Slide (9) Transformer Protection

Course Title: Protection of Power System (2)
Course Code: EE455

Presentation 9
Protection of Power System -2

Sub-station Transformer Protection
Lecturer Schedule: 13th to 14th Weeks
Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017 2

Transformer: Failures, Causes & Impact
1. Windings Failures
i. Dielectric Windings Faults
 Dielectric internal faults occurs in the windings are

categorized as insulation breakdown between winding and
earth, or between different phases or between adjacent turns
(i.e. inter-turn fault).
 Causes of dielectric interturn faults

➢ Degradation of the insulation due to thermal, electrical, and
mechanical stresses.
➢ Insulation breakdown due to over-current and over-voltage
which are high above the rated values caused by short-circuit
faults or lightning surge attack in absence of surge arrestors.
 Impacts of dielectric interturn faults
➢ Breaking of windings or complete burn-out.

3 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017
ii. Copper Conductors Windings Faults
 Causes of copper windings faults
The windings are usually of copper. Due to the copper line resistance
thermal losses occur. These thermal losses make hotspots in the
winding due to bad or lack of maintenance.
 Impacts of copper windings faults
➢ The overtime thermal losses causes wear and tear and the
decrease of the physical strength up to the point of breaking of
the winding.

iii. Mechanical Windings Faults
 Nature of mechanical windings faults
Mechanical windings faults are the distortion, loosening or

displacement of the windings.
 Causes of mechanical windings faults
The main reasons that cause mechanical windings fault are the
improper repair, bad maintenance, corrosion, manufacturing
deficiencies, vibration and mechanical movement within the
transformer.
 Impacts of mechanical windings faults
➢ Mechanical windings faults results in the decrease of the

performance of the transformer and the tearing of the turn-to-
turn ratio.
2. Bushings Failures
 Nature of bushings faults
➢ Bushes are insulating devices that insulate a high voltage

electrical conductor to pass through an earth conductor.
➢ In transformers it provides a current path through the tank wall.
➢ Bushing failure usually occurs over time.

2. Bushings Failures
 Causes and Impacts of bushings failures
➢ Loosening of conductors is caused by transformer

vibrations which results in overheating. This heat damage
the insulating paper and the oil used.
➢ Sudden high fault voltages causes partial discharge which

damage the bushes and causes its degeneration and
complete breakdown within hours.
➢ Seal breaking of bushes happen due to ingress of water,

aging or excessive dielectric losses. Due to this fault core
failure of the transformer occurs.
➢ Not replacing of old oil over long time or its deficiency due
to leakage causes internal over-flashing.

3. Under Load Tap Changer (ULTC) Failures
 Causes and Impacts of ULTC failures
➢ In Run-Through fault the tap changer takes time and after a

delay changes the turn ratio. The main reason for it is the
relay residue flux and the spring fragile over time.
➢ Lack of maintenance causes the shaft connection between

the tap and the motor driver ULTC to be not synchronous (i.e.
error in movement position).
➢ Old capacitors or burned-out capacitor in the motor causes

the tap changer to fail to control its direction movement.

4. Oil Tank Failures
 Function of oil tank
The function of the tank in the transformer is to be a container for

the oil used in it. The oil in the tank is used for insulation and
cooling. The tank can also be used as a support for Buchholz relay
of the transformer protection.
 Causes and Impacts of tank failures
➢ The fault in the tank occurs due to environmental stress,

corrosion, high humidity and sun radiation resulting in a
leakage or cracks in the tank walls. From these leakages and
cracks oil spill from the tank causing the reduction of oil.
➢ The reduction in oil level results in the reduction of insulation
breakdown strength of the transformer windings.
➢ The reduction of oil causes over-heating which damages
different parts of the transformer.

