print.
Have the student
Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger copy the text (as a
In addition to encouraging children to express their ideas in way of getting
their native languages as well as in English, enhance the further practice with
teaching of writing by incorporating non-textual media writing and spelling)
such as drawing or sculpture, music, and drama to facilitate and illustrate the
literacy acquisition. story. Then the
students’ prior experiences to them. student can read
After reading the text, students can the story aloud for classmates.
add information to the web and go In addition to encouraging children
back to the text to add or clarify to express their ideas in their native
important details. Graphic organizers languages as well as in English,
such as webs, charts, and personal enhance the teaching of writing by
dictionaries can help English language incorporating non-textual media such
learners at all levels. as drawing or sculpture, music, and
drama to facilitate literacy acquisition.
Incorporate Multiple The following steps, suggested by
Weed & Ford (1999), enable English
Modes of Literacy in learners to respond to literature
Writing through multiple modes of literacy
If newcomers already know how to including art and oral discussion:
read and write in their native •read and/or hear a story
languages, teachers are urged to allow •think and draw (or craft or
them to write in that language first as sculpt)
a way of getting their ideas recorded •discuss drawing in a group (in
on paper (Igoa, 1995; Weed & Ford, the native language and En-
1999). After children have had the glish)
opportunity to write down some •draft (in the native language
of their ideas, they can translate the and English)
•conference and revise (in English)
•present and publish (in English)
What is useful about this process is
that it allows English learners to first
respond to text by thinking about
representing visually what they
understood from it before doing any
writing. Children then discuss their
drawings, puppets, or other 3-D
representations in small groups of
classmates who speak the same first
language so that discussion in both
the children’s native language and in
English can take place.
Children then write one or two
sentences about their representational
work based on feedback from the
group (in the native language and
English). They write a first draft (in
the native language and English)
based on the sentences generated from
their group discussion. Students then
conference with a peer or the teacher,
revise their drafts, and present the
final art and writing in English. They
might read their materials by
alternating readers, act out their ideas
in a short play, or present their writing
in a newscast script format, for
example. These steps help reduce
English learners’ anxiety about writing
by providing students with ample
opportunities to think, create, talk,
listen, rewrite, and present.
Write interactive dialogue
journals.
One of the best ways to help
English learners to write in English is
an interactive dialogue journal, a
written conversation between teacher
and student (Peyton & Staton, 1993).
A sample dialogue journal is shown
in Figure 2.

18 Volume 38, Number 2 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Spring/Summer 2010

 Usually, a student writes on a topic August, D., & Hakuta, K. (Eds.). (1997). UK: Cambridge University Press.
that is either self-selected or teacher- Improving schooling for language-minority Cummins, J. (1996). Negotiating identities:
children: A research agenda. Washington, Education for empowerment in a diverse
generated, to which the teacher DC: National Academy Press. society. Ontario, CA: California Associa-
responds in writing with a comment August, D., & Shanahan, T. (Eds.). (2006). tion for Bilingual Education.
or question that invites further Developing literacy in second language Daniel, J., & Friedman, S. (2005, Novem-
conversation. In their responses, learners: Report of the National Literacy ber). Preparing teachers to work with
Panel on language-minority children and culturally and linguistically diverse chil-
teachers do not correct language errors youth. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. dren. Beyond the Journal: Young Children
explicitly, but model written language Crawford, J. (2004). Educating English on the Web, 1-7.
conventions by incorporating and learners: Language diversity in the class- Echevarria, J.M., Vogt, M.J., & Short, D.J.
expanding on the student’s writing. room (5th edition). Los Angeles, CA: (2004). Making content comprehensible
Bilingual Educational Services. for English learners: The SIOP Model
Done regularly, the dialogue journal Crystal, D. (1997). The Cambridge encyclo- (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson.
encourages English learners to pedia of language (2nd ed.). Cambridge,
practice writing in English without
overly worrying about mistakes, and
to learn new vocabulary, grammar,
spelling, and idioms that are the basis
for further literacy development.
* * *
In this era of high-stakes testing,
teachers are under enormous pressures
to ensure that English learners’ make
adequate yearly progress in English
language proficiency and academic
content knowledge. Because English
learners are tested in English, many
teachers believe that teaching mainly
in English is the only way to help
them learn English quickly.
However, English language learners
who are already proficient in another
language should not have to leave
their language at the door before
entering school. Just as art, music, and
drama are alternative means of
expressing one’s meanings and can
contribute to developing literacy skills
in English, immigrant children’s native
languages are a valuable resource and
can facilitate acquisition of English if
they are actively validated and used.

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Figure 2: Sample dialogue journal showing an exchange between
student and teacher

Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 19

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 Put These Ideas Into Practice!
Teaching English Language Learners:
Recommendations for Early Childhood Educators
Sarah J. Shin

English Language Learners…

• transfer skills from their first language to the second language.
• are more comfortable in classrooms that actively celebrate their languages and cultures.
• typically go through a period of silence. They are more likely to speak if conversations are meaningful and useful.

Help English learners develop literacy

• Incorporate diverse language materials: books, signs, messages.
• Read children’s books in students’ native languages.
• Learn to say and write phrases such as “Hello” and “Thank you” in each language.
• Group English learners and English speakers together.
• Encourage English learners to read in their native language.

Scaffold reading instruction for English learners

• Establish a print-rich environment, including morning message, circle time, journal time, and writing workshop.
• Select books about familiar experiences. Include teacher- and student-written and illustrated books.
• Read bilingual books and books in English that are translated into other languages.
• Offer reading aloud, and predictable big books, as well as guided and independent reading.
• Tell stories with puppets. Use poetry and music. Incorporate drama and drawing.
• When reading aloud, stop to discuss an illustration or the plot. Ask comprehension questions. Ask students to predict what
might happen next. Give English learners more time to answer.
• Create content webs before and after reading.

What
What can
can families
families do?
do?
• Read to children in their home language.
• Teach children to read and write in their home language.
• Enroll their children in local heritage language programs.

Kathleen A. Martin & L. Kay Emfinger

Note: Dimensions of Early Childhood readers are encouraged to copy this material for early childhood students as well as teachers of young children as a professional development tool.
Spring/Summer 2010 DIMENSIONS OF EARLY CHILDHOOD Volume 38, Number 2 21