IRTB Module 04 PG 01.2017

Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings
Training Support Package Participant Guide
Table of Contents
MODULE 4 RECOGNITION OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS – Administration Page ... 2
Duration ....................................................................................................................... 2
Scope Statement ......................................................................................................... 2
Terminal Learning Objectives (TLO) ............................................................................ 2
Enabling Learning Objectives (ELO)............................................................................ 2
Resources ................................................................................................................... 2
Instructor to Participant Ratio ...................................................................................... 2
Reference List ............................................................................................................. 3
Assessment Strategy ................................................................................................... 3
ICON MAP ...................................................................................................................... 4
MODULE INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 5
INITIATORS .................................................................................................................. 14
COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES ...................................................................................... 33
HOMEMADE EXPLOSIVES (HME) .............................................................................. 56
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 76
January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-1

Emergency Operations Sensitive
MODULE 4 RECOGNITION OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

– Administration Page
Duration
1 Hour
Scope Statement
During this module, participants are introduced to military, commercial, and homemade
explosives. The focus is on enabling the participants to identify these items during the
conduct of their routine duty activities (such as fire inspections, emergency medical
calls, routine law enforcement patrols) upon returning to their communities. The
participants are acquainted with the characteristics of these items in terms of their
appearance, labeling, texture, and smell.
Terminal Learning Objectives (TLO)
At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to recognize explosive and
incendiary materials.
Enabling Learning Objectives (ELO)
4-1 Define the acronym RAIN and identify its relevance for first responders.
4-2 Identify initiators as igniters or blasting caps by appearance and characteristics.
4-3 Identify military explosives by appearance and characteristics.
4-4 Identify commercial explosives by appearance and characteristics.
4-5 Identify homemade explosives by appearance and characteristics.
4-6 Recognize indicators of HME production.
Resources
• Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings (IRTB) Course Handouts, including
course evaluation forms, pre-test forms, registration forms, self-evaluation forms,
and travel reimbursement forms (one per participant).
• Pencil or pen, protective glasses, badge, and nameplate (one per participant).
• Flash drive containing Participant Guide, Video Library, Case Study Library, and
Additional Resources (one per participant).
• Digital projectors, flip-chart, and whiteboard.
• Slides and video clips.
Instructor to Participant Ratio
Conference (Classroom–2:50; Range–3:50).

Reference List
See Appendices.
Performance Exercise Statement

Participants’ mastery of the information covered in Module 4 will be assessed in part by
their performance in the exercise at the conclusion of Module 5. This PE requires that
participants utilize the information covered during both Module 4 and Module 5 to
recognize various types of explosives, explosive precursors, and Improvised Explosive
Device (IED) components. In addition to basic recognition, participants will also have
the ability to describe safety concerns and potential response actions to the items that
are displayed in a photographic format.
Assessment Strategy
• Observation of the level and quality of classroom participation.
• Participation and quality of performance on the performance exercise.
Administration of the post-test to assess mastery of module objectives (TLO and
ELOs).

ICON MAP
Question: Used when there is an opportunity to ask a question or start a class
discussion.
Key Points/Learning Objectives: Used to highlight each time lesson content is

directly relevant to an Enabling Learning Objective.
First Responder Safety: Used to highlight information that relates directly to the
personal safety of first responders.

MODULE INTRODUCTION
Slide 4-1 IRTB Module 4: Recognition of Explosive

Materials
During this module, participants are introduced to military,

commercial, and homemade explosives and materials from which
improvised explosives and explosive devices may be fabricated.
The focus of this module is on enabling the participants to identify
these materials during the conduct of their routine duty activities
(such as fire inspections, emergency medical calls, routine law
enforcement patrols) upon return to their communities. The
participants are acquainted with the characteristics of these items in
terms of their appearance, labeling, texture, and smell.

Slide 4-2 Terminal Learning Objective
This slide contains the Terminal Learning Objective for Module 4.
At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to

recognize explosive and incendiary materials.
This module of instruction is extremely important to first responder

safety. More often than not, a first responder's first indication that
they may have walked into a location containing energetic materials
will be based on visual observations and recognition of something
that could jeopardize their safety. There is a Performance Exercise
at the end of Module 5 that will allow participants to utilize
information gained in this module to recognize hazards.

Slide 4-3 Enabling Learning Objectives
This slide contains the Enabling Learning Objectives and should be

summarized by the instructor.
4-1 Define the acronym RAIN and identify its relevance for first
responders.
4-2 Identify initiators as igniters or blasting caps by appearance

and characteristics.
4-3 Identify military explosives by appearance and

characteristics.
4-4 Identify commercial explosives by appearance and

characteristics.
4-5 Identify homemade explosives by appearance and

characteristics.
4-6 Recognize indicators of HME production.
The ability to recognize explosive and incendiary materials is a

critical skill. It can be applied during normal, routine operations and

during actual incident response operations. Law enforcement

officers, firefighters, and emergency medical and other response
personnel often come in contact with suspicious materials in
suspicious situations. The identification of suspected energetic
materials in such situations should be reported to the appropriate
agency for further analysis, review, and investigation.

Slide 4-4 Course Map
Module 4 is part of the first block of modules that focus on building

participants’ ability to recognize energetic materials, devices, and
device components. This background knowledge will help the
participants engage more effectively in discussions in later
modules, which deal with response to terrorist bombing incidents.

Slide 4-5 R.A.I.N.
This slide lists four actions—Recognize, Avoid, Isolate, and

Notify—that are critical to enhancing first responder safety.
ELO 4-1
Define the acronym RAIN and identify its relevance for first
responders.
As we have discussed before, the RAIN concept (Recognize,

Avoid, Isolate, and Notify) can help first responders gather and
process information quickly, and to synthesize the information
to facilitate life-safety actions in a WMD incident. The ability to
identify and recognize energetic materials is a critical skill in
the response sequence required of first responders. In most
explosive incident cases, first responders are responsible for
recognizing, avoiding, and isolating suspicious devices,
evacuating those in danger, and notifying appropriate
response agencies.
R – Recognize explosive devices/components or potentially

hazardous situations
A – Take defensive actions to avoid the hazard

I – Isolate yourself and everyone from the explosive device or

suspicious item
N – Notify the proper authorities to respond and render assistance.
This module will provide you with valuable information to help you
recognize and respond appropriately to energetic materials and
situations that may precede or surround a terrorist bombing
incident.
An additional resource to help you recognize these materials or

choose an appropriate response is the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco,
Firearms, and Explosives (BATFE) Law Enforcement Guide to
Explosive Incident Reporting. A copy of this document is contained
within the Additional Resources on your IRTB jump drive, or can be
found online at https://www.atf.gov/explosives/us-bomb-datacenter-
faqs.

Slide 4-6 Recognition of Explosives
There are four main categories of explosives that first responders

need to be able to recognize:
 Initiators
 Military explosives
 Commercial explosives
 Homemade explosives (HME)
We will discuss each of these categories in depth in this module.

Slide 4-7 Categories of Explosives
This slide contains a chart organizing categories of explosives. This

slide is a review of content covered in Module 3.
Explosives can be divided into two categories: low explosives and

high explosives. Low explosives include pyrotechnics and
propellants. High explosives are further divided into primary,
secondary, and tertiary explosives. These categorizations depend,
in part, on the manner of use of the materials. In the following slides
we will learn more about each of these categories.

INITIATORS
Slide 4-8 Igniters
ELO 4-2
Identify initiators as igniters or blasting caps by appearance
and characteristics.
This slide lists four types of igniters that can be used to initiate
explosives. The slide shows one photo of percussion-style fuse
military igniter (top), one photo of an electric match initiator
(middle), and one photo of model rocket improvised igniters
(bottom).
Fire
Flame is used to initiate low explosives (principally black and
smokeless powder) through the use of primers, such as those used
in gun ammunition. Shock is used to initiate high explosives
through the use of blasting caps. In this module, we discuss
commercial igniters and initiators; in Module 5 we will discuss
homemade initiators that are either igniters for low explosives or
blasting caps for high explosives.

