Theory:

Kirchhoff's voltage law (KVL)

This law is also called Kirchhoff's second law, Kirchhoff's loop (or mesh) rule, and Kirchhoff's
second rule.

The principle of conservation of energy implies that:

The directed sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed network is
zero, or:

More simply, the sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential
drops in that loop, or:

The algebraic sum of the products of the resistances of the conductors and the currents in them
in a closed loop is equal to the total emf available in that loop.

It can be stated as:

Here, n is the total number of voltages measured. The voltages may also be complex:

This law is based on the conservation of energy whereby voltage is defined as the energy per
unit charge. The total amount of energy gained per unit charge must be equal to the amount of
energy lost per unit charge, as energy and charge are both conserved.

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL)

This law is also called Kirchhoff's first law, Kirchhoff's point rule, or Kirchhoff's junction rule (or
nodal rule).
The principle of conservation of electric charge implies that:

At any node (junction) in an electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out of that node, or equivalently:

The algebraic sum of currents in a network of conductors meeting at a point is zero.

Recalling that current is a signed (positive or negative) quantity reflecting direction towards or
away from a node, this principle can be stated as:

n is the total number of branches with currents flowing towards or away from the node.

This formula is valid for complex currents:

The law is based on the conservation of charge whereby the charge (measured in coulombs) is
the product of the current (in amperes) and the time (in seconds).

Uses
A matrix version of Kirchhoff's current law is the basis of most circuit simulation software, such
as SPICE. Kirchhoff's current law combined with Ohm's Law is used in nodal analysis.

KCL is applicable to any lumped network irrespective of the nature of the network; whether
unilateral or bilateral, active or passive, linear or non-linear.

Current divider
Figure 1: Schematic of an electrical circuit illustrating current division. Notation RT. refers to the
total resistance of the circuit to the right of resistor RX.

In electronics, a current divider is a simple linear circuit that produces an output current (IX) that
is a fraction of its input current (IT). Current division refers to the splitting of current between
the branches of the divider. The currents in the various branches of such a circuit will always
divide in such a way as to minimize the total energy expended.

The formula describing a current divider is similar in form to that for the voltage divider.
However, the ratio describing current division places the impedance of the considered branches
in the denominator, unlike voltage division where the considered impedance is in the
numerator. This is because in current dividers, total energy expended is minimized, resulting in
currents that go through paths of least impedance, therefore the inverse relationship with
impedance. On the other hand, voltage divider is used to satisfy Kirchhoff's Voltage Law. The
voltage around a loop must sum up to zero, so the voltage drops must be divided evenly in a
direct relationship with the impedance.

To be specific, if two or more impedances are in parallel, the current that enters the
combination will be split between them in inverse proportion to their impedances (according to
Ohm's law). It also follows that if the impedances have the same value the current is split
equally.

A general formula for the current IX in a resistor RX that is in parallel with a combination of
other resistors of total resistance RT is (see Figure 1):

where IT is the total current entering the combined network of RX in parallel with RT. Notice
that when RT is composed of a parallel combination of resistors, say R1, R2, ... etc., then the
reciprocal of each resistor must be added to find the total resistance RT:

Voltage divider
In electronics, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a passive linear circuit that
produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin). Voltage division is
the result of distributing the input voltage among the components of the divider. A simple
example of a voltage divider is two resistors connected in series, with the input voltage applied
across the resistor pair and the output voltage emerging from the connection between them.

Resistor voltage dividers are commonly used to create reference voltages, or to reduce the
magnitude of a voltage so it can be measured, and may also be used as signal attenuators at low
frequencies. For direct current and relatively low frequencies, a voltage divider may be
sufficiently accurate if made only of resistors; where frequency response over a wide range is
required (such as in an oscilloscope probe), a voltage divider may have capacitive elements
added to compensate load capacitance. In electric power transmission, a capacitive voltage
divider is used for measurement of high voltage.

A voltage divider referenced to ground is created by connecting two electrical impedances in

series, as shown in Figure 1. The input voltage is applied across the series impedances Z1 and Z2
and the output is the voltage across Z2. Z1 and Z2 may be composed of any combination of
elements such as resistors, inductors and capacitors.

If the current in the output wire is zero then the relationship between the input voltage, Vin,
and the output voltage, Vout, is:
Proof (using Ohm's Law):

The transfer function (also known as the divider's voltage ratio) of this circuit is:

In general this transfer function is a complex, rational function of frequency.

Procedure: