Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46

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Quaternary Science Reviews

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Chronostratigraphy in karst records from the Epipaleolithic to the

Mid/Early Neolithic (c. 13.0e6.0 cal ka BP) in the Catalan Coastal
Ranges of NE Iberia: environmental changes, sedimentary processes
and human activity

Bergada
M. Merce
a, *, Josep M. Cervello
 a, Manel Edo b, Artur Cebria

a, F. Xavier Oms a,
Pablo Martínez , Ferran Antolín , Juan Ignacio Morales , Mireia Pedro a
b b, c a

a
SERP, Departament d’Histo
ria i Arqueologia, Universitat de Barcelona, C/ Montalegre, 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
b  de la Prehisto
CIPAG. Col·lectiu per la Investigacio
ria i l’Arqueologia del Garraf-Ordal, Begues, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
c
IPAS. Integrative Prehistory and Archaeological Science, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The stratigraphic, sedimentary and palaeoenvironmental features reflected in cavities in the Catalan
Received 29 March 2017 Coastal Ranges of NE Iberia (Can Sadurní and Guineu caves) characterize the periods of pronounced
Received in revised form climatic and human complexity that occurred c. 13.0e6.0 cal ka BP. This includes the stages of the
2 August 2017
Younger Dryas and Mid/Early Holocene, the latter being one of the periods of so-called Rapid Climatic
Accepted 18 September 2017
Available online 17 October 2017
Changes (RCCs). These caves, like others in Mediterranean contexts, are the result of an old duct origi-
nating in the saturated zone of the karst system and open to the outside; recording a succession of
different detrital and anthropic episodes of the Epipaleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic communities.
Keywords:
Younger Dryas
From this study it can be seen that paleoclimatic events do not always present clear signals in the karst
Middle and Early Holocene records, especially c. 12.7e7.4 cal ka BP, corresponding to the Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic. It is char-
Rapid climate changes acterized by a stratigraphic discontinuity in which there are phases with predominantly detrital sedi-
Geoarchaeology mentation alternating with hiatus intervals. Detrital sedimentation formed by fine material colluvium
Micromorphology with gravitational movements or solifluction processes in fresh and humid conditions. It appears in the
Stabling areas following chronological intervals: 12.7e12.2 cal ka BP, 11.5/11.1e10.7/10.4 cal ka BP and 8.2e8.0 cal ka BP
Karstic cave (less humid). Hiatus phases are represented in the rest of the sequence up to c. 7.4 cal ka BP. From the
NE Iberian peninsula
sedimentary point of view these stages of hiatus are indicative of phases of stability or lack of episodes
Cova de Can Sadurní
with seasonal contrasts; a fact that would cause interruptions to detrital deposition in the interior of the
Cova de la Guineu
caves.
In contrast, in the period c. 7.4 to 6.0 cal ka BP, attributed to the Middle and Early Neolithic, there is a
certain stratigraphic continuity. From the sedimentary point of view it is distinguished by a variability of
processes that responds to accumulative episodes of short duration characteristic of morphogenesis of
the slopes in an arid Mediterranean environment, identified in our records as RCCs, (c. 7.4e7.2 cal ka BP-
Cardial Neolithic; c. 6.8e6.3 cal ka BP-Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic and c. 6.2e5.7 cal ka BP- Late
Postcardial Middle Neolithic) alternating with episodes of stability, more humid and coinciding with a
better sedimentary record of the pastoral activity in the cavities during Epicardial and Late Cardial
Neolithic (c. 7.1e6.7 cal ka BP) and Postcardial Middle Neolithic (c. 6.6e5.9 cal ka BP). It is during this
period that Holocene climate variability has better resolution in caves in the Catalan Coastal Ranges of NE
Iberia.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

* Corresponding author.