Friction-type Device
In a safety tube igniter, the wire inside the tube has an abrasive
material attached to it and when it is pulled, the wire comes in
contact with friction-sensitive material similar to that found in a
match. The friction causes the material to ignite, which in turn
ignites the safety fuse.
Percussion
M60 or M81 replacements for M60 are small plastic tubes with a
pull ring on the firing rod projecting from one end. A safety pin runs
through the tube as a secondary safety. The other end consists of a
plastic screw cap that can be tightened down by crimping safety
fuse into the waterproof housing/tube. Once the safety fuse is
secure, the igniter can be fired by removing the safety pin and
pulling on the pull ring, which releases the pull rod which then
strikes the primer, causing an intense spit of flame to ignite the
safety fuse.
Electric
Electric initiators utilize an electric current to a heating element
contained within a small pyrotechnic material similar to a match
head. Once heated, the mixture immediately ignites transferring
intense heat to the core of the safety fuse. Electric igniters are
commonly referred to as “electric matches.”
There are different types and sizes of initiators. All contain

extremely sensitive explosives. For that reason, once you
identify an item as a potential initiator, move away from the
item to a safe area that can be established by utilizing the
Bomb Threat Standoff card (which will be introduced in
Module 6). A good rule is that if you can see the item, you are
too close. Secure the area, do not allow entry, report the
scene, and wait for qualified bomb technicians. Evacuation
distances are discussed in detail in Module 6.

Slide 4-9 Non-electric Fuses
This slide shows different types of safety fuse (clockwise from lower
left): an improvised fuse, commercial fuse, and military fuse.
Safety fuse is commonly used with non-electric blasting caps.

Safety/time fuse is a low explosive with a core of pressed black
powder. Black powder burns at a controlled rate. The safety/time
fuse is ignited on one end by an igniter or other flame-producing
device and burns at a controlled rate to the other end (allowing the
user to walk away from the charge to a safe area) where a non-
electric blasting cap has been fixed. It then imparts a flame into the
non-electric blasting cap, creating the heat required to initiate the
sensitive explosive in the blasting cap. Safety/time fuse can also be
used without a blasting cap to initiate a low-explosive device such
as a pipe bomb with black or smokeless powder as a main
explosive.
Safety/time fuse comes in all different sizes and exterior colors and
is similar in appearance to detonating cord. It is primarily
identifiable by its black center core of black powder. Detonating
cord has a white or pinkish high explosive center core, and is
designed to detonate.

Commercial Safety Fuse

Although there are many types of commercial safety fuse, they
differ only in the type of exterior waterproofing and color. Orange or
beige safety fuse is employed for general use, while contrasting
colors are chosen for specific applications. Black safety fuse might
be used in salt mines while white safety fuse may be used in coal
mines. Commercial safety fuse is approximately one-quarter inch in
diameter and usually comes in 50-foot rolls or coils. Commercial
safety fuse is designed to burn between 35-45 seconds per foot.
Military Safety Fuse

Military safety fuse or time fuse (M700) is usually encased in an
olive drab or green plastic exterior cover. Military time fuse is
different from commercial time fuse in that it has yellow measuring
marks spaced every 3 feet of its length. Military fuse is designed to
burn at 40-45 seconds per foot.
Improvised Safety Fuse

Terrorists who cannot acquire manufactured safety fuse can use a
number of improvised fuses: hobby (cannon) fuses, fireworks fuses,
cotton cord saturated in chemicals or flammable liquids, string
coated in a glue, and black or smokeless powder. One major
drawback to the use of an improvised fuse is that the burn rate can
be extremely erratic and difficult to predict detonation time.

Slide 4-10 Blasting Caps
This slide shows different types of electric and non-electric blasting

caps.
Blasting caps, sometimes referred to as detonators, fall into the

high explosives category. Blasting caps are manufactured in a
variety of shapes, sizes, and colors. Military blasting caps usually
include dark wires and casings for ease of concealment, while
commercial blasting caps are brightly colored for high visibility and
recognition. However, there is no industry standard dictating the
color of wires or casings.
The photos above show a coiled-up non-electric time/safety fuse, a

box of silver electric blasting caps, and a shock tube with a blasting
cap on the end.

Slide 4-11 Electric Blasting Caps
This slide shows electric blasting caps.
Copper metal reacts negatively with some types of primary

explosives, such as mercury fulminate. Most, if not all, modern
blasting caps use aluminum metal in the cap. Copper blasting caps
can pose additional sensitivity issues based on the reaction of the
primary explosive with copper. The caps may detonate with nothing
more than a touch and should only be moved or dealt with by a
trained and properly equipped military explosive ordnance disposal
(EOD) technician or bomb technician.
Electric blasting caps are used for initiating high explosives and
contain a small amount of a sensitive primary high explosive-
initiating charge, such as lead azide, lead styphnate, or mercury
fulminate, and a base charge, such as cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine
(RDX) or Pentaerythritol tetranitrate,(PETN). The blasting cap is
constructed from a small metal tube or cup that is closed at one
end and has two wires protruding from the open or plugged end.
The firing element consists of two plastic insulated lead or leg
wires, an insulated plug holding the leg wires in place, and a small
bridge wire connecting the leg wires inside the ignition charge. Leg
or lead wires are made of copper, aluminum, or iron, and vary in
length from forty to four hundred feet. While colored leg wires may

indicate a specific type of blasting cap from a particular

manufacturer, there is no standard for leg wire colors within the
industry.
One potential safety issue with electric blasting caps involves the
accidental firing from radio frequency transmissions. This type of
firing occurs when the leg wires from the electric blasting cap act as
an antenna and pick up electromagnetic energy from sources such
as portable or mobile radios, transmitting antennas, and cellular
telephones.

Slide 4-12 Non-electric Blasting Caps
This slide shows photos of various loose non-electric time fuse

blasting caps.
Non-electric blasting caps are small metal tubes or cups that are
closed at one end and open on the other. Like electric blasting
caps, they also contain a small primary explosive-initiating charge
and a secondary explosive, base charge. They are designed to
detonate from the spit of flame created by the safety/time fuse or
other flame-producing device crimped inside the open end of the
cap.
The most common commercial blasting caps are #6 or #8 with

copper or aluminum shells about one-quarter inch in diameter.
They vary in length from one inch to several inches. Extreme
caution should be exercised around copper blasting caps. The
mercury fulminate used in old blasting caps reacts with the copper
used in the cup to create extremely sensitive and explosive
crystals.

Example: Oregon State Police1

On October 2, 1997, Sergeant Richard Schuening2 of the Oregon
State Police Bomb Squad was killed while disposing of 450 old
crystallized copper blasting caps and dynamite. Sergeant
Schuening was wearing an explosives suit when the explosion
occurred. This unfortunate accident illustrates that even a
trained bomb technician in a protective suit faces extreme
danger when handling sensitive explosives. It is therefore
crucial that first responders never touch or handle explosives.
1
(1997, October 3). Police Explosives Expert Killed While Removing Some Dynamite. The Seattle Times.
Retrieved from http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19971003&slug=2563947
2
(2014). In Memoriam. Bomb Technician Memorial Foundation. Retrieved from
http://www.bombtechmemorial.org/memoriam/

Slide 4-13 Shock Tube
This slide contains a graphic showing the cross section of shock

tube, a photo of a roll of shock tube, and a non-electric cap and
shock tube.
Shock tube firing systems are constructed of a thin plastic tube that
is approximately one-sixteenth-inch in diameter. The hollow core is
coated with a light dusting of High Military Explosive (HMX) and fine
aluminum (AL) (one pound of HMX is used for approximately
70,000 feet of tubing). Similar to other explosive components,
shock tube comes in a variety of colors with military shock tube
being subdued in color.
A non-electric blasting cap is permanently attached to one end of

the tube, and a percussion-type fuse lighter or sure-fire shock
initiation device is manually attached to the other end. Both the
percussion type and shock type of initiation system create enough
of a spark to initiate the HMX/AL dusting in the tube, which burns
(detonates) at 6,500 fps (for context, a shock tube stretched from
New York to California would burn all the way across the country in
eight minutes). When the burning and detonating explosive comes
in contact with initiating explosives in the blasting cap, detonation
occurs.

