Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Omran Al-Shamma
Dr. Rashid Ali
University of Hertfordshire
Abstract
Amongst all the design modules employed in aircraft design process, weight module is the
most significant one. Evaluating aircraft performance is dependent on a suitable aircraft
weight in order to carry out its intended mission. In interactive design process, the weight
design engineers usually follow one particular published methodology such as that proposed
by Roskam or Torenbeek or etc.
The main drawback of these methodologies is their limited accuracy to be applied to the vast
variation of civilian aircraft. Furthermore, the non-availability of component-weight data,
which may be used in evaluating maximum take-off weight, makes the design process
difficult.
Hence, new weight module has been applied to interactive design process. It suggests that
many equations of different methodologies are applied to each aircraft component instead of
applying one analyst’s methodology. Simultaneously, any formula that has secondary
variables, which may not be available in the early stages of aircraft design, is rejected. The
equation that gives the lowest average value is selected. The new module results show that
the accuracy of the estimated operating empty weight and the maximum take-off weight is
better than 5%.
Nomenclatures
( )
( )
information becomes more accessible in
this phase, the accuracy increased from 10-
15% to 5-10%.
The weight methodologies are classified
into three categories: Empirical,
Analytical, and Semi-analytical. Empirical
methods are used to generate fast and
accurate empty weight (EW) (and in turn
( ⁄ )
MTOW) [2] and to predict weights of
different configurations of aircraft [3].
Analytical methods tend to be more
Introduction accurate than empirical methods and its
ability to incorporate new technologies,
Amongst all the design variables used in materials, and concepts. More details
aircraft design, three are most important, about weight methodologies are found in
they are weight, weight and weight. Ref. [4]. Semi-analytical have the highest
Performance of the aircraft is dependent on accuracy than the others and it required
the aircraft having a suitable weight in less data compared to analytical methods
order for it to carry out its intended [5]. In interactive aircraft design, it is
mission. Cost of aircraft which is another normal for design engineers to follow one
major parameter for customers (airliners) particular estimation methodology, for
depends mainly on aircraft weight. instance as proposed by Raymer [6] or
Therefore, manufacturers are always trying Torenbeek [7] or even the method
seriously to make the aircraft as light as proposed by NASA [3].
possible. Accurate weight estimation at The limitation of the existing
early stage of aircraft design process is a methodologies is that they cannot be
hard and difficult task. When the detail applied to the vast variation of civilian
design drawings are complete, the aircraft aircraft that exist or indeed likely to be
weight can be calculated accurately by designed due to the changing demands or
evaluating each part and adding them all indeed their utility. In fact, Roskam [8]
up, and that is really done. The describes three different methodologies
methodologies used for weight estimation that yield different values which differ as
are expanded synchronously with the much as 25%. What makes the process
design phases. In conceptual design phase, difficult also is the non-availability of data
these methodologies are very simple in that could be used to compare aircraft
nature and have significant uncertainty [1] component weights. Although the overall
which estimate the aircraft weight as a weight figures (such as operating empty
whole (MTOW). In preliminary design weight (OEW) and MTOW) are available,
phase where the MTOW breaks down into there is a scarcity of information on the
components and sub-components, the detailed component, sub-system and
methodologies becomes more complicated system level.
and accurate. More specifically, as
Hence, instead of applying complete calculations for the load factors (limit and
formulae set of one methodology, the ultimate) were required as in follow:
weight module which has been Initially, the limit load factor which is the
greater of the gust and manoeuvre factors
implemented in Ref. [9], is suggested as a
is evaluated. These load factors are
new approach for accurate weight determined in accordance with
estimation in interactive design process. airworthiness requirements [10]. The
This module evaluates each aircraft following relationships [11] are used: -
component weight by applying many
formulae of different methodologies and ( )
trying at the same time to avoid using any ( )
( )
⁄ √
( √ ) ( )
( ⁄ )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ⁄ )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
(
( ) ) ( ) ( ) ( ⁄ )
( ) ( )
√ ( )
( )
√ (
Note that all equations are in English units
) ( )
except equation (12).
Where: 1-d- Propulsion system: The major deriver
( )
(( )
)( )
in evaluating the weight of propulsion
system (propulsion & nacelle groups) is
Note that equation (10) is in English units. the engine dry weight. This weight has
Typically, Raymer’s formula gives the been estimated accurately using the
lowest average value. following state-of-art formula which is
based on engines data given by Harris
[14]: ( )
( )
1-f- Surface controls: The weight of the
surface controls are the systems associated
with control surface actuation and depends
The weight of the propulsion group which mainly on the tail area, Torenbeek [7]
includes the engines, engine exhaust, suggests the following formula related to
reverser, starting, controls, lubricating, and take-off weight instead:
fuel systems are handled together as the
total propulsion group weight. Torenbeek ( )
[7] suggests the following formula for
Add 20% for leading flaps or slots and
estimating the propulsion group weight:
15% for control dampers if used.
( )
1-g- Systems: To breakdown the systems,
While his formula for nacelle group weight different analysts have their different
is: categories. Therefore, it is better to select
only one formulae set of any analyst.
( )
Raymer set [6] for example is good but it
The total weight of propulsion system is: requires many detail information which
may not be available or decided in early
( ) design stages. Torenbeek [7] set has been
used for a long time and hence it is used
Note that all weights in this sub-section are
here. Systems are break down into seven
in pounds (lbs).
sub-categories as follows:
1-e- Landing gear: The total landing gear
1-g-1- Auxiliary power unit (APU): The
weight which includes structure, actuating
installed APU weight is dependent mainly
system, and rolling assembly, is about 3.5-
on the dry engine weight of APU as in the
4% of MTOW for aircraft whose weight
following formula:
exceeds 4500 kg. Landing gear weight
estimation can be break down into main ( )
gear weight and nose gear weight. The
following formulae developed by In the absence of the uninstalled APU
Torenbeek [7] are employed due to their weight, Kudu [15] formula is:
good estimation (around 3.7% of MTOW):
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1-g-7- Paint and Miscellaneous: This While for long range aircraft, the formula
weight represents 0.006 of the take-off is:
weight:
( )
( )
2-b- Flight crew: Torenbeek [7] suggest an
average 93 Kg per flight crew. The
formula is:
The total systems weight is:
( ) with the published data in Kroo [12].
Initially, these published data which are
2-c- Flight attendants: Typically, there are
shown in Fig. 1, are in English units (lbs).
30 passengers per attendant and Torenbeek
The major input variables used are taken
[7] suggests 68 kg per flight attend:
from Ref. [16] & [17], while the calculated
( ) component weights are obtained in Fig. 2.
Note that the dive speed value is not
available as a published data but it was
3- Zero Fuel Weight:
evaluated as 1.2 of the maximum cruise
This weight consists of OEW and payload. speed. By examining the data of Fig. 2
with Fig. 1, we can conclude that MTOW,
3-a- Operating empty weight (OEW): It is EW, Wing, Fuselage, Propulsion system
calculated as above. (nacelle and propulsion groups, each or
overall), and Undercarriage weights give
3-b- Payload: The FAA suggests that
excellent accuracy of about 5%. As Kundu
passenger weights include 169 lbs per
[15] reported that Oxygen System weight
passenger plus 10 lbs for winter clothing
and Paint weight are included in
and 16 lbs of carry-on bags and personal
Furnishings weight not in Systems weight.
items for a total of 195 lbs per passenger.
Hence, Systems weight alone accuracy is
An additional 30 lbs is assumed for
7%, while Systems and Furnishings both
checked bags, leading to the total of 225
together have accuracy of 2.7%. Although
lbs per passenger. This is higher than what
tail weight estimation gives 50% higher
has been assumed in the past and based on
than the actual value, but Raymer’s
recent surveys of passenger weights. The
formula has the lowest value while
aircraft may also carry cargo as desired.
Torenbeek formula for example gives
An added cargo weight of 40 lbs per
more than twice the actual value. The tail
passenger is a reasonable in the
estimated value still acceptable since it is
determination of maximum zero fuel
in the range of 2-3% of MTOW.
weight. Therefore, the total weight per
passenger is 265 lbs or 120 kg:
( ) Conclusion
[4]- Bechdolt, R. W., et al, “Introduction to [14]- Harris, F., “An economic model of
Aircraft Weight Engineering”, S.A.W.E. U.S. airline operating expenses”,
Inc., 1996. NASA/CR-2005-213476, 2005.
[15]- Kundu, A. K., “Aircraft design”,
[5]- Agyepong, L., “Application of Neuro
Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Fuzzy Systems to Aircraft Systems Weight
Estimation”, PhD thesis, University of [16]- Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft,
Leeds, May 2012. Jane’s Annual Publication, various years.
See www.janes.com for list of
[6]- Raymer, D. P., “Aircraft Design: A publications.
Conceptual Approach”, (4th Edition),
AIAA, USA, 2006. [17]-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_747
[7]- Torenbeek, E., “Synthesis of Subsonic
Airplane Design”, Delft University Press,
1982.
Fig. 1- Published component weights (in pounds) for Boeing 747-200B
Fig.2- Calculated component weights for Boeing 747-200B