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    Ivan Jaksic Bello State Building

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    31 Ansichten17 Seiten

    Ivan Jaksic Bello State Building

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    Francisca Javiera Villablanca Martínez
    Ivan Jaksic Bello State Building

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    Ideological Pragmatism and Nonpartisan Expertise in Nineteenth-Century Chile Andrés Bello's Contribution to State and Nation Building Ivan Jaksié The reality of the pesiod under review is that it cannes te simplified as a merely conservan tion tag €sPecially in light ofthe liberahzation ea incteasing seculatiza- Process, I argue, can be traced t0 the institutional choices macle the 18308 and the crucial role of experts like Andeés Bello, These roti, in the 18308 and 3840s, people of diverse ideological inclinations such se Manuel Rengifo, Mariano Egasa, alanuel Mont, José Victorino Lastatia Anns Garefa Reyes, and Manuel Autonlo Tocomal. They handled themselves nels Politicians, but it was their role as experts that mattered. gain like many other counterparts in Spanish ‘America, Chile did experienthe ghe unrest and instability caused by the carly experiments in self-governance By she late 18205, however, segments of ae, Chilean political establishment ac become convinced that many of the ile of ue ostindependence period i 1 0 Weaken the cen- workable rather than 'tisan experts to set up the foundations 184 Tua Jaksié dager adual liberalization. Chilean historiography has highlighted the role ¢ Diego Portales as central ro this process, bu iris not often mentioned tect Tauued experts like Andrés Bello, who had extensive experience in poble adesinisration and diplomacy.* He joined a larger cohort of pubile okt who emphasized the practical aspects of sate and nation building acd che Were ot the same time adept at navigating the increasingly complex. world sc republican polities, Jes important to outline, albeit briefly, how Chile established the founda. Fons of « durable stare in the eazly 1830s. Consolidation eame sours at lent g sompacative terms, because it meant a retuen to familiar practices eotablched by tte Bourbon sefoms of the lst quaster ofthe eighteenth contury Celoriat that was greatly enhanced by che creation of the Universidad de Soe Felipe (1738), Out of the 1,785 degrees granted beeween 1747 (when the schol opened) and 1839 (when it closed), 562 were law degrece ‘The imperial cisis altered this paren by forcing ereoles to find alteenative forms of representation in the temporary abscnce of the king, As chante iter the formation of provisional juntas, a National Congress'wes commence but the clear predorinance of Santiago created frictions in the seovinece hag ower by troops dispatched from Peru (1815) by Viceroy Abascal. The defexect {Be pation andthe consequent imposition of arepeessive regime in 1S acaticn convinced creoles of the desirability of ful! independence and inaugucared ag uluting tradition of apposition vo extreme forms of exceutive power Pesiane she most representative figure inthis regard is Juan Egafa, one ofthe foarte, of the republic, who suffered imprisonment on the island of Juan Fernie Seaghpsronal” in the Peto and occetsve goverarnents relance on muda andgor es ip dees favorable outcomes during elections. See: Géngors, Ensayo Madrcd beste nonce State an Chee ls sgl XIX XX (Santiago Editorial Unvenitaca,t900), ce ak Eile be bos Rs Pos ane fale bisa Seriage Edvord Unseen iso ene Dean tate on Pots snd the paid, ex Son Colley “The lary Gooey ef the ‘Portalin Period” (5830-1892) in Chile” Hispanic A {November 29771, 660-696; end Ercique Brahim Garcia, Fortales el hombre ov obra. La consobdacign del gobrorte {Sansago: Esitoval juriica de Chile Editorial Ande Bello 484 7 {ie Terbo Medina, Historia dela Real Universidad de San Felipe de Somiago do Chie, «vl (Seater Soctdad ImpreniayLiografis Universo, 1938) Matio Gengors, Novascoca ale repeaty! Mtson anierstase clonal de Chi,” Anuaro de Estos Amencntn€ horay 363-33, Tod Jaksié highlighted the cole of =" often mentioned that he scensive experience in public hort of public officials ation building and who singly complex world of c established the founda- ‘on came sooa, a least in 1 practices established seenth century. Colonial 9 and the central valley, most distant areas into a in 1787 and Chiloé “sex as it relied on prominent ied on a juridica! culture Caiversidad de San Felipe 1747 (when the school 2 ezzoles to find alternative out of the king, As elsewhere 58 Congress was convened, in the provinces. These 3 rcassertion of royal ‘eroy Abascal. The defeat of sive regime in 1814-1827 pendence and inauguraced an executive power. Perhaps ia, one of the founders land of Juan Ferndndez ronda oristocitica (1938) 6 & ‘ean impersonal reine based on sive by arguing thas thece waste "aceon inendants and governors Ensayo bistrio sobre la nocion 1! Universitaria, 19861, 46. Also, Editorial Univeesaria, 1989), ‘ss simon Colles “The Histriograpby “Portales aa le ietosograia,” in oo ei ed. Bernadine Bea Lira Boh aaa pe de Santiago de Chil, 2 vole Mario Gongora, "Notas paral his “evs de Estudios Americans 6 (2949), Pragmatism Expertise in Chile {along with his son Mariano}, went on to write the Constitution of 1825 (the first one to define Chile as a republic), and became a leading voice in the effort ‘0 prevent the rise of an omnipotent despot.+ Because it was indeed the case that the charter of 1833 gave extraordinary powers ro the executive, the per. ception has endured that this was the key to Chilean stability, Infact, it was che separation of powers that paved the way for Chile's extraordinary [at least in comparative rerms) success in fostering congressional and press debates, hold ing regular elections, forming viable political coalitions, and alternating povrer for the cemainder of the nineteenth cencury. Je was this same antiauthoritarian tradition that forced the resignation Chile's first leader after the Reconquista, Bernardo O'Higgins, in 1825, For’ brief petiod thereafter, political and military elites advocated federalism and implemented regional autonomy so as to prevent the reestablishment of cen- tralized rule. But the difficulties of governing with a weak executive led to an cffore to swing the pendulum back to centralized political authority. Francisco Antonio Pinto, first as acting and then as titular president, did away with all federal laws and convened a constituent assembly that approved the more cen- tralist Constitution of 1828.5 However, such was the inability, particularly fs. cal, of the state to make the political system work, that civil war followed (2829-1830). Although the opposition to Pinto’s regime included conserva- tives as well as liberals (especialy federalists), the historiography has tended to identify the vietors as authoritarian centralists ot conservatives. There were some ideological conservatives such as Mariano Egaiia in their ranks, bur the edn Jabsié + approved the budget, Talo had the power of the cabinet.” sem work at a national he former was facilicared gion, including the rich ine the principal revenue srarehouses and port facil- ‘of remote Chile into the the significant challenge the Wax of 1836-1839, “zs main inspiration behind roe setback for the fledgling country rallied behind the ‘eared a national mythology more tolerant regime undet 3841-1852) His govern- iy8s1-186:), presided ye period. In addition to the "1,500 in the mid-1840 (0 .ceare to facilitate national sored ay papa an Loveman, Tot sien” Ba ca burgh PAs On be salu 0 CS MNS ded rel from 17 between 186x 10 1886, 00 ace pois dh Ch Se it ynen 2858s, id, see Simon Collie and William ge: Cambridge Univesity Press, os las eansfoernaiones ezonomices 0 Lite, 26 ‘ean exceptionalism, twas this one, ‘rable cvibmilcacy elasionship.” See sein Latin America (University “scsblishment of number of adminis "lod gous back the Prieto-Portales cgulsions and procedures for each “public employees (1837), and the ales y 2 adrinisraci6n china, snes, the Office of Seaisies was 1d more excensve pow: bw give now a4 for weights and measures was Pragmatism Expertise in Chile communications and exports, and the establishment of effective control (with the exception of Indian country to the south) over the territory, these admin. istrations oversaw the implementation of two significant national projects: the establishment of ¢ public educational system and the introduction of = reformed civil legislation. Venezuelan-born Andrés Bollo played a central role in both of them, On atrival in Chile from London in 1829, where he had served the govern= ‘ments of Chile and Gran Colombia, Bello gained early acceptance in Santiago social and political circles. During the thirty-six years he lived in the country hhe was rector of the Colegio de Santiago, rector of the University of Chile, high-level official at the ministries of Finance and Interior, key advisor for inter. national relations and treaties, main writer of the Civil Code, editor of the off cial paper El Araucano and contributor to many others, senator of the republic for three terms lasting twenty-seven ycars, and mentor to several generations of prominent Chileans. When he died in 1865, he was widely recognized as one of the main contributors to the formation of the republic." ' ‘The historical context for Bello's activities in Chile coincides with the period of consolidation of the state and the attendant state-building measures and activities that followed, and in which he played a central role.* And yet, Bello has often been studied as a leading intelicctual and less as a government off cial and bureaucrat. My approach is not to deny Bello’s stature in the world of ideas, but rather to emphasize that he was an experienced administrator, going back to colonial days, who deployed considerable expertise in the decign of government policies, political consensus building, and legislative debate and bargaining. By the time of his death in 865, the main featuses of the so-called Republica conservadora were firmly in place, as were the formal procedures for the grad: ual liberalization of the politcal regime. This postindependence political order ‘nncoduced (388). Under Mont, a new law was ineoduced for the organization ofthe dip- lomatic service (1852), municipalities (854), and enstome (2862). During this period there was increasing empbasis on probity and accountability wih the extblishmeat ofthe General Inspection of Public Ofces {x852)-In 1854, the Monte goverment established the Nationel Post Ofce and then a state mortgage and loans bank the folowing yea. See Geen Urgia ‘Valenzuela and Anzmaria Garcia Baczalauo, Diagnéatico dels buroeraca cil, 1828-2389 (Sansiago: Editorial Jurica de Chile, x972), 24-29. See also isidoro Errfourin, Historia de sadminstracén Eraizurz(Valparalge:Iiprenta de la Paci, 2877), 210,257. Tae main biographical works include: Miguel Luis Amundtegsi, Vide de dom Andrés Bello (Santiago: Imprenta Pedro G, Ramer, 1882); Rafael Caldera, Andrés Bello, 7th ed. (Cates: Editorial Dimensiones, x98: [2935]}; Eugenio Orcego Views, Dor Andrés Bello, ye ea (Gartiago: Imprenta y Lieogralia Leblanc, x940); Pedro Lira Urquies, Andrés Bolo (Mexico snd Buenos Aires: Fondo de Caltura Econémica, 2948}; and Fernando Mutillo Rubieto, ‘Andrés Bello: Fistoria de vss vida y una obra (Carace: La Cata de Bello, 3986). Sex also Wn Jaksie, Andrés Bello: Scholarship and Nation Building in Ninetenth-Century Latin America (Cambcidge and Nev York: Carnbeidge University Press 2032). Simon Colles “Evoluci police, insrucional, social y culgural de Chile ene 1839 y 1865," in Bello-y Chile, 2 vols, ed. La Casa de Bello (Caracas: La Casa de Bell, 1981), 2: 25-50. See also, Bernardino Bravo Lira, Historia de las institucionespolitcas de Chile « Hispenoaminica. E 188 ode Jaksié remained in place unit che Revolution of 1891 modified che main features o the Constitution of 1833. In between, the country liberalized, achieved higher degrees of literacy, and introduced a series of secularizing measures (cemeteries. civil registries, de facto religious toleration, and others)."* To properly analyze the role of Bello in these developments, and by extension thar ofa larger cohort of public officials, I will examine the two key arcas of public policy mentioned catlicr: education and civil legislation, But it is important to emphasize at the ‘outset that che Chilean governments of che period were deliberately seeking the formation of a trained bureaucracy to serve the needs of an €x ‘This bureaucracy did not need to be entirely apolitical, but promoted involved high levels of literacy, knowledge of law and pobiic admin istration, and the political sophistication to address calls from the Congress t0 explain government poticy EDUCATION In addition to his duties as official mayor (undersecretary) it che Ministcy 0 the Interior and Foreign Relations, Bello devoted considerable attention to education, both as a commentator on educational matters and as rector of the University of Chile, founded in 1842, which served a supervisory role over the national educational system. In the Chilean context, the main objec ing education was twofold: the training and recruitment of state personnel anc the spread of popular education. Regarding the first aspect, Bello collaborate’ closely with Manuel Mone, who in the r830s was a teacher, ¢ rector of the Instirato Nacional (the main state-funded teaching establishment in the cour.- try), and minister of the Interior. This is a period when education was notor ously lacking in coordination and when no clear policy existed regarding th interaction between state and private schaols. The main paint of contention we regarding the office or offices that might recognize examinations and degrees 39 valid for the performance of careers in a variety of fields (but especially law). == \was in response ton inquiry by Bello, at the time professor of law at the Colee!