MILITARY EXPLOSIVES
Slide 4-14 Background: Military Explosives
This slide contains pictures of incidents where civilians found

military explosives. The top images shows a bomb squad
responding to a cache of World War II explosives found in a home
in Palo Alto, CA in August 2015. The lower right photo shows a live
WWII-era Japanese mortar shell found in the garage of a newly
purchased home by a family in Laguna Beach, CA in June 2012.
ELO 4-3
Identify military explosives by appearance and characteristics.
Military veterans who served prior to 1978, or their families, are

increasingly turning in “souvenirs of war” from past conflicts,
including grenades and mortar shells that are sometimes still
armed. Military explosives are also sometimes found near current
or former military sites; and in some cases they are stolen and sold
on the black market. Any military type of munition is presumed to
be real and able to function.

Every military organization in the world uses some type of

ordnance. Although similar in design and appearance to U.S.
ordnance, foreign ordnance is often more difficult to render safe,
most often because there may be less information available on the
item. In any case, first responders should never attempt to handle
any item of military ordnance.
However, first responders must be prepared to identify and

recognize the items that can be used in a firing train—as a
stimulus, initiator, booster, or main charge.
When available, terrorists often use military ordnance in execution

of attacks or in the preparation of IEDs. Construction crews,
treasure hunters, and children often uncover military explosives.
Such items can fall into the hands of terrorists or other criminals. In
some cases, military explosives are stolen for resale to terrorists
and others who do not have routine access to these materials.
Grenades are sometimes used to stage attacks against personnel
targets in public places. The terrorists who seized Israeli athletes
during the 1972 Munich Olympics used grenades.
First responders should be able to recognize the different

types of military explosives and munitions in order to
recognize a threat and take appropriate actions.

Slide 4-15 Example: Military Ordnance Explosion, Tucson,

AZ, 20153
This slide contains a picture of workers cleaning up after the 1973

railroad accident involving a shipment of Mk82 bombs (inset), and a
screenshot of a news report about the 2015 explosion of one of the
Mk82 bombs that had been found and taken to a Tucson area
scrap yard.
On Sept. 23, 2015, Tucson Police responded to an explosion at a

scrap yard business on the southern side of the city (picture on
slide). On arrival they found an obviously deceased individual and
observed evidence of an explosion. Officers immediately evacuated
the area and contacted the Tucson Police Bomb Squad. As soon
as it was apparent that the incident involved military ordnance, the
Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) unit from Davis-Monthan
Airforce Base was called for support.
The investigation found that the deceased individual was an

employee and had been separating metal by cutting into the
materials with a cutting torch. At one point another employee had
3
Helsel, P. (2015, September 24). Man Killed While Cutting Into Military Ordnance at Tucson Scrap Yard. NBC
News. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/man-killed-while-cutting-military-ordnance-
tuscon-scrap-yard-n432701.

recommended that he stop cutting because the item looked like a

“bomb.” The deceased individual advised him that he had done this
before and it was a dud. A short time later the incident occurred.
The item turned out to be an Mk82 general-purpose, air-to-surface

500-pound bomb. The ordnance did not function as designed
resulting in a low-order explosion, meaning the payload of “Tritonal”
was not fully consumed. Had the ordnance detonated with a high-
order explosion as designed, the property damage and possible
casualty sums would have been much greater.
It is not known how the ordnance arrived at the scrapyard.

However, the ordnance appears to be from a shipment of Mk82
bound for Vietnam. In May 1973, 12 boxcars containing an
undisclosed number of Mk82 were being transported by rail to the
west coast. When a fire occurred in the lead boxcar and transferred
to the remaining cars, the train was stopped between Benson and
Tucson, Arizona. During the 36-hour multi-detonation response
(inset pictured on the slide), multiple ordnances were blown and
deposited in the open, canyon-filled countryside. At the time it was
not determined how many Mk82 bombs had detonated or how
many were lost in the countryside. It was speculated that “dozens”
of bombs might not have been accounted for.

Slide 4-16 Military Explosives: Main Charges
This slide includes photographs of common military explosives.
Military explosives are designed primarily to deliver a great deal of

energy very quickly because military targets are often designed for
defense, and therefore, require the shattering effects of high-
velocity explosives. This slide lists common military main charges,
which we will review in greater detail in the following slides.
The term “main charge” refers to the part of an explosive device

that is made up of explosive materials or energetic materials that
must contain a fuel and an oxidizer, with the oxidizer providing the
oxygen needed to sustain the reaction.
Note that many of these materials also have commercial uses.
TNT
TNT is the predominant explosive used in demolition charges or in
bursting charges in ordnance such as grenades, projectiles, or
bombs. It is light yellow to brown or light gray and can come in cast,
pressed, or flaked form.
The relationship between TNT and other explosives such as black

powder, composition C-4, and dynamite is referred to as the

Relative Effectiveness or RE Factor. Two systems have been

developed for comparing explosives: TNT equivalency and RE
factor. Both produce comparisons based on TNT.
TNT Equivalency
The military uses the TNT equivalency comparison. The military
services have conducted thousands of tests involving explosives
over many years. TNT is one of the principal military explosives and
there is a large volume of data on the effects of TNT on everything
from building structures to the human body. TNT equivalency
represents the effects of an explosive event compared to the
effects caused by an equivalent amount of TNT. For example, if two
pounds of an explosive is required to do the work of one pound of
TNT, the TNT equivalency is one-half or fifty percent. If it takes
one-half pound of an explosive to do the work of one pound of TNT,
the TNT equivalency is 1/0.5 or two hundred percent.
Relative Effectiveness (RE) Factor

The RE factor is the relative mass of TNT to which an explosive is
equivalent. It assigns a value of one to TNT. Explosives with RE
factors fewer than one have less explosive power than TNT. Those
with RE factors greater than one have more explosive power than
TNT. The RE factor for black powder is 0.55 and has fifty-five
percent of the effectiveness of TNT. Nitroglycerin (NG) has a RE
factor of 1.5 and is 150 percent as effective as TNT.
PETN
PETN is used in Detasheet (or Primasheet, a similar explosive), a
flexible rubberized explosive with nitrocellulose and a binder.
Detasheet is manufactured in thin, flexible sheets and is typically
cut to a specific shape for precision engineering or tactical charges.
Compared to other explosives, Detasheet is very stable, and can
be detonated with a blasting cap or primer cord, but not by small-
arms fire, heat, water, pressure, or concussion.
Composition C-4
Composition C-4 is often called C-4, and is recognized by that
name throughout the world. However, the “C” designation with a
number following it is actually a military unit of measurement,
denoting the thickness of an object or the weight of a specific
thickness of material.

Composition C-4 is a malleable plastic explosive that is produced in

block form and can be found in either white or light brown colors. It
is primarily used as a basic demolition charge and is often
employed to cut through steel. Composition C-4 is normally initiated
with the heat generated by the shock of a special military blasting
cap.
Commercial blasting caps may not be powerful enough to cause a

high-order detonation of composition C-4; however, a low-order
detonation can occur. A low-order detonation can generate
safety considerations for a first responder because some
hazardous materials may still remain on-site and could be
susceptible to detonation by accidental insult.