), jmcervello@gmail.com (J.M. Cervello
E-mail addresses: bergada@ub.edu (M.M. Bergada  ), cipagmedo@gmail.com (M. Edo), arturcebria@gmail.com (A. Cebri
a),
xavieroms@gmail.com (F.X. Oms), pablomartrod@gmail.com (P. Martínez), ferran.antolin@unibas.ch (F. Antolín), jignacio.morales@gmail.com (J.I. Morales), mireiapedro@
gmail.com (M. Pedro).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2017.09.008
0277-3791/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada
1. Introduction
In this paper we characterize the stratigraphic, sedimentary and
palaeoenvironmental features that are reflected in karst contexts in
the Catalan Coastal Ranges of NE Iberia, from one of the periods
with the greatest climatic complexity located between c.
13.0e6.0 cal. Ka BP and of great importance for human occupations.
These are the stages of the Younger Dryas (YD), Early Holocene and
Middle Holocene (EH and MH), with the so-called period of Rapid
Climatic Changes (RCCs) developed in the latter.
The data available to date on the chronostratigraphic and
palaeoenvironmental aspects of the Iberian Peninsula, and espe-
cially its Mediterranean basin, have been obtained through infor-
mation from different proxies and reflect a high degree of
variability. The YD has been widely detected, with internal varia-
tions and some regional diachronism (Cacho et al., 2010). Studies of
marine and pollen records mainly indicate conditions of relative
aridity and also of cold (Burjachs et al., 2016; Cacho et al., 2001;
García-Ruiz et al., 2016; Gonz alez-Sampe riz et al., 2006). Recently,
high resolution analyzes of new speleothem records in the north of
the peninsula have documented a double stage for the YD with an
earlier arid phase followed by a relatively wetter period (García-
Ruiz et al., 2016).
From the cultural point of view, the regional sequence of this
phase corresponds to the development of the last phases of the
Magdalenian called Epimagdalenian or Epipaleolithic (Aura et al.,
2011). This phase is characterized by a decrease in the bone in-
dustry and a general predominance of backed point lithic pro-
jectiles, although geometric elements start to appear in some
sequences such as Cova del Parco in the north-east peninsular
(García-Argüelles et al., 2013; Petit et al., 2009).
With regard to the Holocene, the climate change pattern of the
Mediterranean region, with strong spatial and temporal variability,
appears to be linked mainly to the availability of water from the
hydrological system (Davis et al., 2003; Ferrer, 2015).
Marine records indicate, sea surface temperature maximums in
this phase of the Early Holocene (10.0e9.0 ka BP) (Cacho et al.,
2001; Martrat et al., 2007). It should also be added that
numerous studies suggest that climatic conditions at the beginning
of the Holocene were significantly more humid than during the
Late Holocene. However, this optimum seems not to have been
synchronous throughout the Iberian Peninsula. In the northern
half, the wettest period occurred before 8.0 ka BP (Frigola et al.,
2007; Gonza lez-Sampe riz et al., 2006; Morello  n et al., 2009)
whereas in the east and south of the Mediterranean area, the
conditions were arid and dry (Cacho et al., 2001; Carrio  n et al.,
2010; Jalut et al., 2009). In this zone the maximum humidity
occurred at about 8.0 ka cal BP (Carrio  n et al., 2010; Ferrer, 2015).
From the cultural point of view, the Early Holocene is man-
ifested by a complex episode in technological terms: the Sauve-
terrian style Epipaleolithic with triangles and segments (García-
Argüelles et al., 2013); the appearance of stage called Early Meso-
lithic, which is a break with the previous tradition of industry of
notches and denticulates (Aura et al., 2011); and finally, the Late
Mesolithic with geometric microliths (mainly trapezes with abrupt
retouch) of Tardenosian tradition (Burjachs et al., 2016).
The oscillation at the beginning of the Middle Holocene that has
attracted the most interest is the so-called event of 8.2, referring to
its age (8.2 Ka BP) (Alley et al., 1997). The impact, duration and
characteristics of this event have very different geographical ex-
pressions (Rohling and Pa €like, 2005). In the context of Iberia, this
event does not always present a clear signal, and in most of the
continental pollen sequences it is not evident (Cacho et al., 2010).
However, there are some examples in different sequences that