Transformer Protection
Protection used
Fault Type ANSI
Protective relay
number
Primary winding Phase-phase fault Differential; 87T;
Primary winding Phase-earth fault Overcurrent 50/51
Secondary winding Phase-phase fault Differential 87T

Differential; 87T;
Secondary winding Phase-earth fault
Restricted Earth Fault 87RGF
Interturn Fault Differential; 87T;
Core Fault Thermostat/Buchholz 26/63
Differential; 87T;
Tank Fault Thermostat/Buchholz; 26/63;
Tank-Earth 50G/51G
Over fluxing Over fluxing 24T
RTD temperature
Overheating
monitoring
49T

1) Protection against Windings Faults and Core Insulation Failure
i. Differential relay (ANSI 87T)
Transformer differential relay (87T) provides high sensitivity to

detect low magnitude of fault currents against:
i. Primary winding Phase-to-phase fault.
ii. Primary winding Phase-to-earth fault.
iii. Secondary winding Phase-to-phase fault.
iv. Secondary winding Phase-to-earth fault.
v. Inter-turn winding fault.
vi. Core insulation failure, shorted laminations.

1) Internal three-phase low-magnitude winding faults
i. Differential relay (ANSI 87T)
The major operating challenges to transformer differential

protection are:
 Maintaining sensitivity to detect low magnitude internal

faults.
 Maintaining security during CT saturation for external

faults while.
➢ CT saturation reduces the secondary output current

from the CT, and causes a false differential current to
appear to the relay.

 Transformer Phase Shift between Output and Input Voltages

and Currents
➢ Star connection phase and line voltages
Vab  Van  Vbn  V0   V  120 
 3 V 30
Phase shift
between line &
phase voltages
➢ Line current equals phase current

 Transformer Phase Shift between Output and Input Voltages

and Currents
➢ Delta connection phase and line currents
Ia  Iab  Ica  3 Iab   30 o

Phase shift
Ia  3 Iab   (  30 o ) between line &
phase currents
 Transformer Types of Current Transformer Connections

Transformer Differential Protection
Compensation for transformer winding configurations
i. Traditional compensation method
CTs are star CTs are delta

connection in connection in
delta-side winding star-side winding
Zero phase shift

between input &
output currents

Most commonly used wye-delta vector group
and required type of main CT delta connection
on the wye sides of the protected transformer
Required delta CT connection type
IEC Positive-
on wye side of the protected
ANSI sequence No-
vector power transformer and internal
designation Load Voltage
Vector Group setting in numerical
group phasor
differential relay
YNd1 YDAC DAC / Yy0
Dyn1 DABY DAB / Yy0
YNd11 YDAB DAB / Yy0
Dyn11 DACY DAC / Yy0
YNd5 YD150 DAB / Yy6
Dyn5 DY150 DAC / Yy6

i. Traditional compensation method

 When traditional electromechanical
relays are used, the CTs must be
properly connected to have Zero
phase shift between input & output
currents.
➢ The vector group provides the
amount of 30o phase shift that will
occur when the current goes from
the -primary to Y-secondary side
of the transformer
➢ In order to compensate for the 30 degree phase shift, the current

transformers in the Wye side of the transformers must be
connected in delta.
Difficulties and errors in the transformer protection
1. Magnetizing inrush current
The effect of the inrush current on the differential relay is

false tripping the transformer without of any existing type
of faults. From the principle of operation of the differential
relay, the relay compares the line currents coming from
both sides of the power transformer as explained above.
However, the inrush current is flowing only in the lines of
YG-primary side of the power transformer; while circulating
inside phases of -secondary windings. So that, the
differential current will have a significant value due to the
existence of current in only one side.

2. False trip due to CTs characteristics
➢ Primary and secondary CTs mismatch characteristics

create a small false differential current; which can be
enough to operate the differential relay.
➢ When saturation happens to one or all CTs at different

levels, false differential current appears in the differential
relay.