Slide 4-17 Military Explosive Devices
This slide is a collage of photos showing the different military

explosive devices.
The photos on this slide depict different types of military explosive

devices from (left to right, top to bottom): (1) U.S. MK-2 high
explosive fragmentation, (2) U.S MK-67, (3) A launching adapter
with a U.S. MK-2 high explosive grenade, (4) U.S. MK-49 A2 60mm
mortar and a MK-43 A1 81mm mortar, (5) Ball-type APERS sub-
munitions, (6) U.S. M-18 Claymore, (7) M14 Anti- personnel mine.
Grenades, photos (1) and (2)

Note that picture #1 is a U.S. MK-2 hand grenade used between
WWII and into the Korean War. The picture provides a good
example of the high explosive color code, a yellow band of color on
the body.
Projected Munitions, photos (3) and (4)

Note that many of the munitions contain color markings that define
their use and purpose: For example, blue generally means a
training device, and yellow usually indicates a military high
explosive. However, first responders should keep in mind that
colors can fade or change over time, or that people can add or

replace colors. Color markings should not be taken at face value

and first responders should treat all munitions as live charges.
Projected munitions, such as those shown here, have also been

used in some terrorist attacks. They can be used as IED
components, even without the rifle or mortar required to fire the
grenade round.
Sub-munitions, photo (5)

Sub-munitions could also be used to make an IED. A sub-munition
separates from the parent munition to perform its task. Normally
this separation is the release of a number of small bombs or
“bomblets” called sub-munitions.
It is extremely important for first responders to understand

that they should NEVER pick up or touch these items. Sub-
munitions are often equipped with booby-traps and anti-
movement fusing systems, making them extremely dangerous
to pick up or handle. For example, some ball-type sub-munitions
become armed based on the number of spins or revolutions the
device makes. A World War II-era ball-type sub-munition that
becomes armed after 150 rotations could have sat unarmed for
years at 148 rotations, then become armed and dangerous once
handled by first responders.
Mines, photo (6) and (7)

Mines have also been used by terrorists, both in their intended
mode, and as components of IEDs. Eric Robert Rudolph utilized
focus plates in his IEDs much like a Claymore mine would to focus
most of the direction of the energy from his IEDs toward his
intended targets.4
4
Nifong, C. (1998, March 19). How a Notch in a Nail Leads to an Ocean of Clues. The Christian Science Monitor
(0319). Retrieved from http://www.csmonitor.com/1998/0319/031998.us.us.4.html.

COMMERCIAL EXPLOSIVES
Slide 4-18 Commercial Explosives: Main Charges
ELO 4-4
Identify commercial explosives by appearance and
characteristics.
This slide includes a list of types of low and high commercial

explosives. Each of these explosives will be discussed in greater
depth in the slides that follow. The picture depicts a board showing
a sample of commercial explosions.
Commercial explosives come in many shapes and colors. Normally

the colors are bright for high contrast and easy identification.
Military explosives, on the other hand, are normally olive drab or
some dark color combination to blend in with their environment. We
will discuss each of these commercial explosives in detail in the
following slides.

Slide 4-19 Commercial Explosives: Low Explosives
This slide shows two common low explosives that are

demonstrated in this course. The material on the left is black
powder and the material on the right is smokeless powder.
Low explosives encompass a variety of propellants and

pyrotechnics and are differentiated from high explosives by the
speed or velocity at which they burn. A high explosive burn is
considered a detonation because the velocity of the decomposition
is greater than 3,300 feet per second. Low explosives burn or
deflagrate at a velocity of less than 3,300 feet per second.
Black powder has a physical appearance that is dark gray or black

in color. The flakes are unevenly shaped; no two are the same
shape or size.
Smokeless powder and Pyrodex are made with nitrocellulose

cotton and originally look like a thin strand of spaghetti. The strand
is then sliced into very thin wafers of equal size. It is generally gray
in color.

Slide 4-20 Low Explosives in Terrorism
This slide contains pictures of fireworks and explosives that have

been or could be used in terrorist bombing incidents.
Terrorists sometimes use fireworks because they are readily

available and large quantities can be purchased legally. The Times
Square bomber, Faisal Shahzad, used 152 M-88 firecrackers to
construct the IED that he placed inside a vehicle5. The M-88
firecrackers contain flash power, which is a pyrotechnic
composition mixture of an oxidizer and metallic fuel.
Boston Marathon Bomber, Tamerlan Tsarnaev, purchased two

large firework mortar kits called “Lock and Load Kits” that are
suspected of being used in the IEDs that he and his brother
constructed. Tamerlan reportedly asked the sales clerk "What is the
most powerful item you have?" when he purchased the fireworks.
The fireworks contained 1.5 pounds of gunpowder.6
5
U.S. District Court Southern District of New York. (May 4 2010). Criminal Complaint: U.S.A. vs. Faisal Shahzad.
Retrieved from http://s3.amazonaws.com/nytdocs/docs/333/333.pdf.
6 Serrano, R. A., Mason, M., & Dilanian, K. (2013, April 23). Boston Bombing Suspect Describes Plot. Los Angeles
Times. Retrieved from http://articles.latimes.com/2013/apr/23/nation/la-na-boston-bombings-20130424

Slide 4-21 Commercial Explosives: High Explosives
Many items that we use on a daily basis are harvested, tested, or

manufactured utilizing commercial high explosives. Just a few
examples include:
 Air bag deployment systems in all modern manufactured
vehicles
 The harvesting of granite or marble used in homes for
kitchen counters or flooring
 The manufacturing of industrial diamonds for tool blades
 The stamping of coin dies down onto metal to make the
images on a penny
 Nitroglycerin placed in medication to help a heart patient
Commercial high explosives are also used in the demolition of old

buildings, roadwork excavations, and cleaning the inside of
incinerators. Handled properly and professionally, commercial high
explosives are a safe commodity.

Slide 4-22 Nitroglycerin
This slide shows (clockwise from top) NG inside a glass container,

old nitroglycerin, and oil drillers pouring nitroglycerin into a can to
create an explosion as part of an oil drilling process in the last
century.
Nitroglycerin (NG) is a heavy, colorless, oily, explosive liquid. Since

the 1860s, nitroglycerin has been used as an active ingredient in
the manufacture of explosives, mostly dynamite, and as such, it is
employed in the construction, demolition, and mining industries.
Similarly, since the 1880s, it has been used by the military as an
active ingredient and a gelatinizer for nitrocellulose in some solid
propellants, such as Cordite and Ballistite.
NG is used in its pure form for different types of explosives work. It

is extremely dangerous to handle—water, temperature changes,
shock, and rough handling can cause detonation. Decomposed NG
is even more unstable than a normal NG compound. A symptom of
NG decomposition is its production of red fumes.
Nitroglycerin is also a major component in double-based smokeless

gun powders used by firearms munitions re-loaders. Combined with
nitrocellulose, there are hundreds of (powder) combinations used
by rifle, pistol, and shotgun re-loaders.

Slide 4-23 Dynamite
This slide contains images of dynamite.
Dynamite is an explosive material based on nitroglycerin (NG),

using diatomaceous earth or another absorbent substance such as
powdered shells or clay. Alfred Nobel patented dynamite in 1867.
Since that time, dynamite has been manufactured in a variety of
sizes, shapes, types, and packages.
There are literally hundreds of different types of dynamite with a

wide variety of fuels and oxidizers. The main categories of
dynamite are straight, which normally contains NG as the primary
source of explosive, gelatin dynamite, semi-gelatin dynamite,
ammonium dynamite, and military dynamite. Military dynamite
contains no NG.
Identification
Explosive companies are required to keep track of the explosives
they produce and the addresses where they were shipped. Most
dynamite has an identification number (referred to as a date shift
code) on the package that reflects the manufacturer's control
numbers. The control numbers appear on the outside of the tube
and contain the date of manufacture and identify the specific work
shift that made it. Dynamite is identified by manufacturer and trade

names (such as Apace and Trojan), strengths (twenty, forty, or sixty

percent by weight of NG), type of use (such as ditching and
quarrying), and special content (gelatin, NG, or AN).
While this date shift code can be important information in a

criminal prosecution, an untrained first responder should not
attempt to obtain the date shift code.