show an increase in the aridity associated with this event, as in
27
Laguna Medina in the south (Reed et al., 2001), in the playa Lake
Salines (Burjachs et al., 2016) in the southeast or in the Estanya lake
(Morello  n et al., 2009) in the northeast. In the highest areas of the
Pyrenees it is manifested as an arid and also cold event (Gonza lez-
Sampe riz et al., 2006).
This c. 8.2 ka BP event is most clearly identified in marine re-
cords (Cacho et al., 2010). The reconstructions of sea-surface tem-
peratures in Albora n and around the Balearic Islands indicate a
cooling of about 2
- 3
C (Cacho et al., 2001; Frigola et al., 2007). It
should be noted that despite the relative scarcity of records clearly
showing the impact of the 8.2, there is some archaeological evi-
dence indicating a change in the distribution of prehistoric settle-
ments or a depopulation coinciding with the ending of the
Mesolithic (Berger and Guilaine, 2009; Corte s Sa
nchez et al., 2012;
Fernandez and Jochim, 2010; Gonza lez-Sampe riz et al., 2009;
Morales and Oms, 2012).
The Middle Holocene is characterized by the RCCs documented
in the Northern Hemisphere (Alley et al., 1997; Berger et al., 2016;
Combourieu-Nebout et al., 2013; Mayewski et al., 2004) and has
been linked to the North Atlantic Bond events (Bond et al., 1997,
2001). These episodes have presented controversy with the “ther-
mal maximum” also designated within the Atlantic period.
Both the palynological studies (Jalut et al., 2000; Pe rez-Obiol
et al., 2011) and the limnological ones (Valero-Garce s and
Moreno, 2011) have shown a tendency towards aridity in the
Mediterranean Iberia. Different authors confirm the millennial
variability from the MH reflecting the sensitivity to changes in the
system (Fletcher and Zielhofer, 2013; Jalut et al., 2000).
From the point of view of population, it is a transcendental stage
since it includes the early stages of production (Cardial Neolithic,
Epicardial Neolithic and Postcardial Middle Neolithic) in the Med-
iterranean area dated c. 7.5 to 6.0 ka BP.
In this paper we analyse in detail how these palae-
oenvironmental variations are reflected in the studied karst con-
texts. The records we present are the Cova de Can Sadurní and Cova
de la Guineu, located in the Catalan Coastal Ranges of NE Iberia
(Fig. 1). They are cavities that, like others in Mediterranean con-
texts, are the result of an old duct that originated in the saturated
zone of the karstic system and open to the outside, demonstrating
the succession of such episodes in detail. It is also intended to
reflect the interaction of human activity in the environment in
order to contribute in a global way to the chronostratigraphic dis-
cussion of this period in the Mediterranean context of the NE of
Iberia.
2. Geological and archaeological background
2.1. The geological and geomorphological setting
The two cavities that are the object of our study are located in
the structural unit of the Catalan Coastal Range in the NE of Iberia. It
is characterized by a series of aligned reliefs and NE-SW de-
pressions with an average width of 30 km subparallel to the coast
between the Ebro Basin and the Valencia Trough, which is its
emergent north-western margin. The present relief corresponds to
the superposition of the Paleogene compressive structures that
were involved in the formation of an intraplate mountain range up
to the Upper Oligocene, and the Neogene extension that generated
a system of half-grabens and raised and tilted horsts from inverse
movement along the Barcelona, Valle
s - Penede
s and the Camp
fault. This isostatically raised the horsts of Garraf, among the half-
grabens of Barcelona (submerged at the coast) and that of the
Valle
s-Penede
s and the Prelitoral chain, between Valle
s-Penede
s
half-graben and the Ebro Basin (Bartrina et al., 1992).
The rejuvenation of the relief in the structural highs with a
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et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Fig. 1. Location of Cova de Can Sadurní, Cova de la Guineu and the sites mentioned in the text. Numbers correspond to: 1. Arba de Biel; 2. Cueva del Seso; 3. Balma Margineda; 4.
Font del Ros; 5. Cova del Parco; 6. Balma del Gai; 7. Molí del Salt; 8. Abric del Filador; 9. Abric de la Cativera; 10. Cova del Vidre; 11. Cueva de los Molinos; 12. Cova d'en Pardo; 13.
Tossal de la Roca; 14. Abric de la Falguera.

highly fractured Mesozoic limestone coverage generated karst
systems, especially in the Garraf massif, which continued to rise
until the Middle Miocene, about 15 Ma ago. The later evolution of
this karst has been affected by variations in Mediterranean sea
level, the Messinian crisis (7 Ma ago), the temperate tropical to
subtropical paleoclimates that dominated the sector until the
implementation of the Mediterranean seasonal regime 2.7 Ma ago
and climatic fluctuations of the Pleistocene.
The cave of Can Sadurní is located in the Garraf massif in Begues
(Baix Llobregat, Barcelona) at 421 m ASL and UTM 409085E and
4578770N. It is located to the south of the metropolitan area of
Barcelona, between the valley and the delta of the river Llobregat,
the depression of the Penede
s and the Mediterranean coast. Garraf
forms an extensive mountainous coastline that rises 600 m above
the beaches of Castelldefels and Sitges.
The geological map of the surroundings of Can Sadurní and
Begues shows the complexity of Garraf geology (Fig. 2a and b). At
the base of the massif, towards the valley and the delta of the
Llobregat is a Palaeozoic metamorphic basement on which a thick
Mesozoic coverage is located, intensely fractured by the alpine
tectonics. The landscape that characterizes the massif is formed by
the Jurassic and Cretaceous dolomites and limestones in which a
karst with all surface modelling attributes and hundreds of sub-
terranean cavities have been developed (Bergada
et al., 2018).
The Garraf massif is formed by highlands furrowed by valleys
and canyons, with poljes, clint and doline fields as well as chasms
and caves in the upper parts. Water infiltration drains underground
through the entire massif to the coastline.

