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Stewart Clegg
University of Technology, Sydney - Austrália
Sumário: 1. Introduction; 2. World System of Global Economic Actors; 3. National societies organized as a
global system of states; 4. Global production of concepts of selves; 5. Humankind; 6. Conclusion: Winners and
Losers in Globalization.
‘Globalization’ is the most immediate legacy to the new century of the social sciences of the
outgoing 20th century. Basically it is a concern of the second half of the 1990s . . . In the major
dictionaries of English, French, Spanish and German of the 1980s the word is not listed. In Arabic
at least four different words render the notion. Whereas in Japanese business the word goes back
to the 1980s, it entered academic Chinese only in the mid-1990s. The Social Science Citation Index
records only a few occurrences of ‘globalization’ in the 1980s but shows its soaring popularity from
1992 onwards, which accelerated in the last years of the past century.
In comparison with the preoccupations of the social sciences 1000 years earlier, the current
overriding interest in globalization means two things. First of all, a substitution of the global for the
universal; second, a substitution of space for time.
Although I have made a fortune in the financial markets, I now fear that untrammelled
intensification of laissez-faire capitalism and the spread of market values to all areas of life is
endangering our open and democratic society. The main enemy of the open society, I believe, is no
longer the communist but the capitalist threat.... Too much competition and too little cooperation
can cause intolerable inequities and instability.... The doctrine of laissez-faire capitalism holds that
the common good is best served by the uninhibited pursuit of self-interest. Unless it is tempered by
the recognition of a common interest that ought to take precedence over particular interests, our
present system... if liable to break down.
RESUMO
Desde os primórdios da civilização o 1. INTRODUCTION
mercado entre diferentes fronteiras e
regiões vem ocorrendo. Mas é apenas no Since the time of the earliest
final do século XIX e início do século XX civilisations trade across frontiers and
que atividades transacionais significativas regions has occurred. The
tiveram início. A primeira conseqüência da internationalization of economy and
globalização parece ser trabalhadores com society, which commenced with the dawn
baixa qualificação em países of civilization and the commencement of
industrializados que vêem seus trabalhos trade, meant exchange of raw materials,
serem transferidos para o exterior, ou semi-finished and finished goods, services,
vivenciam um doloroso corte em seus money, ideas, and people. From the 16th
salários, ao mesmo tempo em que seus century onwards this pattern of exchange,
empregadores lutam para reduzir custos. A split between the European core state
Segunda, países inteiros percebem que systems and their offshoots, involving the
devem unir forças em mercados comuns world’s major trading companies (and
regionais e, ao invés de experimentarem organized religions), and local comprador
crescimento e benefícios crescentes da chiefs and traders, defined international
economia globalizada, acabam por se trade for several hundred years. Though
deparar com um grande sentimento de the world trading system developed
dependência e isolamento. Particularmente considerably from the 16th century
vulneráveis são os relativamente mal onwards, it was only at the end of the 19th
qualificados e com baixa educação formal, century and the beginning of the 20th
especialmente nos sistemas de mercado century that significant transnational
que não desenvolvem atitudes activity emerged. This transnationalization
intervencionistas nas políticas de mercado. of economy and society is characterised by
the transfer of resources, especially capital
and to a lesser extent labour, from one
Palavras-chave: globalização, national economy to another. Typically this
organização, trabalho, política de mercado. involves the creation of production
capacities of a firm in another country
through direct subsidiaries, acquisitions, or
ABSTRACT various types of co-operation (commercial,
Since the time of the earliest financial, technological and industrial).
civilisations trade across frontiers and Hirst and Thompson (1996:74; 2-3)
regions has occurred but it was only at the have argued that the present highly
end of the 19th century and the beginning internationalised economy is not
of the 20th century that significant unprecedented and, in some respects, is
transnational activity emerged. The primary less open and generalised than that which
casualties of globalization appear to be low existed in the previous high-water mark of
skilled workers in traditional manufacturing the global economy of 1870-1914.
countries who either see their jobs slip Genuinely transnational companies are
away overseas, or experience a painful comparatively rare. Most companies are
slide in their wage rates as their employers nationally based and trade internationally
strive to reduce costs. Secondly, whole on the strength of national locations and
countries and regions find they have been activities. Yet, as Sklair (1999: 146)
sidelined by the forces of international suggests, their position “entirely ignores
trade and investment and, instead of the well-established fact that an increasing
experiencing a growing involvement and number of corporations operating outside
benefit from the global economy, may their `home' countries see themselves as
encounter a greater sense of dependence developing global strategies . . .You cannot
and isolation. Particularly vulnerable are simply assume that all `US', `Japanese'
the relatively unskilled and under-educated, and other `national' TNCs somehow
especially in labour market systems that do express a `national interest'. The world
not develop very active and interventionist economy is far from yet being truly
labour market policies. ‘global’.”