Slide 4-24 Deteriorated Dynamite
This slide displays different stages of deterioration of NG dynamite.
As dynamite ages (especially without occasional rotation), several

things happen—the liquid explosive constituent (usually a mix of
NG and ethylene glycol dinitrate, or EGDN) leaks out of the
absorbent and migrates to the surface and eventually out of the
cartridge altogether (NG can leak out of dynamite within a year if
not properly rotated and stored). This condition is undesired
because liquid NG is much more sensitive than when it is diluted
and absorbed. This is the primary hazard; chemically, the NG may
be just fine.
The crystals are an indication of old dynamite, but they are not a
hazard in their own right. The crystals that form on the outside of
dynamite are not NG but rather come from the nitrates in the
explosive. The NG ages by changing color and leaching out of the
container tubes. The photo on the top left corner of this slide shows
NG that has aged to appear almost like tar. The rate that NG
deteriorates is determined not only by its age but also by the
conditions and environment in which it is stored.

Almost all dynamite formulations contain oxidizer/diluents7, such as

AN, sodium nitrate, or potassium nitrate. These salts are water
soluble and hygroscopic (meaning they have the ability to absorb
water from their surroundings). As dynamite ages, it absorbs water
causing these salts to partially dissolve. As the NG leaks out, so
does this salt solution. During dry times, the water evaporates from
the salt solution leaving a crust of white crystals.
Extremely old dynamite may have crystals but the NG has long
since evaporated/migrated, meaning the material isn't dangerous.
In the field, there is no way to tell these details, so all old dynamite
must be treated as if sensitive liquid NG is present.
Safety is a critical concern with dynamite. Dynamite can be

bullet and impact sensitive if it contains NG. Some dynamites
are especially sensitive to shock; old dynamite can be
particularly dangerous. Dynamite that has nitrate salt crystals
formed on the outside of the cartridge or has wet or dark
coloring on or around the cartridge may contain NG that has
leached or extruded from the dynamite. Dynamite in this
condition is highly unstable and extremely dangerous. NG
dynamite also creates noxious vapors and can produce a nitro
headache if vapors are inhaled or absorbed into the body. As a
first responder, as soon as you recognize an object as
dynamite, you should begin evacuating people away from the
area and call for bomb technician support.
7
A diluent (also referred to as a filler, dilutant or thinner) is a diluting agent. Certain fluids are too viscous to be pumped easily or
too dense to flow from one particular point to the other. This can be problematic, because it might not be economically feasible to
transport such fluids in this state. To ease this restricted movement, diluents are added. This decreases the viscosity of the fluids,
thereby also decreasing the pumping/transportation costs.

Slide 4-25 Detonating Cord
This slide is a collage of photos showing detonating cord.
Detonating Cord (also known as Primacord or det cord) is a round,

flexible cord containing a white or pinkish center core of RDX or
PETN. A sheath of various textiles, waterproofing materials, or
plastic is used to protect the explosive core from abrasion and
moisture. Det cord has a similar external appearance to safety fuse
in that 50-grain det cord is approximately the same size and both
are manufactured and stored in coils or rolls. Internally, safety fuse
has a black powder core while det cord has a crystalline powder
core of PETN or RDX, usually white or pink.
Det cord comes in a variety of colors, which may signify a specific

type from a manufacturer; however, there are no consistent
protocols for coloring within the industry. As with most commercial
explosives, commercial det cord is brightly colored for high visibility
and contrast while military det cord is a dark, subdued color.
Det cord is a secondary explosive and requires the shock of a

blasting cap to detonate. Det cord can be used in a firing train as a
booster for other high-explosive charges. It can be tied around,
knotted inside, or threaded through explosives to both act as a
booster and a link to detonate a number of explosives

simultaneously using only one blasting cap to begin the initiation

process.
Detonating cord can be used in a device when a bomber utilizes

multiple charges and wants to explosively link them together. In the
Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building bombing in Oklahoma City in
1995, McVeigh had multiple barrels of AN-based explosive. To
detonate the barrels simultaneously, he utilized detonating cord
running from a single point of initiation.
First responders should NOT pick up cords that they suspect

might be detonating cord or Primacord in order to inspect the
interior. If you see a cord and suspect it could be explosive,
isolate the item and call experts.

Slide 4-26 Video: Detcord Breach
This slide contains a video showing the detonation of

Primacord/det cord in an explosive breaching.
Detonating cord can cause a malfunction if the length of cord

crosses itself and cuts the firing train before it initiates the
main charge. This is important to understand because when
this type of malfunction occurs, hazardous unconsumed
explosives are still present and could pose a safety risk to first
responders. In the worst-case scenario, a functional partial
device may remain after an explosion. The accidental
introduction of stimuli such as friction, impact, shock, heat, or
electrostatic discharge (FISHED) might cause a detonation.
Detcord has many valuable commercial applications, including

explosive breaching in law enforcement. Breaching using
explosives is primarily an operation performed by highly
trained explosives experts. Trained tactical officers and/or
bomb technicians should conduct all explosive breaching
operations; untrained individuals should not attempt to
perform/utilize explosive breaching.

Slide 4-27 Boosters
This slide contains pictures of various booster explosives in a

variety of shapes and sizes.
Many blasting agents such as Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil

(ANFO), are extremely insensitive, requiring more energy to
detonate than can be provided by initiation of a blasting cap. In
situations involving such insensitive materials, a commercial
booster is attached to the blasting cap to increase or amplify the
shock generated at detonation. Commercial boosters are fabricated
specifically for this purpose. Boosters come in a variety of sizes,
depending on the use and size of the main charge. Most boosters,
as well as those demonstrated in IRTB, contain a 50/50
combination of TNT and PETN. Still, it is not uncommon to find
boosters produced out of just PETN or RDX.

Slide 4-28 Slurries and Water Gels
This slide shows two different tubes or chubs of slurry explosive.
Slurries, water gels, and emulsion explosives have many of the

good qualities of dynamite, but are much less sensitive. They are
packaged in plastic wrappers and often resemble sausage food
products. When sold in bulk, the explosive sausages are linked
together and separated by metal clips. Sizes vary from small to
large diameters often greater than eight inches. Many contain high
concentrations of AN, and often include obvious amounts of
aluminum. Visually, these explosives appear silver in color and
have the consistency of runny toothpaste, although the explosive
mixture can also take the form of prills or a flaky substance. The
acids in slurries and water gels can eat away the chrome on
tools; first responders should take note of corroded tools as a
potential indicator of IED production.
The slurry currently used during Field Laboratory 1 of this course

utilizes hexamine and aluminum as its primary source of fuels.

Slide 4-29 Commercial Explosives: ANFO
This slide shows a photo of a 50-pound bag of commercial ANFO.
When terrorists (particularly those in the U.S.) wish to create large

bombs, they typically turn to fertilizers as the starting material for
their explosive fills. Fertilizers are inexpensive, can be bought in
large quantities without eliciting suspicion, and produce explosives
that are relatively safe to handle.
The most common fertilizer used to produce explosive formulations

is Ammonium Nitrate (AN). Pure AN can be made into an explosive
because it contains both fuel (hydrogen atoms) and oxidizer (nitrate
group) in the same molecule.
In 1955, AN was fabricated in prill form through a chemical process

combining nitric acid and ammonia. The blasting agent known as
ANFO contains ninety-four percent AN and six percent fuel oil.
ANFO is the most frequently used blasting agent in the world;
millions of tons are produced each year.
ANFO has been used in numerous terrorist bombings, including the

bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City
in 1995. Probably the most common mixture of ANFO is AN and #2
diesel fuel; however, many other fuels can be combined with AN to

create a very effective explosive. The fuel used in Oklahoma City

was an energetic hydrocarbon like nitro methane racing fuel. The
addition of the energetic hydrocarbon made it a secondary
explosive.

Slide 4-30 ANFO Products and Packaging
This slide shows a variety of ANFO products.
Although most first responders hear of or have seen ANFO in large

brown bags, ANFO products are available commercially in a variety
of forms and shapes, depending on their intended use. ANFO is a
malleable substance that can be packaged in a variety of ways.

Slide 4-31 Bulk Ammonium Nitrate (AN) Storage
This slide shows four examples of bulk AN storage. Clockwise from

upper left: An AN pick-up location where a buyer can fill the bed of
a truck with AN from a chute; an explosives truck used to transport
both AN and Fuel Oil separately for greater safety, and which
allows the two components to be mixed on-site; and two piles of AN
for bulk purchase, which demonstrate how difficult it can be to
monitor quantities of AN.
Because AN is typically used as a fertilizer, it is often stored in bulk

(as depicted in this slide). Typically, only minimal security
precautions are provided at storage locations of this type, making it
possible for large quantities of AN to be unaccounted for.
Responders should be aware of areas in their jurisdiction where AN
is likely to be stored for use in legal endeavors, and should also be
alert to threats if they ever see large amounts of AN in an
environment that does not support agriculture.
It is important to remember that AN is also an oxidizer. Like any

other oxidizer, mixing a fuel with it will produce an energetic
material. AN brings a small amount of fuel with it in the form of
hydrogen, but even if it reacts with all the hydrogen, it still has
oxygen to spare. Adding fuel to AN gives this excess oxygen
something to react with to produce additional heat and gases.

Slide 4-32 AN Prills
This slide shows two photos of AN: a fifty-pound bag and individual
prills.
Two types of AN prills are produced. The prill type intended for use
in the production of explosive mixtures is referred to as commercial
or Explosive Grade prills. These prills are designed to act like
miniature sponges. They are relatively porous (from six to ten
percent) and will readily absorb diesel fuel and other liquids.
AN prills produced for use in fertilizer are referred to as Fertilizer

Grade AN or FGAN. These prills are much denser than explosive
grade prills and usually have less than three percent porosity. They
are covered with a thin veneer of moisture-resistant material that
allows the fertilizer to release over time.
The resulting low porosity from this process reduces the ability of
individual prills to absorb liquids efficiently. For this reason, once
FGAN and the fuel are mixed, a significant portion of the fuel will
pool in the bottom of the mixing container. Even though individual
FGAN prills do not absorb fuel efficiently, when combined, the
FGAN and fuel oil mix will produce a substantial explosion when
detonated.

AN prills can be used as bought by mixing them with liquid fuels.

However, the potential explosive power (and sensitivity) of AN can
be increased by grinding the prills to remove the water-resistant
covering that is applied during manufacture. Once the covering is
removed during the grinding process and the prills become a
powdery substance, the AN and powered fuel (such as metal or
sugar) can mix more completely, thus increasing the potential
destructive power and sensitivity of the material. Terrorists have
used several methods to reduce AN prills to powder, including
using small household grinders and industrial grinders.

Slide 4-33 Commercial Explosives (cont.)
This slide shows photos of commercial binary explosives.
Binary explosives contain two components that, individually, are not

considered explosives, but when combined become a high
explosive. Products include Kinestik and Kinepouch. The two
components of binary explosives are AN and a liquid fuel—nitro
paraffin, NM, or liquid hydrazine.
Tannerite is another example of a binary explosive. Marketed

primarily for making exploding targets for firearms practice,
Tannerite is a combination of ammonium nitrate and aluminum
powder. The separately supplied powders are mixed to produce an
explosive. The combination is relatively stable when subjected to
forces less severe than the impact of a high-velocity bullet. It is also
not flammable meaning an explosion cannot be created by a
burning fuse or electricity. Because it is sold as two separate
powders, it can be transported and sold in many places without the
legal restrictions that would otherwise apply to explosives.

Slide 4-34 Sheet Explosives
This slide depicts sheet explosives like Detasheet and Flex-X.
Sheet explosives are high-velocity explosives that are available

from both commercial and military sources. Sheet explosives are
often referred to as Detasheet and Flex-X. Legitimate uses include
cutting and tempering explosives as well as demolition and
breaching explosives. From a terrorist perspective, the explosives
are ideal for small IEDs like letter and package bombs.
As with most military explosives, the Detasheet on the middle right

is olive drab green so that is easier to conceal. The red colored
Detasheet on the bottom right is a form of commercial Detasheet
and is made by Ensign Bickford. It may also be found in a blue
color.

Slide 4-35 Other Commercial Plastic Explosives
This slide shows different forms of commercial plastic explosives.
The term “plastic explosive” is used to describe any kind of soft and
hand moldable form of explosive material. These materials are
especially suited for explosive demolition, and may also be called
“putty explosives.” Semtex and C-4 are military versions of plastic
explosives.
Primafoam, in photo 1, is under pressure and can be shot into a

void much like shaving cream. Demex 400 is displayed in photo 2
and is a caulk type of explosive that can be injected into cracks or
voids, much like commercial sealant is applied. Photo 3 is of
Demex 100, and is the commercial equivalent to military
Composition C-4.

HOMEMADE EXPLOSIVES (HME)
Slide 4-36 Homemade Explosives
ELO 4-5
Identify homemade explosives by appearance and
characteristics.
This slide shows a container of thirty-five percent hydrogen

peroxide.
Like all explosives, homemade explosives (HME) are mixtures or

compounds containing an oxidizer and a fuel. There are numerous
materials that can be used as the fuel component in the making of
explosives, from something as simple as baby oil to something as
obscure as flour. While there are a number of materials that will
function as an effective oxidizer in explosives, they are not as
numerous as fuels. Oftentimes, the recognition of an oxidizer will be
a good indication that homemade explosives are being produced.
Homemade explosives are made by combining ingredients known

as precursors. Oftentimes, these precursors are commercially
available for over-the-counter purchases. There are some
precursors that are used in the production of homemade explosives

that have few legitimate household uses, and the mere presence of
such precursors should arouse the suspicion of first responders as
a signal of HME production. Observing these items should increase
the awareness of the first responder to determine a legitimate use
or reinforce the suspicion of HME.
The fabrication of homemade explosives for use in improvised

explosive devices (IEDs) is a relatively simple process for terrorists
who have some knowledge of basic chemistry and typical explosive
formulations. In the following slides, we will discuss common
homemade explosive materials used by terrorists in the creation of
IEDs. These red flag indicators should alert first responders to the
possibility of HME production.

Slide 4-37 Peroxide-based HME
This slide lists some of the more notable peroxide-based

homemade explosives.
Many homemade explosives used in IEDs are peroxide-based.

Peroxide-based explosives are made by mixing concentrated
peroxide (an oxidizer) with a fuel. Individuals with little or no
chemistry background can make these improvised explosives from
legally obtained materials that include many ordinary household
products.
Two explosive mixtures used in the fabrication of IEDs are

hexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD) and triacetone
triperoxide (TATP). Terrorists, including those who carried out the
2005 mass-transit bombings in London, England, have used TATP
in their attacks. TATP is made using hydrogen peroxide, acetone,
and sulfuric acid. HMTD is made using hydrogen peroxide,
hexamine tablets, and citric acid. TATP and other HME are high
explosives and do not need a shock or blasting cap in order to
detonate.
The high sensitivity and thermal instability of TATP precludes its

use in commercial or military applications. HMTD is incompatible
with most metals; it actively attacks aluminum, tin, zinc, brass,

copper, iron, and lead. HMTD is also very unstable when stored
and exhibits tremendous weight loss over short periods of time.
Both HMTD and TATP are very dangerous.

Slide 4-38 Peroxide-based HME (cont.)
This slide lists information on methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP).
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) is very similar to TATP but

exists in a clear liquid state. The pink color of the liquid was added
to make the MEKP visible for this photo. MEKP is a peroxide-based
explosive variant, best described as a liquid form of TATP.
Oxy-acetylene is used to create a mixture of gases that reach

higher than normal temperatures. This mixture can act to cut
substances much like hot flame of a cutting torch. First responders
may have observed or responded to pranks where balloons were
filled with oxy-acetylene and then ignited to shatter windows or
simply create explosions.
Ethylene oxide is a colorless flammable gas.