Fig. 2. Geological location.

a. General map of the geological units of the caves studied.
b. Detailed map of Cova de Can Sadurní.
c. Detailed map of Cova de la Guineu.
(Source: Geological Cartography of the Institut Cartogr
afic i Geolo

gic de Catalunya e ICGC e Generalitat de Catalunya).

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada
The cave of Guineu located in Font-Rubí (Alt Penede
s, Barcelona)
at about 734 m ASL and UTM 380921E 4588723N. It is situated on
the southern slope of the Prelitoral Mountain Range in the Sierra de
Font-Rubí which is part of the horst of the Gaia
and El Camp massif
and the Montmell reliefs.
The lithology of the site (Fig. 2a and c) consists of materials from
the Triassic, mainly from the Upper Muschelkalk, consisting of
micritic limestones at the base and fine-grained dolomites at the
top (Amigo , 1983; Bergada
, 1998). The total thickness in this sector
is 50 m. The structure of this zone is conditioned almost exclusively
by the fracturing, in which the faults with NW-SE orientation
dominate.
The karst system that developed in this dolomitic and limestone
mass presents a state of important evolution. There are numerous
endokarstic forms that have been favoured by the tectonics of the
area.
Morphologically the two cavities present the characteristics of
an old duct (Fig. 3a, b, 4a and 4b) originating in the saturated zone
of a long and complex karst system.
Its evolution, similar to other cavities in the sector, is marked by
a series of stages:
a. Formation of the cavity from discontinuities in the limestone
rock, stratification planes and subvertical tectonic
microstructures.
b. Dissolution in walls and roof as a result of flooded cavity regime.
c. General lowering of the karst base level and new position of the
cavity in the unsaturated infiltration zone of the karstic system.
The non-soluble fraction is located in the interior of the ducts
and consists of silt and hardened red clays derived from the
superficial karstification processes, especially active under the
soil cover. It is located in the eastern part of the cave room in Can
Sadurní.
d. Precipitation of speleothems in the cavity in the form of flow-
stone and stalagmites.
e. Opening or enlarging of the cavities to the exterior, formation of
clastic collapses, cones with blocks that prograde towards the
interior and introduction of finer materials. The blocks form a
steep ramp towards the interior of the cave, forming an
important sedimentary deposit that includes mostly the se-
quences that are the object of this paper.
In conclusion, the karst development in these sectors is poly-
phasic and the studied detrital deposits are recent within the
evolution of the cavities. The analyzed sequences are essentially a
Holocenic product of contributions from the exterior, although in
Guineu and possibly in Can Sadurní they are situated on Pleistocene
deposits.
2.2. Archaeological sequences and radiocarbon dates
The two sites that are the object of study comprise prolonged
time sequences that have been comprehensively radiocarbon
dated.
2.2.1. Cova de Can Sadurní
The site of Cova de Can Sadurní has an archaeological sequence
that begins, according to the current state of knowledge, in the
Epipaleolithic and reaches the Late Roman Empire. It highlights the
Neolithic especially its early phase (Edo et al., 2011, in press a; in
press b).
The cavity has been known archaeologically since 1945 but no
systematic excavations were carried out until 1978, which then
continued uninterruptedly until present. It has two areas: in the
exterior of the cavity under the denomination “outside terrace” of
29
about 400 m2 where occupations of the Postcardial Middle
Neolithic were located next to silos; and inside the cave, which is
the main sector and the object of our study in this paper.
The excavated surface of the cave is 51 m2 of which 4 m2
correspond to a sondage that began in 1997 (Fig. 3c) with the aim of
establishing the stratigraphic sequence of the site (Edo et al., 2011).
The data available from the Epipaleolithic to the Early Postcardial
Middle Neolithic were obtained only from the sondage.
So far, there have been 14 sedimentary (Bergada
et al., 2018) and
21 archaeological levels that frame the chronocultural evolution of
the deposit from the archaeological materials; as well as the
radiocarbon dates (Table 1) and numismatic record for the histor-
ical stages (Blasco et al., 2005a, 2005b; Edo et al., 2011; Edo et al. in
press b).
The record begins in the Epipaleolithic (CS. XIV and archaeo-
logical level 21) dated c.12.7e10.4 cal ka BP. This is followed by
CS.XIII (archaeological levels 20 and 19), which is attributed to the
Mesolithic period of denticulates and notches (Fullola et al., 2011)
and dated 8.2e8.0 cal ka BP. After that, a beginning of pastoral
activities and a sepulchral use appear in CS.XII (archaeological level
18) corresponding to the Cardial Early Neolithic, most likely be-
tween 7.4 and 7.2 cal ka BP. The subsequent Late Cardial Neolithic
CS XI (levels 17 and 16) dated 7.2e6.6 cal ka BP and CS.X dated
6.9e6.7 cal ka BP are characterized by the Epicardial Neolithic
(levels 15e13), both with a pastoral use of space. CS.IX (level 11b)
follows, eroding the underlying level in some sectors. This episode
is dated 6.8e6.3 cal ka BP and corresponds to the Early Postcardial
Middle Neolithic.
The sequence continues, within the same cultural stage, with
CS.VIII (level 11) dated 6.5e5.9 cal ka BP. The cavity was also used
for a pastoral and funerary use. A sepulchral use of the cavity is
mainly detected in the Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic (CS, VII-VI
and levels 10b and 10) dated c. 6.2e5.7 cal ka BP.
2.2.2. Cova de la Guineu
This site also includes a wide cultural sequence (Bergada
, 1998;
Equip Guineu, 1995); although the greatest potential is offered by
the record corresponding to the Upper Pleistocene, located in a
sondage inside the cave.
The cavity was discovered in 1961 but the archaeological exca-
vations did not start until 1983. After a five-year break, they were
activated again and continue to the present day.
Unlike Can Sadurní, the aim of our study focuses mainly on the
outside sector (Fig. 4c), with an excavated area of 21 m2 in which
occupations of a Late Cardial Neolithic have been located as well as
the medieval and modern epochs. The sector of the cavity is rep-
resented, at the moment, from the Epipaleolithic to the Late
Neolithic e Chalcolithic with an excavation area of 11 m2; where
the Epipaleolithic and Upper Pleistocene sequence was located in a
sondage. So far, 12 sedimentary levels have been located (Bergada
,
1998).
The studied sequence begins with G. IIIa dated c.12.7e11.1 cal ka
BP (Table 2) and situated in the Mediterranean Epipaleolithic
(Bartrolí et al., 1992). After that, there is a Late Cardial Neolithic
referenced by G. Ie (outside sector) dated 7.1e6.9 cal ka BP (Oms
et al., 2016); then G.II, Postcardial Middle Neolithic by the pot-
tery, located with some materials from the Cardial Neolithic; fol-
lowed by G. IIb, which corresponds to a stabling area (Bergada
et al.,
2005a) dating from 6.4 to 5.9 cal ka BP; and finally, G. Id, which in
some sectors towards the cavity has some contact with the levels of
upper pen of the sector of the cave. Culturally, it corresponds to an
intermediate and final moment of the Molinot Postcardial Neolithic
and is dated 6.3e5.9 cal ka BP.
30
et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Fig. 3. Cova de Can Sadurní (Begues, Barcelona). a. Cave entrance (arrow). b. Overview through the cavity and sedimentary deposit, with an arrow to the sondage. c. Plan of the
cavity. d. J e 8 Sondage profile. CS.XII e CS.VI. e. J/8e7 Grid-square. CS. XIV e CS. VIII. f. Stratigraphic profile represented.

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada 31

Fig. 4. Cova de la Guineu (Font-Rubí, Barcelona). a. Cave entrance (arrow). b. Overview through the cavity and sedimentary deposit, with an arrow to the sondage. c. Plan of the
cavity. d. Stratigraphic profiles represented.