3. False trip due to Tap changers
➢ On-Load Tap-Changer (OLTC) is installed on the main sub-

station power transformers to control automatically the
heavy fluctuations in transformer output voltage.
➢ The transformation ratio of the CTs can be matched with

only one point of the tap-changing range.
➢ Therefore, if the OLTC is changed, unbalance current

flows in the differential relay operating coil causing false
trip signal.

ii. Numerical-based compensation method
When Numerical relays are used,

 it is possible to connect the CTs in wye and let the relay
calculate the delta compensation with both 3 tap and 30o
phase shift.
 The use of wye connected CTs

has the following advantages:
➢ Wye-connected CTs are easier

to wire and troubleshoot.
➢ Wye-connected CTs see three

times less lead burden for a
three-phase fault than delta-
connected CTs, making CT
saturation less likely.
➢ Residual overcurrent protection can be used, whereas delta-

connected CTs prevent this protection from being used on that
input to the relay.

 With wye compensation, the

currents are only tap adjusted.
 With DABY compensation, the

currents are first tap adjusted
and then combined
mathematically to compensate
for 30o phase shift.

MVA  10 3  C
TAP 
3  kVLL  CT  ratio 
C = 1 for wye-connected CTs
C= 3 for delta-connected CTs

With DABY compensation, the currents are first tap adjusted and
then combined mathematically to compensate for 30o phase shift
Advantages of using Numerical-based differential 87T relay
Numerical-based differential relays meet the challenge for

high sensitivity to internal faults and security against false
tripping caused by CT saturation during external faults in the
following ways:
 The restraint current is based on the maximum measured

winding current, as opposed to the traditional magnitude
sum of the currents. This ensures ideal restraint for the
actual fault condition, balancing sensitivity and security.
 The differential element uses a dual slope-dual breakpoint

characteristic. The differential element can be set to
account for both DC and AC saturation of the CTs, ensuring
security, while maintaining sensitivity.

Differential relay during transformer saturation & inrush
inrush
Idiff = i1 + i2 Idiff = i1 + i2
I 1 = I2 I1 >> I2
i 2 < i1 i1 >> i2
Idiff > 0 Idiff > 0
saturated
Differential relay during Differential relay during

transformer saturation transformer inrush

i. External Fault
▪ Measuring each current

contribution as “restraint”.
▪ Relay restraint currents:
IRes1 = 30 A & IRes2 = 25 A
➢ IRes = 25 A (smallest of IRes1 & IRes2)
➢ Relay operating current: Iop = 5 A
➢ Ratio of Iop / IRes = 5/25 = 20%
➢ Biased differential relay is a “50% restrained”
➢ Conclusion: 20% is less than 50%, so no trip

ii. Internal Fault
▪ Measuring each current

contribution as “restraint”.
▪ Relay restraint currents:
IRes1 = 30 A & IRes2 = 1 A
➢ IRes = 1 A (smallest of IRes1 & IRes2)
➢ Relay operating current: Iop = 31 A
➢ Ratio of Iop / IRes = 31/1 = 310%
➢ Biased differential relay is a “50% restrained”
➢ Conclusion: 310% is much bigger than 50%, so trip

Settings calculations
Step-1:
Calculate the rated load of primary
and secondary sides from:
rated MVA  10 3 25  10 3
INp    131.2 A
3  kVNp 3  110
rated MVA  10 3 25  10 3
INs    687.3 A
3  kVNs 3  21
Step-2: Calculate tap settings

The current mismatch from the power transformer ratio and CT
ratios is solved by using tap settings so that the currents are
compared on a per-unit basis.
rated CT Ip 300
Tap Setting p    2.287 A
INp 131.2
rated CT I s 1000
Tap Setting s    1.455 A
INs 687.3
Step-3: Select the turn point-1 current
 Set high enough to avoid operation

because of steady-state CT errors
and transformer magnetizing current.
 The typical TP1 range is 0.3 to 0.5×IN.
 ITP1 is fixed @ 50% IN

Step-4: Calculate the low percentage

bias setting (slope k1 or starting ratio)
Should the tap changer be

uncompensated, the starting ratio
setting is calculated as sum of
▪ 5% (HV CT error)
▪ 5% (LV CT error)
▪ 9×1.67% (Tap changer error)
▪ 4% (typical relay operation error)
▪ 5% (typical margin)
➢ Starting ratio setting (k1) = 34%

