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Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

ScienceDirect

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/he

Review Article

A review of hydrogen as a compression ignition

engine fuel

Pavlos Dimitriou*, Taku Tsujimura

National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Renewable Energy Research Center, 2-2-9
Machiikedai, Koriyama, Fukushima 963-0298, Japan

article info abstract

Article history: Diesel fuelled engines emit higher levels of carbon dioxide and other harmful air pollutants
Received 20 June 2017 (such as noxious gases and particulates) per litre of fuel than gasoline engines. This fact,
Received in revised form combined with the recent diesel emission scandal and the rumours of more widespread
28 July 2017 cheating by automotive manufacturers have initiated a long discussion about the future
Accepted 29 July 2017 and sustainability of diesel engines.
Available online xxx Improving the compression ignition engine is a direct way of going green. Reducing the
harmful emissions can be achieved by future developments in the engine technology but
Keywords: also the implementation of alternative fuels. Hydrogen is a renewable, high-efficient and
Hydrogen clean fuel that can potentially save the future of diesel-type engines. The evolution of high-
Hydrogen-diesel efficiency renewable hydrogen production methods is the most important path for the
Compression ignition engines start of a new hydrogen era for the compression ignition engine that can improve its
Dual-fuel engines sustainability and maximum efficiency.
This paper provides a detailed overview of hydrogen as a fuel for compression ignition
engines. A comprehensive review of the past and recent research activities on the topic is
documented. The review focuses on the in-cylinder combustion of hydrogen either as a
primary fuel or in dual fuel operation. The effects of injection strategies, compression ratio
and exhaust gas recirculation on the combustion and emission characteristics of the
hydrogen fuelled engine are fully analysed. The main limitations, challenges and per-
spectives are presented.
© 2017 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
What is hydrogen? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen generation methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Natural gas reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Electrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: P.Dimitriou@aist.go.jp (P. Dimitriou).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.232
0360-3199/© 2017 Hydrogen Energy Publications LLC. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Dimitriou P, Tsujimura T, A review of hydrogen as a compression ignition engine fuel, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.232
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Hydrogen as a fuel for IC engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

Hydrogen in CI engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen only operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Combustion performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Implementation of exhaust gas recirculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
The effects of injection strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
The effects of compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Knock avoidance techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Low-temperature combustion techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen and biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Hydrogen fumigation e alternative ways of hydrogen enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Computational analysis and performance tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Appendix A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

alternative fuels. Kukkonen and Shelef [7] revisited the subject

Introduction
Compression ignition engines have been around for over a
century now and they are considered one of the most efficient
types of internal combustion engines. Since the introduction
of diesel cycle proposed by Rudolf Diesel [1] back in 1892,
compression ignition engines have come a long way and have
the potential of going further.
Recently, diesel engines have received much criticism
regarding the high levels of air pollutants they produce
compared to gasoline engines. The recent diesel emission
scandal, with a major automotive manufacturer intentionally
cheating on emissions tests, have increased even more the
awareness regarding the future and sustainability of diesel
engines. Many reports and articles have been written about
the ominous future and the possible death of diesel engine
[2e4].
Currently, many automotive manufacturers are preparing
for a hydrogen future. Hydrogen (H2) as a fuel can be used in
fuel cells where an electrochemical reaction converts the fuel
to clean energy. However, this is still a very costly process
currently under development and is expected to take several
years until they can overtake or even end the reign of the in-
ternal combustion engine. Therefore, a direct way of going
green for short to mid-term environmental benefit is by
improving the operation of internal combustion engines and
reducing their harmful emission. Hydrogen as a fuel could
potentially reduce the emissions production of internal com-
bustion (IC) engines and save diesel engine. A significant
reduction of diesel emissions could bring back the compres-
sion ignition engine's reliability.
The research activities performed on the usage of
hydrogen for firing internal combustion engines are volumi-
nous. Research reports can be dated back to almost two cen-
turies ago where hydrogen was used to produce a moving
power in machinery [5]. In 1981, Kukkonen [6] reviewed the
then current research on the hydrogen fuelled engine and
concluded that although hydrogen fuel for an engine is tech-
nically feasible, it will not be competitive with other
12 years later and highlighted that hydrogen fuelled internal
combustion engines have no significant advantage and in
most cases a disadvantage in greenhouse gas emissions when
the hydrogen is produced from fossil fuels. The authors
concluded that hydrogen would not be used as an automotive
fuel before the year 2020. Over the last years, the significant
advancements in internal combustion engine technology and
the use of renewable energy for hydrogen production have set
hydrogen as a near-term option for a transportation fuel in a
hydrogen economy [8].
The scope of this paper is to perform a detailed review of
the past and recent research activities of hydrogen imple-
mentation to power compression ignition engines. A
comprehensive analysis of the combustion behaviour of
hydrogen ignited by compression is provided. The review
paper focuses on the in-cylinder combustion of hydrogen
either as a primary fuel or in dual fuel operation. The effects of
injection strategies, compression ratio and knock avoidance
techniques on the combustion and emission characteristics of
the hydrogen fuelled engine are fully analysed. Also, details
on alternative hydrogen supply techniques and combustion
strategies are given. Finally, the review paper also provides
the main characteristics of hydrogen as a fuel, its production
methods and the benefits over other alternative fuels.
What is hydrogen?
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless and zero (harmful) emis-
sion fuel when burned with oxygen. The combination and
reaction of two hydrogens and one oxygen atoms lead to en-
ergy release and water formation only. This reaction can take
place either in the form of a chemical reaction with the help of
a fuel cell's anode or by combusting the fuel at high pressure
and temperature conditions. The main characteristics of
hydrogen fuel versus other fuels commonly used for internal
combustion such as natural gas, gasoline and diesel are pre-
sented in Table 1.

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Table 1 e Main characteristics of hydrogen versus natural gas, gasoline and diesel liquid fuels.
Hydrogen Natural gas Gasoline(b) Diesel(b)
Density at NTP(a) (kg/m3) 0.09 0.7e0.9 737 820e950
Energy content (MJ/kg) 120e142 53.6 46.4 48
Autoignition temperature (K) 858 813 520e583 473
Flammability limits (% gas-to-air volume ratio) 4e75 5e15 1.4e7.6 0.6e7.5
Minimum ignition energy (mJ) 0.02 0.29 e e
Quenching gap at NTP(a) (mm) 0.64 2.1 e e
Diffusion coefficient into air at NTP(a) (cm2/s) 0.61 0.24(c) e e
a
Normal temperature and pressure conditions, P ¼ 1 bar, T ¼ 293.15 K.
b
Liquid fuels.
c
Diffusion coefficient of methane.

One of the main advantages of hydrogen fuel is its large
energy content. Hydrogen's energy density is one of the
highest among the commonly used fuels for internal com-
bustion engines. For instance, 1 kg of hydrogen can provide
almost three times more energy than diesel and gasoline
fuels. However, the significantly low density of hydrogen gas
raises major issues regarding the storage space required for
powering a vehicle for an adequate driving range. Also, the
low density of the fuel results in reduced energy density of the
hydrogen-air mixture inside the cylinder chambers of an en-
gine and hence may lead to low power output.
The wide flammability range of hydrogen fuel makes it
suitable for engine operation over a wide range of air-fuel
mixtures, even at extremely low equivalence ratios of
4 ¼ 0.1. The lean mixture operation can also increase the fuel
economy of the hydrogen-fuelled engine due to a complete
combustion inside the cylinder chambers with fewer fuel re-
siduals. Moreover, its high diffusivity and flame speed result
in a faster uniform mixture of fuel and air and an improved
combustion of a wide range inside the cylinder. On the other
hand, the high auto-ignition temperature of the fuel necessi-
tates the implementation of a combustion trigger such as a
spark or a supplementary low auto-ignition temperature fuel.
Also, hydrogen's low ignition energy demand often leads to
the production of knocking or detonation of the engine.
produced abundantly and economically by renewable sources
is critical for the successful passage to a new hydrogen era.
The production of hydrogen can be achieved in several ways
with the three most common approaches explained below.
Natural gas reforming
This is the cheapest most efficient and common hydrogen
production technique, accounts for about 95% of the hydrogen
generated in the USA [11]. Natural gas is reacted with high-
temperature steam and synthesis gas, a mixture of
hydrogen, carbon monoxide (CO) and a small amount of car-
bon dioxide (CO2), is formed. The CO is then reacted with
water for additional hydrogen production.
Gasification
Gasification is the process where mostly coal but also biomass
such as algae, wheat straw and sewage sludge [12], is burned
at high temperatures between 1200 and 1500  C to convert into
gaseous components. The produced gas is processed using a
subsequent series of chemical reactions and reforms to
hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The production of hydrogen
using biomass gasification is a clean, almost zero greenhouse
emission process.

Hydrogen generation methods
The amount of hydrogen existing on Earth is very small and
undeterminable as it is very low density pushes it out from the
gravitational attraction of the planet. Therefore, it is neces-
sary hydrogen to be produced by other compounds where it
exists such as natural gas, oil, coal and water. Hydrogen is an
energy carrier and an energy source such as fossil fuels (coal,
natural gas, and biomass) or nuclear and renewable energy
(solar, wind, geothermal and hydroelectric power) is required
for its production. Hydrogen can be produced domestically
from several sources and weaken the dependence on petro-
leum production. However, in recent years almost 95% of the
hydrogen produced is from fossil fuel-based methods [9] and
only a very small ratio is from renewable resources such as
geothermal, biomass, wind and solar energy [10]. Therefore,
the generation of hydrogen is still considered a costly and high
emission process. The question of whether hydrogen can be
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process where an electric current splits
water into hydrogen and oxygen. According to Kato et al. [13],
hydrogen production by water electrolysis consumes the
highest amounts of energy. However, it is considered a clean,
emission-free process only when the energy used for the
electricity is coming from renewable sources.
Other methods of hydrogen generation, currently in
various stages of development, are the high-temperature
thermochemical water-splitting, renewable liquid reforming,
direct solar water splitting, microbial hydrogen production
and biological processes. For more information on the
hydrogen generation methods, the reader can refer to [14e16].
Hydrogen as a fuel for IC engines
The interest in dual fuel diesel engines can be tracked back in
1950's where Elliott and Davis [17] investigated the effects of

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4 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
various gaseous fuels such as natural gas, propane, butane
and hydrogen on the combustion performance of a two-stroke
dual-fuel diesel engine. The tests revealed that the lower limit
of flammability of the combustible gas in the compressed gas-
air mixture is a major factor to be considered in dual-fuel
combustion. If the concentration of combustible gas is
greater than the lower limit, the flame will propagate
throughout the gas-air mixture when the liquid fuel ignites.
The rapid rate of reaction of the gas-air mixture under such
conditions results in a rapid rate of heat release. If the system
is not capable of converting this energy to useful purposes, it
is dissipated in thermal, frictional, and vibrational effects,
with an attendant so-called knock. The authors assessed the
lower limits of flammability to be 5% for natural gas, 1.95% for
propane, 0.9% for butane and about 10% for hydrogen by
volume.
Since then, there are many research studies performed in
the dual-fuel engine operation and the Reactivity Controlled
Compression Ignition (RCCI) combustion. Wagemakers and
Leermakers [18] reviewed the performance of hydrogen as a
dual fuel in compression ignition (CI) engines compared to
natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and synthetic gas.
They concluded that different gaseous fuels have a different
influence on the efficiency of the engine. Hydrogen and LPG
fuel provided the highest efficiency. On the other hand, nat-
ural gas fuel prolonged the ignition delay of the engine which
decreased the engine's efficiency. Syngas fuel also decreased
the engine's efficiency and led to an increase in the energy
consumption.
Hydrogen as a dual fuel benefits from less cyclic variations
compared to other fuels with a benefit in emissions, efficiency
and smooth performance of the engine. The very low mini-
mum flammability limit of hydrogen compared to other fuels
as shown in Fig. 1 makes it an ideal fuel for lean operation.
Moreover, the thermodynamic and heat transfer characteris-
tics of hydrogen tend to produce high compression tempera-
tures that contribute to improvements in engine efficiency at
Fig. 1 e Variations of the lean operational limits with
changes in compression ratio (CR) for different gaseous
fuels of a spark ignition (SI) engine at 900 rpm [data derived
from Ref. [20]].
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lean mixture operation [19]. The fast burning rates and the low
minimum ignition energy levels of the fuel make it also suit-
able for high-speed and cold starting engine operating
conditions.
The carbon-free chemical substance of hydrogen and its
unique characteristics shape an excellent fuel for the clean
and efficient operation of internal combustions engines. The
high autoignition temperature of the gas (858 K) makes it a
more suitable fuel for spark ignition engines. On the other
hand, the low ignition energy of the fuel set it as a pre-ignition
and unscheduled combustion sensitive fuel which often leads
to high combustion temperatures and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
formation.
Although hydrogen has the potentials of reducing the
harmful emissions of internal combustion engines, some
critical challenges need to be overcome before it is widely
used for powering IC engines. These are the development of
clean and efficient production methods, the availability at a
handful of locations and it onboard storage for mobility ap-
plications. Hydrogen as a light density fuel needs to be com-
pressed at high-pressure tanks (350e700 bar) to allow an
adequate driving range of more than 300 miles with safety and
cost to be the main challenging issues.
The literature on hydrogen-fuelled spark ignition engines
is vast and shows that hydrogen is a viable solution for spark
ignition (SI) engines. Hydrogen has excellent prospects to
achieve very satisfactory performance in SI engine applica-
tions that may be superior in many aspects to those with
conventional fuels [19,21]. However, spark ignition engines
are less preferred in cases where high levels of torque are
required at low engine speeds such as heavy-duty vehicles
and stationary power supply. These applications are most of
the times served by engines running in higher compression
ratios such as diesel-type engines. The scope of this paper is to
focus on the application of hydrogen for compression ignition
engines only. If interested, the reader can refer to numerous
literature review papers focusing on spark ignition operation
[8,19,22e27].
Hydrogen in CI engines
Hydrogen only operation
The idea of implementing hydrogen, a clean, renewable and
efficient fuel, for the operation of high-efficiency compres-
sion ignition engines was and still is very promising. Homan
et al. [28] back in 1978, tried to operate a CI engine with
hydrogen fuel only. They soon realised that the operation
range was very limited due to the high resistance of
hydrogen fuel to autoignition. The limited operation range
issue could not be resolved even at a compression ratio of
29:1. The feasibility of converting a diesel engine to
hydrogen fuel operation with the assistance of a glow plug
and a multiple-strike spark plug was later investigated by
the authors. The results revealed that glow plug ignition is
an attractive way to provide reliable ignition and smooth
engine operation. The hydrogen ignition delay was very
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
short and the indicated mean effective pressures were
significantly higher than the corresponding results obtained
with diesel oil. Similar values for indicated mean effective
pressure (IMEP) and efficiency were also achieved by the
multiple-strike spark system operation. However, significant
cycle-to-cycle variations in the ignition delay, associated
with the large amplitude pressure waves in the combustion
chamber, were observed. The NOx concentrations measured
in the exhaust gas were significantly higher than the cor-
responding results obtained in a previous study of the
author [29] with premixed hydrogen and air at low equiva-
lence ratios.
The auto-ignition behaviour of hydrogen fuel was also
investigated by Naber and Siebers [30]. The authors performed
experiments in a constant-volume combustion vessel over a
broad range of thermodynamic conditions that included top
dead centre (TDC) diesel engine conditions with large
amounts of dilution. The ignition delay of hydrogen was found
to have a strong Arrhenius temperature dependence. More-
over, ignition delay was found to be affected by the fuel
temperature and at a lower level by the O2 concentration.
Finally, any dependence on the H2O and CO2 concentrations
was found to be negligible.
Ikegami et al. [31,32] converted a water-cooled single-
cylinder naturally aspirated four-stroke indirect injection
engine to operate with hydrogen fuel. They tried to operate
the engine with hydrogen fuel only. However, it was not
long to realise that the operation range is limited. The
operating limits of the engine were significantly extended
when the swirl chamber of the engine was vitiated by a
small leakage of the fuel or by a pilot fuel and a smooth
combustion could be attained. This was mainly due to the
maintenance of hot cores within the combustion chamber
persisting from the previous firing stroke which aids the
ignition of hydrogen. However, excessive introduction of
pilot fuel led to auto-ignition resulting in a rough
combustion.
Hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engines
Combustion performance
The implementation of hydrogen fuel for CI engines was
proved to be a more realistic approach when it was com-
bined with an additional lower autoignition temperature
fuel. Extensive research has been performed on the addi-
tion of diesel fuel as a combustion trigger in hydrogen
fuelled compression ignition engines. Diesel fuel is most
often directly injected into the cylinder when it is
approaching the TDC of the engine and ignites the pre-
mixed air/hydrogen mixture. On the other hand, hydrogen
fuel can be either injected in a carburettor, at the intake
manifold or the intake ports of the engines. The perfor-
mance of hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engines with different
injection systems has shown that hydrogen port injection
technique provides better efficiency and reduced emissions
compared to carburetion and manifold injection technique
[33e35].
Please cite this article in press as: Dimitriou P, Tsujimura T, A review of hydrogen as a compression ignition engine fuel, International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.07.232
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5
Gopal et al. [36] converted a conventional single cylinder,
four-stroke diesel engine to work on the dual-fuel principle
with hydrogen as the inducted fuel. The authors proved that
very satisfactory dual-fuel operation with hydrogen is
possible. The thermal efficiencies obtained were comparable
with pure diesel operation and up to about half the engine's
energy requirement could be derived from hydrogen. The
biggest problem noticed was that of knocking setting in well
before the stoichiometric hydrogen-air ratio.
Varde and Frame [37] investigated the possibility of
reducing diesel particulates in the exhaust by aspirating small
quantities of gaseous hydrogen in the intake of a single cyl-
inder naturally aspirated direct-injection (DI) engine. They
found that small amounts of hydrogen supplied at the intake
of the engine reduced smoke levels at part load operation
while at the full rated load the reduction was limited. The
optimum hydrogen percentage for smoke reduction was
found to be between 10 and 15% of the total energy. Under
optimum conditions, as much as 50% reduction in smoke
levels were achieved at part load operation while at the full
rated load the reduction was about 17%. Hydrocarbon emis-
sions were not affected much by hydrogen fumigation, but
oxides of nitrogen in the exhaust increased with an increase
in hydrogen energy, particularly for engine loads over 50% of
the full rated load.
The NOx increase in hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel operation
was also observed by Lilik et al. [38] as shown in Fig. 2. The
hydrogen assistance provided was up to a level of 15% on an
energy basis and it was injected into the engine's intake air.
They observed that hydrogen assisted diesel combustion
resulted in a modest increase of NOx emissions and a shift
in nitrogen oxide (NO)/nitrogen dioxide (NO2) ratio in which
NO emissions decreased and NO2 increased, with NO2
becoming the dominant NOx component in some combus-
tion modes.
Fig. 2 e Brake specific NOx, NO and NO2 emissions vs.
energy percent from hydrogen fuel [data derived from
Ref. [38]].
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6 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
The combustion characteristics of diesel-hydrogen dual-
fuel engines have been investigated by numerous research
groups over the last decades [33e35,39e57]. Hydrogen can
replace diesel fuel at different rates depending on the load and
speed of the engine. The biggest part of the literature in-
vestigates the effects of hydrogen energy share ratios between
10 and 40%. However, work has been reported for cases with
hydrogen energy share ratio to be less than 5% [38,46] or even
more than 95% [34].
Increased hydrogen flow rates at low load operation of an
engine has been proved to increase the engine's specific
consumption which means that more fuel is necessary to
produce the same power output. At low load conditions, the
hydrogen enrichment reduces the peak pressure and retards
the start of combustion. At very high hydrogen percentage
this can lead to very slow reaction progress due to the lower
combustion rate of reaction [40]. The penalty of hydrogen
enrichment on NOx emission is relatively low while other
research studies report even a small benefit in NOx reduc-
tion when hydrogen rates of less than 10% of energy share
ratios are provided [33,58] as shown in Fig. 3. On the other
hand, Karago € z et al. [55] observed a remarkable reduction of
NOx formation of more than 50% at part load operation for a
30% hydrogen energy share ratio while smoke and CO
emission also reduced. According to Talibi et al. [58], the
decrease in NOx is due to the reduction of diesel fuel com-
busted near the spray fringe where the diesel fuel-air
equivalence ratio is at an approximately stoichiometric
ratio. At the same time, the hydrogen/air equivalence ratio
is not significant to commensurate NOx production.
Additionally, even a small amount of H2 has shown to
substantially increase the emissions of NO 2 and the NO2/
NOx ratio [45,59]. This is mainly a result of the unburned
H2 that survives the main combustion process and further
oxidises to raise the HO2 levels and enhance the
Fig. 3 e NOx emissions for different hydrogen energy share
ratios and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) rates at 11.5 bar
IMEP [data derived from Ref. [58]].
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conversion of NO to NO2. The engine load and maximum
averaged bulk mixture temperature were found not to be
the main factors dominating the formation of NO2. At the
same time, the combustion process including the start of
combustion, combustion duration and maximum heat
release was found not to contribute substantially to the
increase of NO2 emissions [45]. However, for a low load
operation, Tsujimura et al. [50,52] and Gatts et al. [60]
observed high unburned hydrogen emissions and low
brake thermal efficiency at low load operation due to the
failure to initiate and support a sufficiently vigorous flame
for the complete combustion of H2 present outside the
diesel spray plume.
At high engine load conditions, hydrogen has an
apparent effect on diesel combustion process and is depic-
ted as a sharp increase in peak in-cylinder pressure and
peak heat release rate [42,61]. This often leads to an increase
in the brake thermal efficiency compared to the neat diesel
operation. The partial hydrogen enrichment has been
proved not to significantly affect the specific fuel con-
sumption and effective engine efficiency of the diesel engine
while it decreases the volumetric efficiency by up to 6% as
shown by Sandalci and Karago € z [43]. Moreover, the use of
hydrogen, a carbon-free gas, was found to significantly
reduce hydrocarbons (HC), CO and CO2 emissions [46] as
shown in Fig. 4.
In contrast, hydrogen enrichment at high engine loads has
a significant adverse effect on NOx emissions. A dramatic
increase of NOx formation with the increasing hydrogen share
ratio is observed due to the in-cylinder pressure and the peak
heat release rate increase [43]. Increasing the engine load was
found to inhibit the enhancing effect of H2 on the conversion
of NO to NO2 with the maximum NO2/NOx ratio observed at
lower H2 concentrations.
Implementation of exhaust gas recirculation
Exhaust gas recirculation has been proved as an excellent
approach for reducing NOx emissions and a practical method
for suppressing knocking of hydrogen-diesel dual fuel engines
[59,62e71]. However, the use of exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) may have a negative effect on engine efficiency and this
increases with its percentage. This is due to the dilution effect
of EGR [69]. The introduction of exhaust gas recirculation in-
side the cylinder chambers compensates the increased pres-
sure and heat release rate resulting by the hydrogen
enrichment. The NOx emission formation decreases as the
EGR ratio increases. However, increasing the EGR rate leads to
increased smoke, CO and HC emissions due to the lower O2
levels in the cylinder chambers. Moreover, the existence of
CO2 concentrations in the EGR flow also increases the CO2
rates at the exhaust [69].
Although the EGR introduction may lead to increased soot,
HC, CO and CO2 emissions compared to the dual-duel engine
without EGR, the emissions generated are often significantly
lower than the neat diesel operation. Dual fuel operation with
hydrogen induction coupled with exhaust gas recirculation
could result in lower emissions and improved performance
level compared to the case of neat diesel operation [69]. Wu
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7 7