3. Methods of the cavity (Fig. 3c, d, 3e, 3f, 4c and 4d).

The methodology we used consisted mainly of stratigraphic-
sedimentary field descriptions and application of micromor-
phology to the levels that include the sequence of the sites. To carry
out this study we focused mainly on the following profiles: in Can
Sadurní profiles F-8, J-8; J-F/7, J-F/9 and G-4; and in Guineu profiles
E5 and C5 in the interior of the cavity and E-9, F9-F7 in the exterior
The protocol followed for extracting samples, a total of 21,
consisted of placing the sediments into boxes lined with plaster,
enabling us to obtain blocks without altering the structure and the
position of the sedimentary filling (Bergad

et al., in
a, 1998; Bergada
press). The blocks were air-dried and then oven dried at 40
C for
48 h to avoid recrystallization. They were impregnated with a
polystyrene resin. They were cut into strips a few centimeters thick
32
et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Table 1
Cova de Can Sadurní. Radiocarbon dates.

Can Sadurní Can Sadurní Sample Laboratory BP Dating CalBP p(95%) CalBC Period
Sedimentary layers Archaeological layers

CS.VI 10 Seed OxA-15490 5279 ± 31 BP 6220e5940 4270e3990 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VII 10b Charcoal UBAR-1281 5075 ± 40 BP 5950e5710 4000e3760 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VII 10b Human bone Beta-210652 5340 ± 40 BP 6280e5960 4330e4010 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VII 10b Human bone UBAR-1282 5260 ± 40BP 6230e5870 4280e3920 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Bone Beta- 332263 5240 ± 40 BP 6190e5870 4240e3920 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Human bone Beta 197134 5290 ± 40 BP 6220e5940 4270e3990 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal I-17918 5350 ± 150 BP 6440e5800 4490e3850 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal UBAR-1193 5370 ± 45 BP 6340e5980 4390e4030 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Human bone Beta-363819 5460 ± 40 BP 6340e6180 4390e4230 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal I-13314 5470 ± 110 BP 6500e5980 4550e4030 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal UBAR 766 5470 ± 140 BP 6560e5920 4610e3970 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Human bone OxA-29640 5487 ± 33 BP 6360e6200 4410e4250 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Bone Beta-363818 5540 ± 40 BP 6430e6270 4480e4320 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal UBAR-1310 5560 ± 50 BP 6440e6280 4490e4330 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Human bone OxA-29641 5568 ± 34 BP 6440e6280 4490e4330 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Bone Beta-238657 5570 ± 40 BP 6440e6280 4490e4330 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal UBAR-1352 5620 ± 50 BP 6520e6280 4570e4330 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Seed Beta-445238 5670 ± 30 BP 6510e6390 4560e4440 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Seed Beta- 445239 5680 ± 30 BP 6520e6400 4570e4450 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.VIII 11 Charcoal Beta-394625 5730 ± 30 BP 6640e6440 4690e4490 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.IX 11b Seed UBAR-846 5635 ± 45 BP 6530e6290 4580e4340 Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.IX 11b Charcoal I-11789 5700 ± 110 BP 6750e6270 4800e4320 Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.IX 11b Charcoal Beta-210653 5790 ± 40 BP 6690e6490 4740e4540 Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.IX 11b Charcoal I-11787 5800 ± 160 BP 6990e6270 5040e4320 Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.X 12 Organic material CNA -3172.1.2 5790 ± 36 BP 6690e6490 4740e4540 Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic
CS.X 14 Charcoal Beta-179900 5980 ± 40 BP 6940e6700 4990e4750 Epicardial Neolithic
CS.XI 17 Charcoal Beta-127898 6050 ± 110 BP 7240e6640 5290e4690 Late Cardial Neolithic
CS.XII 18 Seed OxA-15491 6375 ± 34 BP 7430e7230 5480e5280 Cardial Neolithic
CS.XII 18 Seed OxA-15489 6391 ± 34 BP 7440e7240 5490e5290 Cardial Neolithic
CS.XII 18 Seed UBAR 760 6405 ± 50 BP 7470e7230 5510e5310 Cardial Neolithic
CS.XII 18 Seed OxA-15488 6421 ± 34 BP 7460e7260 5520e5280 Cardial Neolithic
CS.XIII 20 Charcoal Beta-230733 7320 ± 50 BP 8240e8000 6290e6050 Mesolithic
CS.XIV 21 Charcoal Beta-179899 9360 ± 40 BP 10710-10470 8760e8520 Epipaleolithic
CS.XIV 21 Bone Beta-230734 10540 ± 60 BP 12770-12290 10820-10340 Epipaleolithic

Table 2
Cova de la Guineu. Radiocarbon dates.