Slide 4-39 Safety Tip: Peroxide-based HME
This slide contains a photograph of a drug field test kit for cocaine.
There have been instances where the use of drug testing kits
has caused a reaction or detonation of the peroxide-based
explosives TATP and HMTD. Extensive testing done by the
Phoenix Police Department concluded that two of the chemicals in
the testing kits, high-concentration sulfuric and nitric acids, can
potentially cause a violent reaction with the peroxide-based
explosives. Additionally, those stimuli that are recognized as
potential initiators to energetic materials (friction, impact, shock,
heat, and ED) should be prevented around peroxide-based
explosives.
It is important to note that friction created by breaking the

glass ampoules in the testing kit may be all that is needed for
initiation. The most important safety guideline for first
responders is to recognize the visual indicators of improvised
explosive production and, if drug-testing kits are used to test
material, the users must be very familiar with the proper use of
the kit. Most importantly, they should not test materials that
exceed the recommended amounts specified by the test
manufacturer. As a general rule, no more than 4mg of material
should be tested.

Slide 4-40 Video: Drug Field Tests and HME
This slide contains a video demonstrating how TATP can react

explosively with the concentrated acids in a drug field test.
HMTD and TATP look very similar—TATP looks like crack cocaine
and HMTD is similar in appearance to powdered cocaine.
Consequently, first responders who come in contact with peroxide-
based explosives may believe that the materials are drugs and not
explosives. Field-testing kits are a quick, easy and inexpensive
method for determining if an unknown substance is an illegal
narcotic; however, the use of these kits with peroxide-based
explosives may cause a violent reaction/detonation.
First responders must be aware that improvised explosives such as

TATP and HMTD are peroxide-based and contain no nitrates. The
odors from peroxide explosives are unique and consequently,
unless an explosives detection canine has been trained on the
individual odors, the canine will not indicate the presence of
explosives. Additionally, much of the explosive detection equipment
used may not recognize the presence of these explosives.

Slide 4-41 Indicators of HME Production
This slide contains photos taken from a website giving instructions

on how to make pyrotechnic explosives from common ingredients
using a coffee/spice grinder.
ELO 4-6
Recognize indicators of HME production.
Homemade explosives are made by combining ingredients known

as precursors. Oftentimes, these precursors are commercially
available for over-the-counter purchases. Information on how to
make homemade explosives is readily available in printed form,
video form, and digital form.
Items used in the production of homemade explosives, like

precursor materials, also have legitimate uses, and it may not be
uncommon to find some of the items together in a normal, non-
HME production environment. However, manufacturing equipment
in conjunction with potential precursor materials should catch the
attention of the first responder and be recognized as a possible
hazard. Items used in the production of explosives may be
commercial items being utilized as they were designed or they may
be improvised items that were modified to fulfill a function in the
HME production process. The use of double boilers, ice baths, non-

metallic stirring tools, glass jars, scales, and respiratory PPE are all
signs of HME production.
First responders should be aware of objects or materials that can

be indicators of attempts to build IEDs, including:
 Grinders
 Altered or dissected batteries
 Strong acids and peroxides
 Chlorates and perchlorates
 Large amounts of stored urine
 Powdered metals

Slide 4-42 Grinders
This slide shows different types of grinding machines that could be

used to change a prilled AN into a powdered form.
Terrorists have been known to use coffee grinders like the one
pictured to grind up AN prills or aluminum foil to make homemade
explosive precursors.
AN prills can be used as bought by mixing them with liquid fuels.

However, as previously stated, the potential explosive power (and
sensitivity) of AN can be increased by grinding the prills to remove
the water-resistant covering that is applied during manufacture.
Once the covering is removed during the grinding process and the
prills become a powdery substance, the AN and powered fuel (such
as metal or sugar) can mix more completely, thus increasing the
potential destructive power and sensitivity of the material. Terrorists
have used several methods to reduce AN prills to powder.
One of the more common machines designed to pulverize solids is

the commercial coffee grinder. Many supermarkets have these
grinders available for customers to grind their own coffee beans.
The small, single-cup type of coffee grinder can be used to grind
AN, but making a multi-ton bomb using such a small device is far
too time-consuming. For that reason, terrorists often use

commercial grinders, which may have been stolen from a local

business.
Many machines are designed to reduce grains to powder. A prime

example is the gristmill. Consider a gristmill as a commercial coffee
grinder on steroids. It works on the same principle as the coffee
grinder, but has much larger grinding burrs. Gristmills are very
efficient and will grind a ton of fertilizer in a couple of hours.
First responders should keep in mind that most terrorists have a

tremendous amount of time to plan and execute an attack, more
than enough time to use a small grinder.

Slide 4-43 Altered or Dissected Batteries
Batteries can be altered to disguise their appearance. For example,

a battery could be flattened to use in a bomb concealed in a thin
letter. Batteries can also be reconfigured to provide more power
and/or amperage, depending on how much power is needed for the
IED.

Slide 4-44 Strong Acids and Peroxides
This slide is shows pictures of 35% hydrogen peroxide for

swimming pool water, nitric acid, and sulfuric acid.
The following materials are used to make the various peroxide

HMEs: TATP is made of hydrogen peroxide, acetone, and either
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid; HMTD is made of hydrogen peroxide,
hexamine, and citric acid; and MEKP is made of hydrogen
peroxide, methyl ethyl ketone, and sulfuric acid.
Liquid fire is concentrated sulfuric acid used as a drain cleaner.

Pool acid is a strong acid (often called muriatic or hydrochloric acid)
and is used to control the pH in swimming pools. Hydrogen
peroxide can be purchased at a variety of stores and is used as a
disinfectant, cleaner, oxygenator, and bleach. Softener cleaner is
used as a hard water cleaner. Softener cleaner and Kool-Aid®
contain citric acid.
Nitric acid is a commercial product that is legal to purchase and

possess. However, domestic uses for nitric acid are minimal and
the presence of nitric acid at any scene should be scrutinized for
possible use to produce explosives. Some legitimate uses include
treating swimming pool water, aging wood, and purifying precious
metals.

Explosives using hydrogen peroxide as an oxidizer have been

around for over a hundred years. They have been studied
extensively for use in military and commercial environments, but
due to their sensitivity, they have typically been dismissed.
However, terrorist groups of many types utilize peroxide-based
explosives because the materials needed to make the explosive
are readily available and few skills are required to start the
production process.
Still, it cannot be overstated that these are some of the most

sensitive and dangerous explosives ever invented. The foolish
individual who undertakes to produce any of these explosives may
eventually fall victim to an error in process or judgment that will
have life-ending consequences.
If, upon entering a site, there is any indication or smell of

acids, first responders should retreat to a safe and clear area
and call HazMat.