Step-4 cont. :
Calculate the low percentage bias

setting (slope k1 or starting ratio)
Should the tap changer be

automatically compensated (by means
of Tap position input), the starting
ratio setting is calculated as sum of :
▪ 5% (HV CT error)
▪ 5% (LV CT error)
▪ 4% (relay operation error)
▪ 5% (typical margin)
➢ Starting ratio setting (k1) = 19%
Step-5: Calculate the basic setting
 Basic setting defines the minimum

sensitivity of the differential
protection.
 Basic setting allows for the no-load

current of the power transformer.
 Calculate basic setting beginning

from TP1 as:
Basic setting = 0.5saturation ratio

+ %core losses
Typically core losses is taken as

10% if actual value is unknown
Basic Setting  0.5  34  10  27%
or  
Ipu , min  27 100  1 A  0.27 A  270 mA
Step-6: Select the turn point-2 current
 In a power transformer protection

application the second Turn-point2 is
normally chosen in the range 1.5 ... 2.
 With the setting 1.5, the protection is

somewhat more stable against out-
of-zone faults, whereas the setting
2.0 provides somewhat more
sensitive protection for in-zone
faults.
 Select ITP2 = 200%IN

Step-7: Calculate the high percentage

bias setting (slope k2)
 Set Slope 2 in the range of 50 to 70

percent to avoid problems with CT
saturation for high fault currents.
 Select K2 = 70%

2) Phase and Ground Over-Current protection
Causes of over current in transformer:
 Over current may occur due to over loading of the

transformer. IEC recommends that transformer capability
loadings are
➢ 150%FLC for transformer ratings less than 100MVA
➢ 130%FLC for transformer ratings higher than 100MVA
 If any internal fault occurs like short circuit or ground faults

there will be over current flow through the transformer
windings from the source.

ii. High set Over-Current relay (ANSI 50/51)
Values of 51 (Low and High set

OC) settings are adjusted
according to relay co-ordination
with other down-stream
protective devices

 Overcurrent of long duration (i.e.

overloads) is generally detected
by IDMT delayed (ANSI 51)
overcurrent relay.
 An instantaneous overcurrent
protection (ANSI 50) device
located at the transformer primary
ensures Instantaneous release in
(15 ~ 50)ms against violent short
circuit currents.
➢ instantaneous pickup of
numerical 50-OCR is set at
1.3×Iinrush @ 15-50 ms
 Short-time delayed 51 (Low and

High set OC) relay located at the
transformer primary as back-up
protection.
➢ Values of 51 (Low and High set
OC) settings are adjusted
according to relay co-ordination
with other down-stream
protective devices.
 The over current relays cannot distinguish between external short

circuit, over load and internal faults of the transformer, so backup
protection over current and earth fault protection connected to in-
feed side of the transformer will operate.
 Short-time delayed 51G ground

fault relay located at the
grounded-transformer neutral as
back-up protection for ground
fault currents.
➢ Earth fault current setting
 20% of maximum earth fault
with time delay according to
discrimination.

 Transformer operating region

located at and to the left of
the FLA and inrush points.
 Transformer damage region

located to the right and
above the damage curves.
 Protective device operating

region located between the
transformer operating and
damage regions.

 The primary OCR (50)

instantaneous setting should
override the inrush current.
 The primary OCR (51) IDMT

curve should be below the
primary-side thermal damage
curve.
 The primary OCR (51) IDMT

curve should be below the
ANSI point.
I ANSI  937 A @ 4.5 s

3. Sensitive Ground Fault Protection to limit Transformer Damage
iii. Restricted Ground Fault relay (ANSI 87RGF)
 Differential and overcurrent

protection do not provide
adequate protection for wye-
connected windings with
grounded neutrals.
➢ Faults close to the neutral
produces lesser fault current
as shown by the current
distribution curve.
 The restricted ground fault
function can be used to provide
differential protection for such
ground faults, down to faults at
5% of the transformer winding.
 Basics
 An external fault in the star side

will result in current flowing in the
line CT of the affected phase and at
the same time a balancing current
flows in the neutral current
transformer, hence the resultant
current in the relay is therefore
zero. So this 87RGF relay will not
be actuated for external earth fault.
 But during internal fault the neutral

current transformer only carries
the unbalance fault current and
operation of 87RGF relay takes
place.