Guineu Sedimentary layers Sample Laboratory BP Dating CalBP p(95%) CalBC Period

G.Id Molar Ovis aries OxA-29605 5274 ± 32 BP 6230e5910 4280e3960 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.Id Molar Ovis/Capra Beta-406997 5430 ± 30 BP 6310e6190 4360e4240 Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.Ie Charcoal Laurus nobilis Beta-406998 6140 ± 30 BP 7200e6920 5250e4970 Late Cardial Neolithic
G.IIb Charcoals Gif-11037 5480 ± 60 BP 6410e6170 4460e4220 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.IIb Charcoal (LC) GifA-99112 5330 ± 70 BP 6300e5940 4350e3990 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.IIb Charcoal (LC) GifA-99113 5480 ± 80 BP 6460e6100 4510e4150 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.IIb Charcoal (LC) GifA-99114 5580 ± 70 BP 6500e6260 4550e4310 Postcardial Middle Neolithic
G.IIIa Charcoals Gif-8439 9850 ± 80 BP 11520-11120 9570e9170 Epipaleolithic
G.IIIa Charcoal (H) Beta-378799 10590 ± 40 BP 12720-12560 10770-10610 Epipaleolithic

LC. Layer cake.

H. Hearth.

and finally thin sections were made, a total of 2 for each block of
13.5  5.5 cm and 20 mm thick according to the protocol of
Benyarku and Stoops (2005).
Thin sections were observed under a polarizing stereomicro-
scope and a petrographic microscope at magnifications between
25 and 400 with plane polarized light (PPL), crossed polarized
light (XPL) and with oblique incident light (OIL). Descriptions fol-
lowed the criteria used by Bullock et al. (1985) and Stoops (2003).
The dates of the two sites, altogether 43, were calibrated using
CalPal software (Weninger et al., 2007) and compared with the d18O
variation curves of the NGRIP and GRIP according to GICC05 Age
Model (Lowe et al., 2008) (see Fig. 8); as well as the dating of the
deposits treated in Fig. 9.
4. Results and interpretation
The stratigraphic, sedimentary and micromorphological data of
the studied records are detailed in Tables 3e6.
4.1. Pedosedimentary processes located between c. 13e6.0 cal ka BP
The sedimentary processes of detrital origin that form the filling
of Can Sadurní and Guineu are: solifluction, gravitational and col-
luvium and diffuse runoff.
4.1.1. Solifluction processes
These are found in the Epipaleolithic (CS. XIV 12.7e12.2 and
10.7e10.4 cal ka BP) and Mesolithic sequences (CS. XIII 8.2e8.0 cal

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada 33

Table 3
Synthesis of the stratigraphic and sedimentary field description of the Cova de Can Sadurní.

Can Sadurní Can Sadurní Thickness Colour Course fraction Fine fraction Boundaries Organic and inorganic Cultural context
Sedimentary Archaeological (cm) components
layers layers

CS.VI 10 13 5YR 4/2 Some stones and blocks Sandy silts with Difusse Late Postcardial
scattered. clays Middle Neolithic
CS.VII 10b 20e25 7.5YR 5/2 Subangular stones of 1e6 cm Clayey silts with Erosive Late Postcardial
and angular blocks of medium sands contact Middle Neolithic
size.
CS.VIII 11 72 5YR 6/1 Scattered stones. Clayey silts with Sharp Lots of charcoal remains Postcardial
sands Middle Neolithic
CS.IX 11b 17e20 5YR 5/2 Subangular blocks and stones. Clayey silts with Erosive Early Postcardial
some sandy contact Middle Neolithic
fraction
CS.X
CS.X.1 12 3e6 10YR 3/2 Some sand Sharp Carbonated ash accumulation Early Postcardial
10YR 6/2 with charcoals and organic Middle Neolithic
remains
CS.X.2 13 5 10YR 5/2 Clayey silts Sharp Many charcoals Epicardial
Neolithic
CS.X.3 14 3e6 10YR 6/2 Subangular and subrounded Clayey silts Difusse Epicardial
stones and gravels. Neolithic
CS.X.4 15 5e10 10YR 4/2 Clayey silts with Sharp Presence of charcoals Epicardial
sands Neolithic
CS.XI 16, 17 19 (16) 10YR 6/ Some stones and blocks Silty sands Sharp Late Cardial
8 (17) 5YR scattered. Neolithic
4/3
CS.XII 18 30e35 5YR 4/2 Subangular blocks and stones. Clayey silts with Sharp Abundant bone and charcoal Cardial Neolithic
sands remains
CS.XIII 19, 20 9e35 5YR 4/4 Subrounded and subangular Clayey silts with Sharp Lots of charcoal remains Mesolithic of
gravels and stones (1e2 cm). sands Notches and
Denticulates
CS.XIV 21 53 7.5YR 5/4 Subangular stones and blocks Clayey silts with Sharp Charcoal and bone remains Epipaleolithic
scattered. sands