Fig. 4 e Hydrogen energy share faction effects on smoke, CO2, CO and HC emissions [43].

and Wu [64] reported a simultaneous reduction of NOx and
smoke emissions compared with using neat diesel fuel by
applying 20% hydrogen-energy-share ratio and 40% EGR in a
single cylinder DI engine. Suzuki and Tsujimura [51] achieved
a simultaneous reduction of NOx and smoke emissions in the
operation of a dual-fuel engine with high hydrogen rates over
70% and EGR. Bose and Maji [63] compared the performance
and emission generation of a neat diesel engine with a
hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine with and without EGR. The
brake thermal efficiency of the hydrogen-diesel engine
without EGR was by 12.9% higher that the neat diesel opera-
tion. However, the high hydrogen rates led to uncontrolled
combustion and engine deficiency. EGR was found to have an
adverse effect on the engine's efficiency. The smoke levels
decreased by 42% for hydrogen enrichment without EGR
compared to neat diesel operation due to the absence of car-
bon in hydrogen structure. EGR existence increased smoke
levels but still were lower than the neat diesel operation. CO2,
CO and HC emissions were reduced by 40.5%, 45.8% and 57.7%
respectively for hydrogen enrichment without EGR. A 20% EGR
rate was found to be compulsory for a 40% reduction in NOx
emissions.
The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) of the
hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine has shown an improvement
compared to that of neat diesel operation according to Sing-
hyadan et al. [69]. This is happening due to an improved
mixing of hydrogen with air resulting in a complete combus-
tion of fuel. However, this was not the case when EGR was
applied where BSFC increased and decreased with the in-
crease in EGR percentage. On the other hand, the brake spe-
cific energy consumption (BSEC) in case of hydrogen
enrichment without EGR was higher compared to that of neat
diesel operation. In the case of hydrogen use with EGR, the
combustion efficiency is decreased and BSEC is increased.
This is due to the negative effect of EGR on combustion.
The effects of separate hydrogen and nitrogen addition, from
2 up to 8% of the total intake charge, on the emissions and
combustion characteristics of a compression ignition engine
were investigated by Christodoulou and Megaritis [72]. The
hydrogen addition assisted in decreasing smoke and CO at the
expense of NOx emissions except the low speed/load area where
NOx emissions maintained at the same levels. The reduction of
NOx could be achieved by diluting the intake charge with ni-
trogen, but it came with a penalty on smoke, CO and fuel con-
sumption. The brake thermal efficiency was improved at high
speeds and slightly deteriorated at the low-speed area.
Although the synergy of hydrogen and EGR is a promising
partway to meet the low emissions and BSFC trade-off con-
tingencies of the diesel engine [73], further development on
the appropriate injection and boost strategies is required to
overcome the main limitation of high NOx formation at high
load operating points of the engine [74].

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8 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
Fig. 5 e Variations of NOx and dP/dqmax with diesel fuel injection timing for different hydrogen fractions [data derived from
Ref. [76]].
The effects of injection strategy
The influence of different fuel injection strategies on the
performance, emissions and knock-behaviour of hydrogen-
diesel dual-fuel engines has been widely covered by many
research publications [75e79]. The in-cylinder pressure rise
and NOx formation have a close dependency with the diesel
fuel injection timing and hydrogen energy-share ratio [76]. An
early fuel injection can lead to a rapid pressure increase
within the combustion chamber and high NOx formation.
Retarding the fuel injection close or after the TDC can signif-
icantly reduce NOx emissions, but at the same time, a penalty
on thermal efficiency is expected. However, as shown in Fig. 5,
the pressure rise and NOx formation are also depended on the
amount of hydrogen fuel, with increased hydrogen rates
leading to higher NOx levels.
The in-cylinder pressure increase and high NOx formation
caused by an early diesel fuel injection (around 10 BTDC) are
also confirmed by Tomita et al. [77]. However, the authors
proved that advancing the fuel injection even more, can pro-
vide a benefit towards NOx reduction. Diesel fuel injections
33e60 BTDC (before top dead centre) can reduce NOx emis-
sions. This is due to enough available time for the diesel fuel to
mix with air and hydrogen before the ignition, leading to a
lean mixture with diesel fuel becoming the ignitor source for a
wide range of the cylinder. Therefore, a very slow combustion
with smooth heat release is achieved. However, so advanced
diesel fuel injections can only be applied for low equivalence
ratios with an unstable combustion performance to be quite
likely. The soot formation and CO emissions did not show any
significant dependency on the injection timing while the HC
were increased for very early and very late injections.
Maximum thermal efficiencies were achieved for fuel in-
jections slightly before the TDC.
The effect of diesel injection timing for maximising engine
power at different fuel-air equivalence ratios without knock-
ing was also studied by Roy et al. [75]. The diesel fuel injection
pressure and quantity were kept constant while the timing
was varied from 23 BTDC to 5 ATDC (after top dead centre).
The IMEP of the engine was increased with advanced injection
timings at a constant equivalence ratio. The maximum IMEP
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occurred at an injection timing of 7 BTDC with a hydrogen
share of 13.7%. A slight reduction of IMEP occurred at higher
equivalence ratios due to the retarded injection. At high
equivalence ratios, the most advanced injection timing ach-
ieved was 5 BTDC; any earlier injections resulted in engine
knocking combustion. At hydrogen share ratios of 20%, the
maximum IMEP occurred at an injection timing of 1.5 BTDC.
The noise generation of hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engines
under different diesel fuel injection timings was investigated
by Nguyen and Mikami [80]. It was found that a 10% hydrogen
energy-share addition can significantly reduce the combus-
tion noise when combined with late fuel injection near or after
the TDC. The authors reported that the maximum combustion
impact energy had a predominant effect on the maximum
engine noise power for each cycle.
Saravanan and Nagarajan [78] investigated the effects of
hydrogen injection strategy into the intake manifold of a
diesel engine with diesel fuel used as the ignition source. They
performed various sets of experiments to determine the
optimised hydrogen injection timing, duration and quantity.
The start of injection of hydrogen was varied from 5 before
gas exchange top dead centre (BGTDC) to 25 after gas ex-
change top dead centre (GTDC) with three injection durations
of 30 CA, 60 CA and 90 CA (crank angle) at an engine speed
of 1,500 rpm. The results showed that different hydrogen in-
jection strategies provide different results at low, medium and
high loads. The injection timing and duration implemented
cannot provide the optimum engine efficiency and emissions
output simultaneously. The optimised injection strategy for
hydrogen manifold injection was found to be with a start of
injection at GTDC and injection duration of 30 CA. A brake
thermal efficiency of 9% was observed compared to the diesel-
only operation, but at the same time, NOx emissions were
slightly increased.
The effects of compression ratio
The influence of compression ratio on the performance of a
hydrogen-diesel dual fuel engine was tested by Masood
et al. [47]. An experimental investigation was performed at
different compression ratios of a single-cylinder engine
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
Fig. 6 e Effect of hydrogen substitution on brake thermal
efficiency for different compression ratios [data derived
from Ref. [47]].
ranging from 16.35:1 up to 24.5:1. Hydrogen was found to
perform better at high compression ratios. The brake
thermal efficiency was increasing with the increased per-
centage of hydrogen and it was maximum with 100%
hydrogen as shown in Fig. 6. The HC and particulate matter
(PM) decreases drastically with the increasing percentage
substitution of hydrogen and HC became zero at 100%
hydrogen. The CO value continuously decreased with the
increase in the percentage substitution of hydrogen for all
compression ratios at full load. NOx formation was also
found to be negatively affected by the increase of hydrogen
rate and compression rate. The authors reported a dra-
matic increase in NOx emissions from 400 to 900 ppm
when the intake temperature was increased from 65 to
85  C.
Chaichan et al. [79] also investigated the effects of
compression ratio on the performance and emission charac-
teristics of a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine under a wide
range of equivalence ratios. The higher useful compression
ratio of the engine with a 10% hydrogen volumetric fraction
was increased to 18.1 compared to 17.7 of neat diesel opera-
tion. This higher useful compression ratio increase continued
until volumetric hydrogen fractions of 40% with a maximum
compression ratio (CR) of 19:1. For higher hydrogen volumetric
fractions, the brake power of the engine increased only at very
lean equivalence ratios below 0.4. At higher equivalence ra-
tios, a retarded injection timing was required to avoid knock
occurrence that led to lower brake power.
Knock avoidance techniques
One of the main challenges of hydrogen assisted diesel fuel
engines is the limited performance at high loads, hydrogen-
rich conditions due to knocking. Exhaust gas recirculation
has been used as a way of extending the knock-free limits of
the engine but at the same time leads to the increase of
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9
harmful emissions such as particulate matters and others.
Alternative ways of extending the knock-free operation limits
of hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engines have been studies by
several research groups and some of them are presented
below.
Induction of water in the combustion chamber is a direct
way of controlling the combustion phase of a hydrogen
fuelled engine. Water works as a powerful coolant inside the
cylinder chamber which can extend the knock-free operation
of an engine. According to Lambe and Watson [81], the
maximum amount of water needed to curb knock was 40% of
the water found in the exhaust. This means that the water
pollutant can be condensed and reused without an additional
supply needed, a desirable mode of operation at sub-zero
temperatures when freezing of the water for injection may
occur.
Prabhukumar et al. [82] focused on the expansion of the
power output limit of a hydrogen-diesel dual-fuel engine by
investigating the effects of water induction on the knock
behaviour of the engine. They observed that water could
serve as a powerful internal coolant in decreasing the un-
burned mixture temperature because of its high latent
heat. The water induction increased by up to 3.5% and 5%
the hydrogen energy share ratio before knock occurs at
high and medium loads respectively. This led to an in-
crease of up to 39% on the knock-limited power output of
the engine at full load conditions. On the other hand, the
brake thermal efficiency and maximum power output of
the engine decreased with the induction of water due to
the escape of gaseous fuel during the combustion process
as a result of quenching at the same heat input derived
from hydrogen. However, the addition of water increased
the brake thermal efficiency beyond the knock-limited
power output of the conventional hydrogen-diesel dual-
fuel engine. Moreover, water induction led to an ignition
delay increase due to the cooling of the charge at the end
of the compression stroke while the maximum rate of
pressure rise and peak pressures decreased due to the
slower combustion rate.
Adnan et al. [83] investigated how water injection timing
can affect the performance and emission characteristics of a
hydrogen fuelled CI engine. The water was injected from 20
BTDC until 20 ATDC with injection durations of 20 CA and
40 CA. The early and short water injection showed the best
performance due to the increased gross indicated work and
indicated thermal efficiency. The highest heat release rate and
longest ignition delay were observed for the case with early
and prolonged water injection. The authors concluded that
water injection is a promising method to enhance the per-
formance and control the emissions generation of a
hydrogen-fuelled engine.
Chintala and Subramanian [84] tested the effects of
different specific water consumption (SWC) for a hydrogen
dual-fuel CI engine. The optimum SWC of 200 h/kWh provided
a knock-free operation with a reduction of 24% in NOx emis-
sions and 5.7% in energy efficiency for a 20% hydrogen energy
share. The CO emissions increased from 0.0 g/kWh without
water to 1.2 g/kWh. The authors in another study [85]
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10 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
managed to increase the maximum energy share of hydrogen
with knock-free operation from 18% up to 24% and 36% by
applying a retarded injection timing and water injection
respectively.
The use of other diluents, such as helium and nitrogen,
in hydrogen/diesel dual fuel operation has also been
investigated by Marthur et al. [86e88]. Helium was found to
control the engine knock, but the thermal efficiency and
percentage optimum hydrogen energy substitution showed
no positive gain. Nitrogen exhibited the best influence on
engine performance and knock-limited power output
improvement. Finally, when compared with water induc-
tion, it demonstrated the highest percentage of full-load
hydrogen energy substitution, although the engine ther-
mal efficiency and knock-limited power output were
marginally affected. The effects of the various optimum
amounts of the diluents on engine performance parameters
as reported by the authors is given in Fig. 7. Roy et al. [62]
reported smooth, zero smoke emission and knock-free en-
gine operation with hydrogen energy ratios of up to 90% by
charge diluting with nitrogen gas. The hydrogen operation
with nitrogen dilution of around 60% produced a 10%
increased IMEP than the baseline engine while a dramatic
reduction in NOx of over 100% was achieved compared to
the non-diluted case.
Low-temperature combustion techniques
Hydrogen-diesel dual fuel operation has shown increased
efficiency and reduced soot, HC, CO and CO2 emissions for
most of the operating ranges of an engine. The penalty of
high NOx can most of the times be avoided by recirculating
part of the exhaust gases back to the cylinder with a possible
sacrifice on soot and other emissions. A critical drawback of
hydrogen-diesel dual fuel engine is the high unburned H2
emissions at low loads as reported by Suzuki et al. [52] and
illustrated in Fig. 8. The high unburned H2 rates at low loads
Fig. 7 e Optimum performance parameters of three
different diluents for knock avoidance and their effects on
engine performance [88].
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are associated with poor air/diesel fuel mixing inside the
cylinder chambers which leads to a partial only and incom-
plete combustion of the hydrogen gas. An improved air-diesel
fuel mixing by implementing low-temperature combustion
strategies could potentially overcome this problem.
The implementation of low-temperature combustion
(LTC) techniques with hydrogen fuel has been previously
investigated by a few research groups [89e92], but this is
an area of research that requires further attention. Sten-
låås et al. [89] investigated the possibility of a hydrogen-
fuelled homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)
engine. The experiments were performed on a single-
cylinder research engine with a displacement of 1.6 L
and the results were compared with the same engine
running in SI mode. The HCCI operation revealed an
extremely high heat release rate and a narrow interval of
possible start of combustion crank angles. The high heat
release rate (HRR) limited the operation of the HCCI engine
to lean conditions only (l > 3) up to extremely lean mix-
tures of l ¼ 6. The brake thermal efficiency of the HCCI
mode was improved compared to the SI mode for the loads
where HCCI operation was possible. The formation of NOx
was significantly decreased for the HCCI operation. How-
ever, high levels of hydrogen were found in the exhaust of
the HCCI engine.
Szwaja and Grab-Rogalinski [90] tested the use of hydrogen
in a two-cylinder in-line engine running either in HCCI mode
or as a CI with the assistance of diesel fuel. For the HCCI
operation, they observed that hydrogen self-ignition could
occur at compression ratios of at least 16:1 and over. A
hydrogen-air stoichiometric mixture was found to generate
an extremely high combustion knock and worked unstable as
the start of combustion (SOC) ranged from 15 to 5 CA BTDC.
When hydrogen was applied as an extra fuel at a maximum
rate of 25% of its energy fraction, the authors observed an
increase in the engine performance.
Fig. 8 e Hydrogen emission at different loads and energy
share ration at 1500 rpm [data extracted from Ref. [52]].
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
Guo et al. [91] investigated the influence of hydrogen
enrichment on the combustion and emission characteristics
of a diesel HCCI running with n-heptane and two middle
distillates with different cetane numbers. The results showed
that the hydrogen enrichment retards the combustion phase,
reduces the duration and promotes combustion stability. The
power output of the engine and the fuel conversion efficiency
was also increased. Hydrogen enrichment was found more
effective, in terms of improvement in thermal efficiency, for a
diesel engine operating at a higher air/fuel ratio without EGR
than for that operating at a near stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
with higher EGR rate.
Park [92] et al. investigated the effects of hydrogen ratio
and EGR rate on combustion and emissions of a hydrogen/
diesel dual-fuel engine and compared it with neat diesel pre-
mixed charge compression ignition (PCCI) engine operation.
The authors reported an improved control of combustion
phasing using hydrogen enrichment and EGR due to the
retarded combustion phasing with a higher hydrogen ratio.
The HC and CO emissions were reduced significantly with a
hydrogen ratio of 70%. The NOx emissions showed a similar
level to that of diesel PCCI mode due to the additional intro-
duction of EGR.
Hydrogen and biofuels
The sustainability of compression ignition engines in oper-
ating with alternative fuels such as biofuels has been
excessively discussed in the literature [93,94]. The research
findings regarding the emission, performance and combus-
tion characteristics of biodiesel fuel have not reached un-
equivocal results and they are very much depended on