Slide 4-45 Chlorates and Perchlorates
This slide shows a plastic bag (right) that contains a mixture of 50%
potassium chlorate and 50% powdered sugar; also shown is a
mixture of potassium chlorate and aluminum powder (top left). The
photo of the aluminum ball (bottom left) is an example of
Armstrong’s mixture.
Chlorates and perchlorates are types of precursor chemicals with

which most first responders may not be familiar, but chlorate-based
explosives are quickly becoming one of the preferred homemade
explosives in the Middle East countries of Iraq and Afghanistan.8
Since terrorists are exploiting this type of explosive, we can be
relatively confident that we will encounter these HMEs in the
continental United States.
8
Counter-IED Report. (Autumn/Winter 2013). Homemade Explosives Precursors, Attacking the Core of the IED
Threat, a Simplified and Effective CONOPS for Defeating IEDs. Pages 35-39. Retrieved from
http://milengcoe.org/Links/Documents/20140114_NU_C-IED%20Report_RC%20Project%20article.pdf

Various mixtures of chlorate and perchlorate oxidizers combined

with hot fuels, such as aluminum powder, can be extremely
sensitive and account for a large number of accidental detonations
utilizing these materials investigated by bomb and arson
investigators each year in the U.S.9
Chlorates and perchlorates can be mixed with a wide variety of

fuels to create pyrotechnic and explosive formulations. One
formulation that is found in most commercial, consumer, and
homemade fireworks is a combination of chlorates, perchlorates,
and powdered metal, such as aluminum. Another formulation,
known as Poor Man’s C-4, is a combination of chlorates,
perchlorates, and petroleum jelly.
Yet another formulation, called Armstrong’s Mixture, is a

combination of chlorates, perchlorates, and red phosphorus. The
picture of the aluminum ball on this slide is a use of Armstrong’s
Mixture. The mixture is put on the foil, wet and balled up. Once dry,
it becomes very sensitive. If the foil is opened, the mixture can
violently ignite or even explode. In addition to these combinations,
other fuels might include corn meal, baby oil, hand sanitizers, and
sugars.
The presence of chlorates and perchlorates is an important

indicator in the production of homemade explosives, regardless of
the type of fuel being used. Red phosphorus is one of those
chemicals that may be found in HME labs as well as drug labs.
It is unlikely that chlorates or perchlorates will be clearly labeled or

easy to identify. Instead, first responders should be wary if they
notice the following red flags that could indicate
chlorate/perchlorate production or use:
 Fireworks
 Lithium batteries
 Flares
 Photographic flash powder
 White, red, or gray powders
 Grinders being used to powder metal
 Unusual quantities of bleach
9
United States Bomb Data Center. (2014). United States Bomb Data Center (USBDC) Explosives Incident Report
(EIR). Retrieved from https://www.atf.gov/explosives/docs/report/2014-usbdc-explosive-incident-
report/download.

 Unusual quantities of fuels like corn meal, baby oil,

petroleum jelly, hand sanitizers, or sugars

Slide 4-46 Urine
This slide shows a collection of urine that was found in an

apartment in Jersey City, New Jersey.
Urea can be used to make urea nitrate, a high explosive that is

used industrially and as part of some improvised explosive devices.
Urea nitrate (UN) is relatively easy to make and has been used in
successful terrorist attacks in the past. The attack on the World
Trade Center in 1993 utilized a urea nitrate bomb that weighed
approximately 1,310 pounds (590 kg). Urea is also a stabilizer in
nitrocellulose explosive.
Urea is widely used in fertilizers and has one of the highest nitrogen
content of all fertilizers: 46–0–0. It is also used occasionally as a
salt-free deicer. Additionally, urea is found in the urine of mammals
(humans and animals) and can be extracted by boiling away the
largest component of urine—water. Urine is approximately ninety-
five percent water; a gallon of urine will yield a few ounces of urea.
First responders coming across large amounts of stored urine could
indicate that an attempt to extract urea from urine is underway. First
responders may also come across large quantities of urine storage
in a senior citizen’s home, or for harvesting drugs out of the urine.

Example: Urine Jugs in New Jersey, 2003

In Jersey City, NJ, a landlord rented an apartment to tenants who
paid cash for one year of rent. After 3 months, the landlord wanted
the tenants out of the complex because of the smell coming from
the apartment and the infestation of roaches and rats. The tenants
had not been seen in days, so the landlord entered the apartment.
He discovered multiple milk jugs filled with a yellow liquid
substance that he could not identify. He hired a cleanup company
to come and clean the apartment so he could rent it again. The
cleaning company came, moved some of the jugs out into the
hallway, and then refused to finish the job due to the smell and
infestation. Unsure how to proceed, the landlord tried to get help,
but was unable to find someone who would come and investigate
the situation.
Dispatched fire units arrived at the apartment complex, where a fire

had been reported. When they arrived, the landlord told the fire
department about the situation in the apartment and asked if they
would investigate. The fire department called in the HazMat team
who tested the milk jugs and found that they contained urine. One
of the responding firefighters was a recent graduate of New Mexico
Tech’s Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings (IRTB) course. He
notified his Captain that the jugs of urine could be boiled to
manufacture urea nitrate, a technique employed by terrorists. The
responders alerted the FBI and the Joint Terrorism Task Force
(JTTF), who responded to the scene. During their investigation in
the apartment, the FBI and JTTF also found photos and maps of
tunnels, bridges, and roadways leading into and out of New York
City.
This example illustrates the importance of first responders being

able to recognize explosive precursors. When responding to
dispatch, first responders should be mindful of items that seem out
of place in someone’s home or surrounding area.

Slide 4-47 Powdered Metals
This slide shows pictures of various sources of powdered metals,

especially aluminum.
Several powdered metals can be used as explosive precursors,

including lithium and aluminum. Aluminum powder can come in a
variety of shapes and appearances. Some of those appearances
may include: spherical, which is grey in color with little luster and no
odor; dark pyro, which is dark grey or even black in color with no
luster or odor; improvised, which can be either gray or silver and
may have luster depending on how it was produced and no odor;
flake, which is silver in color and has high luster and it may smell
like crayons; and, finally, paste, which usually has a high luster
silver appearance and smell like chemical solvents.

SUMMARY
Slide 4-48 Summary
This slide is an opportunity for instructors to summarize the key

points in the module and for participants to ask questions.
Module 4 was designed to help first responders learn to recognize

military, commercial, and homemade explosive materials. This
knowledge will empower you to protect yourself, your colleagues,
and others when you are confronted with terrorist bombing
incidents or precursors.
Important Note: Remember, bombs and other energetic

materials should be handled only by specially trained bomb
technicians.


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Incident Response to Terrorist Bombings

Training Support Package Participant Guide

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-1

MODULE 4 RECOGNITION OF EXPLOSIVE MATERIALS

4-2 Identify initiators as igniters or blasting caps by appearance and characteristics.

4-3 Identify military explosives by appearance and characteristics.

4-4 Identify commercial explosives by appearance and characteristics.

4-5 Identify homemade explosives by appearance and characteristics.

4-6 Recognize indicators of HME production.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-2

Performance Exercise Statement

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-3

Key Points/Learning Objectives: Used to highlight each time lesson content is

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-4

Slide 4-1 IRTB Module 4: Recognition of Explosive

During this module, participants are introduced to military,

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-5

Slide 4-2 Terminal Learning Objective

This slide contains the Terminal Learning Objective for Module 4.

At the conclusion of this module, participants will be able to

This module of instruction is extremely important to first responder

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-6

Slide 4-3 Enabling Learning Objectives

This slide contains the Enabling Learning Objectives and should be

4-2 Identify initiators as igniters or blasting caps by appearance

4-3 Identify military explosives by appearance and

4-4 Identify commercial explosives by appearance and

4-5 Identify homemade explosives by appearance and

4-6 Recognize indicators of HME production.

The ability to recognize explosive and incendiary materials is a

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-7

during actual incident response operations. Law enforcement

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-8

Slide 4-4 Course Map

Module 4 is part of the first block of modules that focus on building

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-9

Slide 4-5 R.A.I.N.

This slide lists four actions—Recognize, Avoid, Isolate, and

As we have discussed before, the RAIN concept (Recognize,

R – Recognize explosive devices/components or potentially

A – Take defensive actions to avoid the hazard

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-10

I – Isolate yourself and everyone from the explosive device or

N – Notify the proper authorities to respond and render assistance.

An additional resource to help you recognize these materials or

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-11

Slide 4-6 Recognition of Explosives

There are four main categories of explosives that first responders

We will discuss each of these categories in depth in this module.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-12

Slide 4-7 Categories of Explosives

This slide contains a chart organizing categories of explosives. This

Explosives can be divided into two categories: low explosives and

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-13

Slide 4-8 Igniters

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-14

There are different types and sizes of initiators. All contain

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-15

Slide 4-9 Non-electric Fuses

Safety fuse is commonly used with non-electric blasting caps.

January 2017 Version 01.2017 Page 4-16

Commercial Safety Fuse

Military Safety Fuse