Hirst and Thompson (1996) are
Key-words: globalization; organizations; correct in as much as trade, investment
labour; market policies. and financial flows remain concentrated in
the Triad of Europe, Japan and North
America, and this dominance is likely to
continue, despite their being significant
Selves Humankind
them. How can one rectify the basic that theorists such as Spencer held out for
theoretical assumptions that undergird such modern times, seems to be materializing.
reductionism? Let us focus first on what is Warfare as a form of societal interaction in
appropriate in Robertson: that is, the the postmodern conjuncture is a form of
reflexive autonomy of selves, societies, world sociability in decreasing frequency – at least
systems and humankind. What is lacking, is between the core nations. In the peripheries
a conception of the circuits or conduits it is another matter. Today, while it is by no
through which this autonomy is reflexively means always the case that intermediation is
intermediated. through circuits of organized production and
consumption, although it is increasingly so. It
In the past such intermediation might is the organizational aspects that Robertson
most frequently have been through warfare misses. To correct this, in place of his model,
but, in these postmodern times, the promise we propose Figure 2.
Organizational circuits
of production
and
consumption
Selves Humankind
The world system of both states and TNCs ensuring employment, and therefore,
involves relations that are not only individual and collective well being.
concertative but also competitive. Only a Transnationals stand at the core of
small number of TNCs are truly global nor are globalization arguments that stress the
all TNCs necessarily 'large' in conventional actions of business and the rise of markets.
definitions of that term. Global patterns of Petrella (1996) defines the
transnationalization differ markedly according characteristics of contemporary globalization
to the national origin of the transnationalizing in terms of a number of organizational
firms. New supplies and sources of TNCs characteristics. These include the
evolve as the world economy evolves, so that internationalization of financial markets and
we now have the case of emergent NIC TNCs. corporate strategies and the diffusion of
New forms of disciplinary power emerge as technology and related R&D and knowledge
changes in generic technology systems worldwide. Among the impacts of these are
develop, often in relation to 'long wave' the transformation of consumption patterns
phenomena, such as the emergence of into cultural products through world-wide
information technology. consumer markets as well as the
There is little doubt that the major internationalization of the regulatory
players are the transnational (or as they are capabilities of national societies into a global
sometimes referred to, multinational) political economic system, and a diminished
companies that have acquired a new role of national governments in designing the
significance and assertiveness as individual rules for global governance. Other
nation states apparently have diminished in implications include the emergence of socio-
their capacity to influence the economic critical responses to a highly competitive
events of the international economy. These global economy as well as the cultural and
companies have transformed themselves to ecological impact of these tendencies
become ‘global’ players and therefore operate (Therborn, 2000b). Additionally, we need to
at the most influential level of decision- be able to identify the winners and losers in
making. The world economy gives top globalization. Consideration of these aspects
priority to technology and to those who of globalization is illustrated in Table 1,
research, develop and produce technology, reflecting the weight given to transnational
overwhelmingly the transnationals. enterprises, which will be used to structure
Transnational companies are considered to be this entry.
the key actors in the production of wealth,
volumes exceeded the sales levels individual each other. TNCs face a dual challenge to
companies could achieve in all but the largest compete in global markets and to produce
countries, forcing them to become tailored solutions, in this context strategic
international or perish. The minimum alliances help transfer technology across
efficient level for capital intensive plants is 80 borders. Access to new markets is facilitated
to 90 per cent of capacity, in contrast to by using the complementary resources of
labour intensive industries. The costs and local firms, including distribution channels,
profits of capital intensive industries are and product range extensions. Sometimes
determined by plant utilization and inter-firm cooperation is a second best option
throughput, rather than by the simple to direct investment, particularly to smaller
amount produced. companies, which allow the exploration of
Less capital-intensive industries are market opportunities that may be
not as affected by scale economies. But approached later with more elaborate market
opportunities exist for scope economies strategies. Partners pooling resources
through worldwide communication and provides the benefits of economies of scale,
transportation networks. Trading companies and an increased rate of learning. Alliances
handling the products of many companies allow partners to leverage their specific
can achieve greater volume and lower unit capabilities and saves costs of duplication.
cost. With changes in technology and Apart from the direct promotion of
markets came requirements for access to international collaboration, as for example in
new resources as lower factor costs. It is European Community programs, government
misleading to assume that the search for policies may indirectly favour co-operation in
cheaper labour in itself is the central driving the same way they stimulate direct
force of the increasing internationalization of investment. Where there are limits on local
many industries. In most industries there participation of foreign companies, joint
are more important factors than labour costs, ventures and minority equity participation
including access to markets, technology and becomes prevalent. Where there are national
other resources. Increasingly industry differences in intellectual property,
requires more highly skilled labour and the environmental standards, and other
possession of relevant skills is more regulations, inter-firm agreements may
immediately important than the price of products to be accepted by local regulatory
labour. Of course labour intensive industries authorities. Finally, competition policy
survive, in which reducing the cost of the limiting collaboration in the home market
labour input to the barest minimum is a may encourage firms to seek foreign partners
primary motivation. However the and expand internationally.
international search for cheap labour is a
short-term strategy, as the conditions which Strategic alliances are a way of
create cheap labour are eliminated. No focusing investments, efforts and attention
country will ever build a competitive only on those tasks that a company does
advantage based on cheap wages, even if, well. All other activities can be out-sourced
for a short time, some companies that either through alliances or subcontracting.
operate in it might. Another way of looking at virtual companies,
Striving to succeed in fast-moving alliances and joint ventures is as the out-
markets requires most companies to be sourcing of risk, allowing organizations at
involved in frequent collaboration in order to arms length from the parent companies to
compete. Hence the importance of building take risks more freely, something which the
strategic alliances. Yoshino and Rangan parent firms wish to avoid. However, while
(1995:17) define alliances as ‘cooperation the vast majority of cross-company
between two or more independent firms collaborations are founded on a basis of trust
involving shared control and continuing and shared commitment, even the most
contributions by all partners.’ They identify carefully constructed alliance can become
the major strategic objectives of alliances as risky. Often strategic alliances become
maximising value; enhancing learning; short-term solutions that mask deeper
protecting core competencies and deficiencies in the companies concerned, and
maintaining flexibility. ‘The more a company these cause problems later when the
becomes globalized, the more it is likely to company is still vulnerable.
lose its own identity within a tangle of Inter-firm collaboration may also
companies, alliances and markets’ (Petrella carry the cost of strategic and organizational
1996:76). complexity. There are different mentalities in
Particularly in industries where there different companies, for example an
is a dominant worldwide market leader, accounting emphasis in US and UK
strategic alliances and networks allow companies, which are very stock price
coalitions of smaller partners to compete oriented. In contrast Japanese, Dutch and
against the leading companies rather than Swiss companies are indifferent to stock
price. Alliances are essentially an worldwide basis becomes the key defining
intermediate strategic device, and part of a competency of leading international
web that includes many other transactions. companies (Porter 1995:123).
Around half of all cross-border strategic According to the OECD (1996:46) the
alliances terminate within seven years. One main motives for setting up technology
or other of the partners finally purchases related agreements focuses upon the search
most alliance businesses and termination of for technological complementarities. These
the alliance does not mean failure. But the might be to extend R&D capabilities; reduce
prevalence of early terminations suggests it innovation time-spans; increase efficiency in
is important to consider whether parties are getting new products and processes to
likely to be buyers or sellers. markets; gain market access, and to
restructure mature technologies and slow
Globalization of Technology and linked growth industries. One consequence is that
R&D and Knowledge high technology industries are converging,
Globalization is driven by the for example in the integration of computers
strategic responses of firms as they exploit and telecommunications, bio and chip
market opportunities and adapt to changes in technologies, and advance materials and
their technological and institutional aerospace/autos manufacturing. Thus, in the
environment, and attempt to steer these industrial countries there is higher import
changes to their advantage. There are a penetration in high technology industries,
number of important technology related followed by medium-technology industries,
factors that have contributed to the with domestic production satisfying demand
emergence of globalization, including in low technology industries with the
declining computing, communication, co- exception of clothing and footwear. That is
ordination, and transport costs. Additionally, high-wage industries are more heavily
there is the increased importance of R&D, represented in imports, which contradicts the
and the speed up of product development impression that the imports of the industrial
cycles, leading to reduced product lives and countries are largely composed of low
the shortening of imitation time lags. New technology, low-wage goods. Industrial
types of industry have emerged that are countries increasingly specialise in high
knowledge-intensive, such as financial technology industries, which consequently
services, and there has been an increased feature more prominently in both their
customization of both intermediate and imports and exports.