 Basics
 REF is sensitive (more so than

biased differential protection) and
fast acting to clear the internal
earth fault.
 Fault detection is confined to the

zone between the two CTs hence
the name 'Restricted Earth Fault'.
 The protection scheme is

comparatively cheaper than
differential protection scheme.

 Scheme Arrangements
REF: 3 Wire + Earth, REF: 4 Wire + Earth,

4 CTs 5 CTs

4. Over Flux Protection
 In transformer the core flux density B al V/f ratio.
 V/f ratio is generally maintained constant but if due to any reason

voltage is increased above nominal voltage or the frequency is
reduced below nominal frequency transformer may experience
overfluxing and may also reach under saturation.
 Overfluxing may be due to

➢ sudden load-rejection overvoltages,
➢ the excitation of generator at low frequency, or
➢ when transmission line is lightly loaded and proper shunt VAR-
compensation is not provide.
 When a transformer core is overexcited, the core is operating in a
non-linear magnetic region, and creates harmonic components in
the exciting current. A significant amount of current at the 5th
harmonic is characteristic of overexcitation
 The capability of a transformer to withstand higher V/f values

i.e. over fluxing effect, is limited to a few minutes as furnished
below in the Table:
V/f ratio in % of (V/f)rated 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.4

Duration of withstand limit continuou
2.0 1.0 0.5 0.0
(in minutes) s
 From the table above it may be seen that when over fluxing
due to system hazards reaches such that the factor %V/f
ratio attains a values 1.4, the transformer shall be tripped
out of service instantaneously otherwise there may be a
permanent damage

iv. Over-fluxing (V/Hz) relay (ANSI 24)
 Characteristics
➢ It is usual to provide a
definite time-delayed alarm
setting for overfluxing %V/f
ratio exceeds 1.1.
➢ Inverse time-delayed or an
instantaneous trip setting
when duration and severity
of the condition crosses safe
operation limit.

5. Transformer Tank Protection
v. Transformer tank grounded relay (ANSI 64T)
 Principle of this protection consists in

connection of the transformer frame
with the earthing system through a CT.
 An overcurrent relay is connected to

the CT output terminals.
 This protection will act in case of all

faults, when voltage will be on the
transformer frame (e.g. a bush
breakdown) and current will flow from
frame to ground through CT. Therefore
the transformer tank has to be
insulated from the ground.
5. Transformer Tank Protection
v. Transformer tank grounded relay (ANSI 64T)
The setting value of the tank

earth-fault protection is given:
Rg
Ipu   IFmax
Ri  R g
Ri insulation resistance of the transformer tank

resistance between the grounded point of
Rg the transformer tank and the grounding of
the transformer winding neutral point
maximal value of fault current through
IFmax
ground

6. Transformer Over-Load Protection
vi. Thermal over-load relay (ANSI 49RMS)
 This protection function is used to protect HV/LV

transformers against overloads, based on measurement of
the current drawn.
 The current measured is an RMS 3-phase current which

takes into account harmonics up to number 13.
 The 49RMS relay function is based on a thermal model witch

calculates the temperature rise from current measurements
according to functional standard IEC 60255-149 and take
into account the I2R losses due to the specific operational
current and the simultaneous cooling effect of the coolant.

 The time-current characteristics according to functional standard

IEC 60255-149 is:
 2 2  t Operating time
 I  Ip 
t  T  ln T Thermal time constant of the transformer
 I2  k  I 2 
 B  I Overload current
IB Thermal overload current setting
k constant
Specified load current before the overload
Ip
occurs
 The tripping time during an overload condition takes the prior level
of load current into consideration. An alarm can be set to operate
before the tripping condition is reached.

 A 49 thermal protection function can be implemented to make

decisions based on top-oil temperature or winding hottest-spot
temperature limits.
 The 49 function includes 12 stages of settings that could be

used to issue
➢ alarms when the transformer is 80-90% of maximum

current load or
➢ tripping decisions when the transformer has reached

maximum allowable temperature.

vii. Buchholz relay (ANSI 63)
 Buchholz relay ONLY applies to a

transformer with a Conservator.
 Buchholz relay is a type of oil and gas

actuated protection relay universally
used on all oil immersed transformers
having rating more than 500 kVA.
 Buchholz relay is used for the

protection of internal transformer
short circuit faults such as
➢ inter turn faults,
➢ incipient winding faults, and
➢ core faults that may occur due to the
impulse breakdown of the insulating
oil.

vii. Buchholz relay (ANSI 63)
 Minor fault occurs inside the

transformer produces heat which
decomposes oil and gas bubbles
moves towards the conservator
through the pipe line. The
displacements of oil gas tilts the
hinged float at the top of the chamber
thereby the mercury switch closes the
contacts of the alarm circuit.
 During the occurrence of severe faults

the amount of volume of gas evolves
will be large and the float at the
bottom of the chamber is tilted and
the trip circuit is closed to operate
the circuit breaker and isolates the
transformer.

MV/LV & Low power rating
(2) Fuse or 2-setting overcurrent
(3) Earth fault
(4) Buchholz or DGPT
(6) Neutral earth protection

MV/LV & High power rating
(1) Thermal overload
(3) Earth fault
(5) Tank earth leakage

MV/MV & High power rating
(1) Thermal overload
(3) Earth fault
(5) Tank earth leakage
(7) Transformer differential
(8) Restricted earth fault protection

Slide (9) Transformer Protection

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Course Title: Protection of Power System (2)

Course Code: EE455

Protection of Power System -2

Lecturer Schedule: 13th to 14th Weeks

Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017 2

i. Dielectric Windings Faults

 Dielectric internal faults occurs in the windings are

 Causes of dielectric interturn faults

 Impacts of dielectric interturn faults

➢ Breaking of windings or complete burn-out.

ii. Copper Conductors Windings Faults

 Causes of copper windings faults

 Impacts of copper windings faults

4 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

iii. Mechanical Windings Faults

 Nature of mechanical windings faults

Mechanical windings faults are the distortion, loosening or

 Causes of mechanical windings faults

➢ Mechanical windings faults results in the decrease of the

 Nature of bushings faults

➢ Bushes are insulating devices that insulate a high voltage

➢ In transformers it provides a current path through the tank wall.

➢ Bushing failure usually occurs over time.

6 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

 Causes and Impacts of bushings failures

➢ Loosening of conductors is caused by transformer

➢ Sudden high fault voltages causes partial discharge which

➢ Seal breaking of bushes happen due to ingress of water,

7 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

3. Under Load Tap Changer (ULTC) Failures

 Causes and Impacts of ULTC failures

➢ In Run-Through fault the tap changer takes time and after a

➢ Lack of maintenance causes the shaft connection between

➢ Old capacitors or burned-out capacitor in the motor causes

8 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

4. Oil Tank Failures

 Function of oil tank

The function of the tank in the transformer is to be a container for

 Causes and Impacts of tank failures

➢ The fault in the tank occurs due to environmental stress,

9 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

Secondary winding Phase-phase fault Differential 87T

10 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

1) Protection against Windings Faults and Core Insulation Failure

i. Differential relay (ANSI 87T)

Transformer differential relay (87T) provides high sensitivity to

11 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

1) Internal three-phase low-magnitude winding faults

i. Differential relay (ANSI 87T)

The major operating challenges to transformer differential

 Maintaining sensitivity to detect low magnitude internal

 Maintaining security during CT saturation for external

➢ CT saturation reduces the secondary output current

12 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

 Transformer Phase Shift between Output and Input Voltages

➢ Star connection phase and line voltages

Vab  Van  Vbn  V0   V  120 

➢ Line current equals phase current

13 Prof Mahmoud El-Gammal October 9, 2017

 Transformer Phase Shift between Output and Input Voltages

➢ Delta connection phase and line currents

Ia  Iab  Ica  3 Iab   30 o

 Transformer Types of Current Transformer Connections