> de Santiago, that the government of Joaquin Prieto decreed (February &, 18 that all examinations were to be administered by the Instituto Nacional, a that had been assumed by the Church-controlled University of San Felipe. decree provoked the long dispute that culminated in the closing of tise Unive of San Felipe and the creation of the University of Chile, which was endows: with new statutes and new state-appointed personnel. In the event, it fell on Monet's shoulders, as rector of the Instituto Nacic: to deal with the consequences of the government's decree. But before a (On secularization, #2 Simon Collie, "Rel redom, Clerielsm, and Antic tBiowigan,” in Freedom and Rel (Stenfotd, CA: Stanford Universi’ Pres, 1997), 302-338, and Sol Serrano, <0: Dios en iz Repablia? Palaice y stculriacion an Chile, 1845-885 (Saag Fos CCkusa Econémice, 2008), ~y of the or the and vated af the on was Taw). It endowed al Nacional, yn: Fondo de viom Expertise me Chile te Ina tilt seview Bello’ critique of the Institut’ cue aril published a 8.8 implementing a potey on eran an Ball arablthed in the ofcial periodical Bl Arce «remit 21, 1853), Bello argued that the curcent curriculum was ctr short of chaotic on sccoune Teena Cotdiation inthe sequence of eounes ean ae ambitious wo pets lay au the foundations ofa gear ace marerials tothe he ¢ odes dwelling” Ths was seataeac noe subject, snd a ae of Gre “which fore ime bing mace ee oe ae infie aiikely o ake it for slong tine” over wo ofes aehn es sore een f each those bat have a pestcal effec nd teen ae fea ine acces to profesional vaining”™ Bello sdeionslne eee ened en sullent and that before any such cureulns wos ee urns Gas Necessary to “count on concrete outcomes" and noronta eh, Outline of desirable cousses.>= wns gunsentted onthe reaching of lve This was neces, inhi views cause private schools taugh law without soy comel os sane rie on aad oe eaadeates who would qualify as members ofthe state burcucrane south fudsary. That Bello turned what might be seen abs purty ean, gosial issue ino a lager proposal forthe taining snd tecranom eee, permet What was a stake was nothing less than the role of eeeion as republican sytem. Moreover the Prieto govetnmentintendedeo ceschied ae ‘psite Nacional es che premier educational institution in the ween tra Rauodo! weakness and even deteioration in the 1805, With the reve oer ea tum, plus the amendments suggesied by Bell, the school was pored senrse sa new era, this time with stronger state support and a firmer olin) ras, Bello hieself was placed ina pivoral postion when he wos sont Taatet ofthe governing board Junta Directorade Estudon in Mace Bee dai gbpeinement facilitated he collaboration betwen Bello tad Mens the later became rector of che Instituto Nacional mds 8 sor Fah chllenge facing Monta ectorwasthe dispute withthe Universi pane) 2 ce8ading examinacins.A government deste of Match rn sian, stbplated that the wniversty had the authosiy co grant degress bur ae gk setts from the Inscitato Nacional. However due to lack of enfeeconcn acy Politial fun the university basically jgnored the decree and grancch eo rea ghe i chose. At the same time, the x852 regulations of the aces mieritd sudenss from other educational exablshmenes(prinsriy ore ke ci examinations there without attending ts courses Hence foe) Moot assumed at rector, it had become a practice for students fave gis FS le, Obs Completar, 26 ols, Caracas: La Casa de Bel, 1981-1984), XXth sn Hencefocth ceed es OC. "Ibid, 634 * Sa MEETS sonhip se Dornigo Amunétege Solan Ct insteay Nacional baja los econ i de don Manel Mons, don Francisca Puantey dn Antone Yang og F=1845(Santiages Imprensa Cervantes, 285, a 190 Join Jaksité schools to take only advanced courses at the Instituto, or bypass them alto- ether by simply taking the final examinations. This in turn allowed them to obtain certificates and apply for degrees from the university without, 8 Monte pur it, “going through the painstaking sequence of fundamental courses.” So he requested from the government, on December 21, 1836, the power to “prevent students from raking higher-level courses and attendant examinations: unless they demonstrate competency in all courses required by the plan of studies ar the Instiruto.”:" The government agreed, but without much effect, 2s Moart felt it necessary to insist the following year that the current practice “opens the sensitive and important legal profession to people who lack the appropriate aptitudes, and demoralizes students who believe that they can enter it with. out painstaking study.” He still needed to insist the year after (1858), arg ing that students wich elmost no notions of law “can gain access to the legal profession and be eligible for the most important and sensitive positions in the # Republic.” ‘The rector of the University of San Felipe, Juan Francisco Meneses, was in 2 fighting mood when he was asked by the government to respond to Mont’

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