finished goods, as well as of customer- International sourcing of parts and
oriented services. materials is a major feature of global
The most important competitive force production systems and accounts for a large
in the global economy is the capacity for part of total trade. With increasing
innovation, a thesis powerfully illustrated by globalization, intra-firm trade grows, as firms
Michael Porter (1990) in The Competitive move components and parts to the location
Advantage of Nations. Porter correlates the of final assembly and finished products to the
advance of knowledge, achievement in final market. Intra-firm trade (IFT) refers to
innovation and national competitive products that stay within a transnational
advantage. In his search for a new paradigm enterprise. Market imperfections and high
of national competitive advantage Porter transaction costs provide an incentive for
starts from the premise that competition is firms to internalise international transactions
dynamic and evolving, whereas traditional of goods that embody firm-specific
thinking had a static view on cost efficiency knowledge and expertise. Over one third of
due to factor or scale advantages. But static US trade is intra-firm trade and
efficiency is always being overcome by the approximately 25 per cent globally takes
rate of progress in the change in products, place inside companies (Ruigrok, 1991).
marketing, new production processes, and In terms of macro-economic factors,
new markets. there are a several important drivers of
The question is why do industries in globalization, including the long-term postwar
some countries invest in innovation more drift downwards in the price of the majority
vigorously and successfully than others? of commodity factor inputs and their
Firms do not simply maximise within fixed substitution by new technology products,
constraints but ‘gain competitive advantage such as fibre-optic cable and silicone chips.
from changing the constraints.’ The crucial These are clearly related to the innovation
issue for firms, and nations, is how they factors already addressed. The rapid
‘improve the quality of the factors, raise the development of knowledge-intensive skills
productivity with which they are utilised, and and capabilities in some countries, regions
create new ones’ (Porter 1990: 21). The and industrial sectors lead to significant
capacity to successfully innovate on a productivity differentials between firms in
different locations. The shift, from the early
“to function as autonomous national 'national' enterprises from the given country
policymakers has been seriously eroding. Few have a stable home base. Privileged access to
governments in the world today risk a serious the domestic market via public contracts
confrontation with the economic policies dear (defence, telecommunications, health,
to the IMF and World Bank” (Markoff, 1999: transport, education, and social services) is
827). In short, states are weakening in the also often required. Some transnational
global marketplace, according to this firms also require what they regard as an
hypothesis. appropriate industrial policy, particularly for
However, despite the weakening those in the high technology strategic sectors
hypothesis, most of the social and economic (defence, telecommunications, and data
programs of national governments, even processing). Such a policy would protect
though they have been subject to severe designated sectors of the domestic market
efficiency drives, and a transformation in from international competition, as well as
management, resourcing, and methods of support and assistance (regulatory,
delivery, are still in existence. Even after the commercial, diplomatic and political) for local
great waves of privatization that have swept companies in their efforts to survive in
the world, as Drache (1996:54) contends, ‘it international markets.
is premature to announce the death of the Often these expectations will be
nation state. Countries remain in charge of represented in terms of a logic of capital
the essential part of their national mobility. That is, if the local state does not
sovereignty: law making and jurisprudence; provide the required sweeteners, mobile
macro-economic policy, including money, capitalism will simply exit the scene and set-
finance and taxation.’ Considerable up where the benefits sought can be ensured.
evidence, from many different countries, The thesis is overstated because in terms of
suggests the emergence of a new paradigm the important criteria of share of assets,
of public management, one that is results- ownership, management, employment and
oriented rather than inward-looking, one that the location of R&D, home bases remain
sees the state role as that of an enabler important. Very few firms are genuinely
rather than provider (Clarke 1994). It is less transnational in these respects (Weiss 1997:
the death of the state that we are witness to 10, citing Hu [1992]). With Petrella (1996)
but more the decline of politics as compared and Weiss (1997) we can conclude that the
to markets, and the increasing incursion of proponents of strong globalization eroding
the former on the latter. state capacities oversell the proposition: they
The belief in the superiority of "the emphasise the extent and the novelty of
market" over "the state" has, as Markoff international investment while underrating
(1999: 288) suggests, “many components the capacities of states to adapt and to
ranging from ethical claims about human innovate around their specific national
freedom to technical claims about efficiency.” institutional frameworks. Globalization is
Private sectors, local communities, families, itself in part a consequence of these
individuals, or free markets are the political adaptations and innovations, especially in the
actors favoured in various new political cases of the most successful NICs of East
rhetorics, for whom there are a consistent set Asia, such as Japan, implementing
of losers – those individuals identified as internationalization strategies. These are
state welfare claimants. particularly evident in the development of
The claims of some of the losers on global financial markets.
state resources, such as the unemployed and
the poor, may be in the process of being
diminished, but other claims remain strong.
Among the willing clients of national 4. GLOBAL PRODUCTION OF CONCEPTS OF
governments are the transnational SELVES
corporations themselves, as Petrella claims,
who, despite employing the rhetoric of the
market enterprise, expect rather a lot from Globalization of consumption patterns
the state. Transnationals expect states to and cultures?
cover the costs of basic infrastructures. If the proposition that globalising
These include things such as: funding of strategies form a universal force of unilinear
basic and high-risk research; universities and dimensions were true the homogenization of
vocational training systems; to promote and taste and consumption would inevitably lead
fund the dissemination of scientific and to standardization of products,
technical information and technology manufacturing, marketing and trade. This
transfer. Additionally, they expect them to saturation of markets, with a few common
provide tax incentives for investment in products gaining enormous profit, is
industrial R & D and technological manifested in the ‘cola culture’. Coca-Cola is
innovations, as well as guarantee that
the world's most famous expression (after women’s movements at the local level,
OK), has the world's most famous brand the emergence of transnational feminist
name (worth an estimated US $39 billion), networks working at the global level, and
the adoption of international conventions
and is sold in almost 200 countries. Another
such as the Convention on the Elimination
similar example is MacDonalds (Ritzer, of All Forms of Discrimination Women and
199X). However, standardization has its the Beijing Declaration and Platform for
limits, and there are important cultural, Action of the Fourth Conference on
political and economic forces for local Women.
differentiation that have emerged powerfully
in recent years to question the logic of These are clear expressions of a
globalization. global discourse of rights, in this case
Not only have TNCs begun to realise applying to just over a half of humankind.
the limits to the homogenization of worldwide However, at the same time as these rights
tastes; consumers have stubborn inherent documents are issued globally, other aspects
preferences for a degree of aesthetic and of globalization have contradictory effects. In
cultural distinction. The arrival of flexible many ways, suggests Moghadam (1999:
manufacturing systems, including computer 376) working class and poor urban women
aided design and manufacture, enabled the have been the "shock absorbers" of
cost-effective pursuit of smaller, more highly neoliberal economic policies. Structural
differentiated market niches wherever they adjustment policies which increase prices,
appeared. Technology enables a fit between eliminate subsidies, diminish social-services
the global and micro markets in this respect. and increase fees for essentials hitherto
Flexible manufacturing technologies offer provided by the state place women at greater
TNCs a viable means to begin to respond risk.
more effectively to local consumer
preferences, and national government Globalization + Localization
restraints, while sustaining productive A paradoxical consequence of
efficiency. increasing globalization is the concentration
The spread of the mass media, of clusters of world class expertise in
especially television, means that in principle specialist industries in different local
almost everyone can be instantaneously economies around the world. This significant
exposed to the same images. However, the local dimension of the globalization
world is becoming less a `global village' and phenomenon consists of local economies built
more a ‘global market, in which privileged upon inter-linked networks of relations
commodities for sale are often based on the among firms, universities and other
hybridization and creolization, created from institutions in their local environment (see
the intermingling of peoples and items from OECD 1996; de Vet 1993; Storper and Scott,
different cultures. Music is perhaps the best 1993). Early specialization is reinforced by
example of this with the huge growth in the the growth of similar firms and institutions to
‘World Music’ market in the 1990s, when create highly competitive industrial and
Third World musicians, especially, became service clusters. Local geographic
global stars in the new niche market. But to concentrations of three broad groups of
do so they had to move through the circuits industrial and service activities have been
of power whose obligatory passage points noted. Highly competitive traditional, labour
were the global recording companies, such as intensive industries, which are highly
BMG, Sony and so on. concentrated, including textiles and clothing
One exception to this hybridization in some areas of Italy and the United States,
and creolization, although contested, is in the furniture production, shoes etc. High-
areana of rights. Globalization in the cultural technology industries often cluster around
sphere has meant the global proliferation of new activities. Well-known examples include
norms of individualized values, originally of biotechnology in San Francisco, semi-
Western origin, in terms of a discourse of conductors in Silicon Valley, scientific
‘rights’ (Markoff 1996). Such discourse is not instruments in Cambridge (UK) and musical
unproblematic: it meets considerable instruments in Hamamatsu (Japan). Services,
opposition from religious, political, ethnic, notably financial and business services,
sexual and other rationalities tied to the concentrate in a few big cities, such as
specificities of local practices, but it does advertising, films, fashion design, and R&D
provide a framework and set of terms activities.
through which resistance to these might be The OECD (1996:52) explains the
organized. Moghadam (1999: 368), for rationale for the local concentration of
instance, suggests that specialist I n terms of the advantages of
being in the same location as are similar
[T]he singular achievement of firms, specialised suppliers and contractors,
globalization is the proliferation of
and knowledgeable customers. Additionally, were clearly discernible in the shape of the
these locations tend t provide a good most advanced parts of the most advanced
technological infrastructure, and specialist societies. The reason was that the drivers of
research institutions, as well as a highly globalization were universal: hence there
skilled labour force, where specialization would be universal responses. (Echoes of this
within firms enables extensive out-sourcing turned up again in the 1990s in the ‘end of
(vertical disintegration) and encourages history’ thesis of Fukuyama [199X].)
similar new firms to be set up in the location
(horizontal disintegration). Globalizations
Globalization increases the The success of East Asia in the
competitiveness of these local economies by 1970s, despite the nostrums of development
attracting international firms with their own theory, questioned aspects of the global
specific advantages, and enhancing convergence interpretation, as Berger (1987)
established sourcing and supply relations. was not slow to realize in his book on The
Local firms individually may respond to Capitalist Revolution. Just as surely, so did
heightened competition through improving the crisis of 1997 and the subsequent
their innovative performance. Innovation unravelling of many of the economic miracles
may be extended through developing greater that had been lauded previously. Partly in
interactions between firms, suppliers, users, light of this debate, partly inspired by a
production support facilities, and educational broader debate about culture, a number of
and other institutions in local innovation writers have suggested, more or less
systems. Additionally, they may adopt lean implicitly, that the strengths of indigenously
production methods, more efficient embedded ways of doing things need re-
management techniques, greater local out- evaluation (Yeung, 2000). In some respects
sourcing and increase the use of local such reappraisal often attaches itself to
production networks, to increase efficiency postmodern themes where there is the
and spread risks and costs, by taking implicit idea that stages may be jumped and
advantage of local specialization in regional that societies can move from premodernity to
networks and industrial districts. Through postmodernity (Clegg, 1990). In this phase
building these they can improve production of thought, which characterizes the current
and service links with international firms sociological thinking about globalization,
investing locally. Local firms, particularly if there is a realization that convergence is
they are highly specialised, will cooperate neither necessary nor desirable. Individual
with international firms seeking identities, it is realized, differ greatly across
complementary resources in the specialised national societies as well as within them.
assets of small firms. Globalization measured Culture is increasingly seen as critical and
by incoming foreign investment tends to convergence is less likely and less productive
reinforce regional specialization, accentuating than divergence.
the development of special local economies One particular category of this is in
and enhancing the clustering of similar the struggles of indigenous peoples
activities. Some writers, following Robertson (Friedmann, 1999: 390). Although he
(1992), such as Clarke and Clegg (1998) and recognises the many injustices that have
Helvacioglu (2000), have referred to this occurred to indigenous peoples, globally, he
phenomenon of the interpenetration of the sees the situation as changing with the latest
global in the local and visa versa, as developments in globalization, “because the
‘glocalization’. indigenous is now part of a larger inversion of
Western cosmology.” The traditional
otherness of indigenous peoples is now seen
5. HUMANKIND as “a voice of Wisdom, a way of life in tune
with nature, a culture in harmony, a
gemeinschaft, that we have all but lost.
Not surprisingly, reviewing the Evolution has become devolution, the fall of
discussion thus far, one can note that civilized man.” Yet, a terrible irony attaches
business disciplines seem to view to this: either the indigene conforms to role
globalization in an almost one-dimensional in some kind of indigenously protected, and
manner, almost unreflectively, hardly hence “natural”, theme park or becomes
addressing broader social themes. Seen from more like us but with the patina of existential
this perspective globalization is a one way exoticism.
street, in which more and more of the world
becomes sucked into the vortex of the global Globalization of perception and
economy. Advocates of the convergence consciousness?
position supposed that all societies were Unreflexive analysis, focused on the
heading towards a future whose contours economic dimension considered only in
relation to those selves whose profits are British or French in an economy where meat,
served by corporate power, leads to sperm, livestock, and meat derived products,
anthropocentrism, suggests Purser (1994), in such as gelatine and cosmetic additives trade
relation to the global constituents of the globally. Greenpeace, as an organization for
environment, including other selves, expressing a standardized moral
humankind and the natural environment. consciousness that can mobilize activists
Globalization of this reductionism is a 'death anywhere, can represent Canadian seals as
threat to the environment'. This will be the easily as those that are Russian and, through
case particularly where there is a high degree global media, can act its way into the global
of separation of the simulacraic from the real consciousness.
economy. Real economies root themselves in Globalization, rather than foreclosing
place; simulacra are free-floating signifiers. questions of identity in convergence on one
The free float of signification burns, wounds, form, opens them all up in a thoroughly
scars and mars aspects of place that it settles postmodern way (Meyer, 2000). Yet, it is
on, suggests Purser. Against this Purser simultaneously a process of compression of
proposes a new kind of 'search conference', a space and time and, consequent upon this,
new kind of 'community therapy' attuned to an exacerbation of relativities between
local issues. The prioritizing of localism narratives of self, society, the globalizing
occurs in the context of the compression of world and the increasingly transparent ways
the world and the intensification of of being human, one to the other, that this
consciousness in the world as a whole. While complex of compression and relativization
localism may be an appropriate point of presents. And these are not free-floating,
intervention qua resistance, it is likely that signifiers of equal weight in dreamtime
more strategically pointed intervention stories that imagine futures now rather than
oriented to the locus of calculation could be pasts. They are stories that lodge in different
more efficacious. A great deal depends on forms of consciousness, encoded in the lore
the practical correlates of the stress on of the elders, the wisdom of the tribe, the
localism as a project that seeks not to news on the airwaves, the sights and sounds
intervene from the 'West' into all those that come down the tube, the transmissions
spaces that this signification constitutes as through the satellites, optical cables and
'Other' but to enable these other ways of microwaves.
doing things to be recognized as authentic, Some global significations route more
useful and exemplary. One risk that such a global imagination than others. The Murdoch
project runs is that the 'other' will simply News Corporation satellite now spreads its
learn the new, therapeutic and mutualistic footprint all over the Asian region – except
discourse that is proposed as another China, which his recent marriage may well be
tutelary means, one where the subjects who a strategic move towards remedying.
embrace the process have, perhaps, a better Certainly, there is considerable fixity to the
grasp of disciplinary power than do messages that the media transmits but,
ingenuous and unreflexive 'postmodern recalling the error with which McLuhan
experts'. As Diawara (2000) stresses (in a (1964) started the whole globalization
discussion of western agencies and their work debate, there is also considerable diversity in
in the Malian Sahara), there is a need to the way in which they are interpreted,
work with and integrate local knowledge and instantiated and used. Fixity in forms of
culture with expert knowledge – not to production and distribution does not mean
oppose them as mutually impermeable closure in forms of cultural consumption.
spheres. Murdoch discovered this when he found that
Some subjects cannot grasp the his analysis of the digital age meant the end
momentous changes occurring in their of dictatorship was a message received
constitution. We think of whales, seals, (or extremely coolly in Beijing. His subsequent
‘mad’ cows whose ‘rights’ to be ruminants ditching of the BBC from his satellite
have been violated by organized agri-industry broadband, for unfriendly reporting, helped
and reasserted by government policies), and appease sensibilities somewhat, as have
other species subject of organized campaigns critical remarks about the Dalai Lama, and
to represent or save them in some way. The the diplomatic efforts of Wendy Deng, the
ecosystem as a whole is now often ascribed new Mrs. Rupert Murdoch. News Corp is an
rights and interests as are other entities undoubted winner of globalization – but there
incapable of interest representation, such as are also losers.
foetuses, those who are on life-support
systems, and so on. All of these are
represented as global subjects with assigned
rights and interests that some violate, others
ignore and a few choose to represent (Meyer,
2000, 239). It matters not whether a cow is
financial institutions, government institutions, jobs, housing or whatever. But we also find
and so on. Government-business relations S11 anarchists, agreeing, in Sklair’s
typically have an exclusive rather than open (1999:158) words that “globalisation is often
character and can be an important seen in terms of impersonal forces wreaking
component in building national competitive havoc on the lives of ordinary and
advantage (Porter 1992). defenceless people and communities.” As he
An emerging danger is that goes on to say, it “is not coincidental that
competitive advantage in the future will open interest globalization over the last two
up the possibility of global domination more decades has been accompanied by an
rapidly than it was ever achieved in the past. upsurge in what has come to be known as
Brian Arthur (1996) argues that in a growing New Social Movements (NSM) research
number of industries there is a natural (Spybey 1996, chapter 7, Sklair 1998).”
tendency for the market leader to get further NSM theorists argue for the importance of
ahead, causing a monopolistic concentration identity politics (of gender, sexuality,
of business. ethnicity, age, community, and belief
If the aim of international systems) in the global era. S11 are a perfect
competition is to win, only a few can be example of this – and their strategies are
winners. A real danger is that the losers are based on global tactics. They do not seek to
excluded and abandoned to their situation. build effective conventional political alliances
The winners come together and increasingly and positions but use the tools of
integrate with one another. Where such globalization, such as the internet, to create
processes occur within societies serious activist ‘happenings’ as spectacular media
consequences may result in terms of events whenever the leading global players
increased poverty, unemployment, alienation meet internationally.
and crime. But the consequences are of a
higher order of magnitude when the The continuing impulse of markets
processes of exclusion and alienation involve and technology to integrate the world will
countries and whole regions of the world. require a considered response. Elements of
The share of world trade in each of these can be found in the ideologies
manufactured goods of the 102 poorest and practices of companies as well as
countries of the world is falling as the share governments. Representing the
of the three regions of the Triad increases. integrationists are the liberal international
There is a ‘de-linking’ of the less from the organisation such as the IMF, World Bank,
more developed world, particularly in Africa. World Trade Organisation and OECD, who
The Triad seem to be composing the core of stress the inevitability of further globalization
an increasingly globally integrated world and the significance of the role of
economy from which the countries outside international agencies in fostering
the Triad blocs are excluded. One can only understanding and agreement. In the
speculate on the political consequences of isolation wing are those people who yearn for
such a new global division: they are unlikely the days of national self-sufficiency and
to be integrative for the world system as a international trade supremacy. Among the
whole (Petrella, 1996:80-1). optimists are those such as Kenichi Ohmae
The cultural implications of economic (1990) and the Economist, seduced by the
analysis remain somewhat underdeveloped. opportunities of winner-take-all global
Attitudes toward the overwhelming political markets, if only free trade can become a
and economic forces for globalization range reality. Finally there are those, including
from enthusiastic integration, to determined political bodies such as the European
isolation, and from a belief that the free Community, and some businesses, that
market will resolve all resulting tensions, to a acknowledge the irresistible force and many
commitment for comprehensive social, attractions of further globalization but insist
economic and environmental regulation. A on a considered range of regulation to
motley collection of “new right” actors, sustain communities, economies and the
including the anti-globalization political environment against the most damaging
parties, such as in Australia, the Hanson One effects of globalization. It is this response to
Nation Party, or the Buchanan wing of the globalization that we find the most
republicans in the US, are in part founded on acceptable basis for dealing with the most
the spatializing and moralizing effects of profound economic and political phenomenon
fragmenting political identities. Ethnically at the turn of the millennium. That is
distinct identities can be denounced and recognising the significance of enhanced
marginalized as belonging to people who international opportunities involves improving
deny the majority of “ordinary people” their investment in internal and collaborative
rights (those who do not share their identity research and development, investing in
but share some other xenophobic conception human capital, and ensuring world class
of “national” identity) – to the surplus, relief, processes and state-of-the-art products and
services in order to compete. But also these Friedman, M. (1962) Capitalism and
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Soros, who more than anyone is an Helvacioglu B. (2000) “Globalization in the
unequivocal winner from globalization, fears neighbourhood: From the Nation-State to
will not emerge in time. Without the Bilkent Centre”, International Sociology, 15,
recognition of a common interest taking 2, 326-342
precedence over particular interests, our Hirst, P and Thompson, G. (1996)
present system will break down, he suggests. Globalization in question: the international
That we have at the present no organized economy and the possibilities of governance,
capacities that would seem able to produce Cambridge, UK: Polity Press
such an outcome may be the ultimate Hu, Y-S. (1992) ‘Global or stateless
challenge for globalization. corporations are national firms with
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NOTAS
i
Some of these ideas were first developed in
concert with Thomas Clarke in Changing Paradigms
(Clarke and Clegg, 1998), although much of the
paper reflects some long standing sociological
concerns, going back to work I did in the 1980s
and 1990s.