engine type, operating conditions and testing methods.
However, it has been concluded that diesel, biodiesel blends
and neat biodiesel result in similar combustion character-
istics [94].
The implementation of biodiesel and biodiesel blends in
hydrogen dual-fuel operation has been tested by several
research groups [95e100]. Shirk et al. [96] conducted experi-
ments on the hydrogen-assisted operation of a 53 kW CI en-
gine fuelled with 20% soy-based bio-derived/80% petroleum-
derived diesel fuel (B20). The fumigation of small amounts of
hydrogen into the engine, up to 10% relative to the total fuel
energy, did not negatively impact the steady-state operation
of the engine. The NOx emissions decreased slightly with the
addition of hydrogen, the exhaust temperature increased
slightly, and the efficiency changes were small and showed no
clear trend.
The use of pure biodiesel/hydrogen operation was tested
by Kumar et al. [95]. Hydrogen gaseous fuel was implanted
to enhance the performance of a vegetable oil fuelled CI
engine. The use of vegetable oil in CI engines often leads to
reduced thermal efficiency and increased smoke levels. The
addition of hydrogen fuel increased the brake thermal effi-
ciency of the engine by 2% and reduced smoke levels by up
to 20% at full load conditions. A significant reduction in HC
and CO emissions was also observed. However, the
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11
hydrogen induction increased the NO levels from 735 to
875 ppm due to the high combustion rates. The ignition
delay, peak pressure and maximum rate of pressure rise
were also increased in the dual fuel mode operation. Com-
bustion duration was reduced due to the higher flame speed
of hydrogen. Higher premixed combustion rate was
observed with hydrogen induction. A NOx emission reduc-
tion for low hydrogen energy share ratio of 5% was observed
by Bika et al. [100]. At higher hydrogen rates, NOx pollutants
increased but this led to a reduced total number of PM
emissions. The authors observed an identical trend on the
emissions formation of the engine for both hydrogen/diesel
and hydrogen/biodiesel operations.
Geo et al. [97] implemented hydrogen as the inducted fuel
to reduce the smoke levels and increase the thermal efficiency
of an engine running with rubber seed oil (RSO) and rubber
seed oil methyl ester (RSOME). The hydrogen induction
increased the brake thermal efficiency of the engine by almost
1.5%, as shown in Fig. 9, while there was a significant reduc-
tion of more than 30% in the smoke levels. The maximum
hydrogen energy share that can be tolerated with knock limit
was highest with diesel (12.69%) and decreases with RSOME
(11.2%) and RSO (10.76%) at full load. A reduction was observed
in the HC and CO levels at all loads with the induction of
hydrogen for all injected fuels. The values with RSO were
higher than the other fuels on account of inferior combustion
due to poor mixture formation and higher amount of the main
fuel used. NOx emission increased from 6.9 g/kWh to 10.76 g/
kWh for RSO with 0e8.39% of hydrogen energy share. For the
RSOME, NOx increased to the maximum of 11.77 g/kWh at a
hydrogen energy share of 8.73%. This was mainly due to the
enhanced combustion temperature on account of the high
premixed combustion.
Korakianitis et al. [99] compared the diesel-hydrogen dual
fuel operation with rapeseed methyl ester (RME)/hydrogen
operation. The experimental analysis showed that replacing
Fig. 9 e Variation of brake thermal efficiency at 75% load
and full load with hydrogen induction [data derived from
Ref. [97]].
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12 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
diesel fuel with RME for the dual-fuel operation produces
similar emission and thermal efficiency trends. This is due to
the similar physical and chemical properties of the two fuels.
The dual-fuel operation with both diesel and RME fuels
increased NOx emissions while smoke, unburnt HC and CO
levels remained relatively unchanged compared with normal
CI engine operation without hydrogen.
The adoption of mixtures of hydrogen and other gases
have also been investigated in the literature. The operation of
DI compression ignition engines running with hydrogen-
methane mixtures has shown that replacing natural gas
with hydrogen/methane blend fuel has a significant impact on
emissions and combustion characteristics of an engine. The
use of 10% hydrogen can reduce CO and THC (total hydro-
carbons) emissions by 15e20% and PM by 10% while
improving combustion stability. Higher hydrogen rates can
lead to more substantial reductions of the emissions but can
result in reduced combustion stability [101e103].
Hydrogen fumigation e alternative ways of hydrogen
enrichment
It is common for CI dual-fuel engines, hydrogen fuel of high
purity to be stored in high-pressure tanks and injected either
at or prior the intake manifold or at the intake ports of the
engine's cylinders. Hydrogen direct-injection systems are less
common in dual-fuelled CI engines due to the limited avail-
able area occupied by diesel injectors and glow plugs.
Alternative ways of hydrogen storage and supply tech-
niques into the combustion chambers of a compression
ignition engine can also be found in the literature. Samuel
and McCormick [104] fitted an oxy-hydrogen generator on a
single-cylinder diesel engine to introduce small amounts of
hydrogen and oxygen generated from water in the air
stream of the engine without additional modifications or
injection systems necessary. The experimental analysis
revealed that enriching the intake air with hydrogen and
oxygen can provide up to 5.4% fuel economy and a similar
reduction in CO2 values. However, increased oxy-hydrogen
supply tended to increase the smoke levels. The authors
noted that increasing the amount of hydrogen to the intake
system reduces the duration of combustion and increases
the rate of pressure rise without altering the location of
combustion. Therefore, the timing can be retarded to reduce
the negative work during combustion and to increase the
fuel economy.
Tsolakis et al. [105] investigated the potential of the
exhaust gas fuel reforming technique to provide a way of
controlling diesel engine exhaust emissions. The technology
involves the incorporation of a reformer in the engine's EGR
loop. Diesel fuel is injected into the reactor, where it is
reformed by catalytic reaction. The process involves hydrogen
generation by the direct catalytic interaction of the hydro-
carbon fuel with the exhaust gases. The hydrogen-rich pro-
duced gas is then fed back into the engine as reformed EGR
(REGR) and the engine in effect operates in dual fuel operation
mode. The experiments showed that REGR results in reduced
rates of particle generation and increased rates of particle
oxidation. This is due to the increased premixed combustion
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phase, the replacement of hydrocarbon fuel with hydrogen
and the reduced fuel consumption. These effects of REGR
overcome the standard exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) prob-
lems that are related to particulate emissions. The reformed
EGR was found to increase NOx emission, in contrast to
standard EGR.
The main challenge of hydrogen storage safety can be
potentially resolved with the use of methylcyclohexane (MCH)
as proposed by Chiyoda Corporation [106] and studied by
Kojima et al. [107]. The proposed solution implements the
hydrogenation reaction of hydrogen with toluene (C7C8) to
form MCH (C7H14). Toluene and MCH are both gasoline com-
ponents in liquid form at ambient conditions that make their
storage and supply relatively easy. The dehydrogenation of
MCH can occur on the demand site using a catalytic reaction
prior its supply to the engine.
Computational analysis and performance tools
Several simulation studies for the implementation of
hydrogen fuel in Compression Ignition engines have been
conducted [40,98,108e112]. Modelling the operation of an
engine running with an alternative fuel is a reliable, time
and cost saving approach to identify the strengths and
weaknesses at different operating conditions. The findings
of the simulation studies agree with the experimental re-
sults previously reported in this paper. In details Ghazal
[108], using Lotus engine simulation code, showed that the
addition of 40% of hydrogen could improve the brake power
of the engine by approximately 14% without knocking
compared to diesel-only operation. An et al. [98,110], using
KIVA4 coupled with CHEMKIN, demonstrated that the
addition of hydrogen could significantly increase the indi-
cated thermal efficiency especially at low loads with a
penalty in NOx emissions.
On top of that, computational simulations have also been
used in the past for studying combustion performance and
emission generation of systems that are still quite compli-
cated and costly to be implemented in real engines. Masood
et al. [112] performed computational simulation on the
combustion performance of a hydrogen-diesel dual fuel
engine using the FLUENT software. The authors compared
the performance of a hydrogen induction engine and a
direct injection one. The main findings include that the ef-
ficiency of the model with the induction method showed a
19% higher brake thermal efficiency than the DI method as
illustrated in Fig. 10. The predicted combustion velocities for
the induction method were at least 23% greater than that of
the direct injection method. The NOx formation in the case
of induction was found to be 33% higher than that of the
injection method at lower percentages of hydrogen
substitutions.
Masood and Ishrat [111] developed a program code for dual
fuel operation determining the mole fraction of each of the
exhaust species when hydrogen is burnt along with other
fuels. The results showed that as the hydrogen energy share
ratio increased, the mole fraction of CO and H2O increases.
The mole fraction of CO2 increased between 20% and 40%
hydrogen share ratios but decreased for higher ratios at most
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i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7
Fig. 10 e Effects of hydrogen injection system on the brake
thermal efficiency of the engine for different hydrogen
energy share ratios [data derived from Ref. [112]].
equivalence ratios. Finally, for higher equivalence ratios, the
mole fraction of NOx decreases for both temperatures of
1500 K and 2000 K.
Boretti [113] simulated how a latest production double
direct injector for both diesel and hydrogen could improve the
combustion performance of a hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel en-
gine. The simulation results showed that the engine fitted
with the novel dual fuel system could achieve BMEP levels of
over 35 bar compared to the less than 25 bar of the neat diesel
engine. The brake thermal efficiency of the engine was close
to 40%.
Suzuki and Tsujimura [51] analysed the in-cylinder com-
bustion behaviour of a hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engine with
and without EGR using computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
code coupled with a chemical kinetic model. They observed
that auto-ignition occurs at hydrogen-diesel mixture that ex-
ists under the diesel fuel spray and near the central axis of the
piston. After auto-ignition, flame propagates across hydrogen
mixture in the bottom part of the piston cavity. In cases where
an advanced diesel fuel injection occurs, the prolonged igni-
tion delay homogenises the distribution of equivalence ratio
in the combustion chamber and oxidation reaction starts in a
widespread region. When exhaust gas was recirculated back
to the cylinders, auto-ignition and flame propagation was
found to start from the downside of high equivalence ratio
regions that were formed in the upper area of the central axis
of the combustion chamber.
Several authors have used statistical methods and analysis
tools to find the optimum engine parameters for hydrogen/
diesel operation and determine the effects of hydrogen addi-
tion. Chintala and Subramanian [114] used an exergy analysis
methodology to find the effect of hydrogen addition on the
maximum available work and energy efficiency of a hydrogen/
diesel dual-fuel engine. The authors observed a 3% increase in
the maximum available work with hydrogen addition. The
irreversibility (mixing, combustion, unburned and friction)
was reduced from 41.2% to 39.3% with hydrogen addition. The
energy efficiency of the engine increased about 10% with a
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13
36% reduction in CO2 emissions when 18% of hydrogen energy
share was applied.
Deb et al. [115] used a pareto-based genetic algorithm to
optimise the performance parameters of a single cylinder CI
engine running on hydrogen/diesel dual fuel engine. The
multi-objective analysis showed that the optimum hydrogen
manifold injection was 100 CA ATDC. The hydrogen addition
increased the brake thermal efficiency by 15.7% at 40% load
compared to the baseline diesel operation. The maximum
reduction in fuel consumption achieved was around 42% at
20% load. Bose et al. [116] applied a Taguchi-fuzzy based
approach for optimising the performance parameters of the
same engine. The authors found that the fuzzy based Taguchi
parameter design technique is a useful tool to find the opti-
mum combination for low brake specific energy consumption
(reduced by a maximum of 69%), high volumetric efficiency
and brake thermal efficiency.
Conclusions
The future of diesel engine is considered ambiguous by many
and it is necessary imminent research developments and ac-
tions to prove them wrong. Improving the engine technology
is a direct way to advance the combustion performance and
emissions production of the engine. However, over the recent
years, the emission reductions were far less than expected.
The implementation of alternative fuels is a way forward for
improving the emission generation of diesel engines.
Hydrogen benefits of a carbonless structure with high energy
content that can be used as an excellent fuel for contributing
towards the sustainability of the diesel engine.
Hydrogen supply in compression ignition engines provides
significant reductions in HC, CO, CO2 and smoke levels that
under optimum conditions can reach as much as over 50%.
High hydrogen rates tend to have an apparent effect on the
combustion process which is depicted as a sharp increase in
heat release rate and brake thermal efficiency. However, the
increased in-cylinder temperatures occurred by the combus-
tion of a higher energy content fuel result in a significant
growth of NOx formation, particularly at high load conditions.
Applying exhaust gas recirculation can compensate the
increased pressure and heat release rate resulting by the
hydrogen enrichment. The NOx emission formation de-
creases as the EGR ratio increases. However, increasing the
EGR rate is most often associated with a penalty in smoke, CO
and HC emissions due to the lower O2 levels in the cylinder
chambers. Despite the penalty, the combination of hydrogen
fuel with EGR under optimum parameters have been found to
provide a simultaneous reduction of all emissions compared
to the neat diesel operation.
Although hydrogen supply demonstrated to significantly
reduce smoke and part of the harmful diesel engine emis-
sions, NOx formation is still a critical issue in diesel engines
operation. This challenging limitation needs to be resolved in
order to bring back the reliability and interest in compression
ignition engines. Further extensive research is required to
assess whether low-temperature combustion techniques can
assist in NOx reduction while maintaining a knock-free
operation.
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14 i n t e r n a t i o n a l j o u r n a l o f h y d r o g e n e n e r g y x x x ( 2 0 1 7 ) 1 e1 7

Appendix A

Table A e Summary of the impact on the performance and emissions behaviour of hydrogen/diesel dual-fuel engines
compared to the diesel-only operation as derived from the literature survey.

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