*The lithology is micritic limestone.

Table 4
Synthesis of the stratigraphic and sedimentary field description of the Cova de la Guineu.

Guineu Thickness (cm) Colour Course fraction Fine fraction Boundaries Organic and inorganic components Cultural context
Sedimentary
layers

G.Id 54 7.5YR 3/2 Subrounded blocks Clayey silt Sharp Puntuaction organic matter Late Postcardial
and stones. with sands Middle Neolithic
G.Ie 8 (seen at the 7.5YR 4/4 Subrounded and Sandy clays Difusse Late Cardial Neolithic
moment) subangular blocks.
G.IIb 25e35 5YR 8/1 5YR 4/2 Some stones and Some sands Sharp Carbonated ash accumulation with Postcardial Middle
5YR 4/4 gravels. charcoals and organic remains Neolithic
G.II 75 7.5YR 3/2 Subrounded blocks Sandy silt Erosive Abundant charcoals Postcardial Middle
and stones. with clays contact Neolithic
G.IIIa 34 7.5YR 6/4 Subangular stones. Sandy silt Difusse Epipaleolithic
with clays

*The lithology is dolomitic limestone.

ka BP) from Can Sadurní. From the stratigraphic and sedimentary
point of view they are characterized mainly by an orientation of the
stones parallel to the slope of the deposit due to mass movement
(Bertran and Texier, 1999). There are episodes, mainly in CS. XIII,
with stones alongside others in which clayey silt dominates. Ac-
cording to Bertran and Coutard (2004) these are characteristic of
the flow front that buries materials from the upper levels that
would have been the first to move.
From the micromorphological point of view, distinctive features
are observed in this type of processes:
CS.XIV is characterized by the vesicular microstructure (Fig. 5a)
that is common in contexts with clayey silt matrix and under
conditions of water saturation in which the air of the soil is
retained. This liquefaction can be caused, in this case, by the thaw
that creates a mass movement (Bertran and Coutard, 2004; Van
Vliet-Lanoe€, 2010).
As pedofeatures, we highlight the traces of clay illuviation,
located mainly in the sides of voids of the matrix (Fig. 5b). This
process is common in this type of deposit and would indicate the
presence of water and non-flocculating conditions (decarbonated
soils), characteristic of humid and percolating contexts. As a
consequence, dissolution processes are observed in the limestone
material, in ash waste and in the bones (Fig. 5c), with the formation
of phosphate (apatite) hypocoatings in the detrital material that is
typical of areas rich in phosphate; in this case originating from the
bones and reacting with the limestone material to produce a
34
et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Table 5
Synthesis of the micromorphological analysis description of the Cova de Can Sadurní.

Can Sadurní Can Sadurní Microfacies Micromorphology Pedosedimentary and Cultural

Sedimentary Archaeological anthropic processes context
layers layers

CS. VI 10 Sandy silts with stones and
reworked herbivore
excremental aggregates
Microstructure: granular. 25% porosity. Groundmass: c/f Colluvium Late
50 mm 1/3. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (***), Postcardial
bones (****) and herbivore excrement fragments (**) Middle
inclined and vertical arrangement. Calcitic crystallitic b- Neolithic
fabric. Pedofeatures: granular bioaggregates (þþ), Ca
hypocoatings and P-Ca hypocoatings (þ), Fe (hydr)oxides
orthic nodules (þþþ) and clay coatings (þ).

CS. VIII 11 Layers of phytoliths and Thickness: 7 cm. Microstructure: subangular blocky, platy Stabling areas without Postcardial
organo-phosphated herbivore and massive. 25% porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm 1/2. Silty combustion with diffuse runoff Middle
excrements clays with fine sands. Relative distribution: porphyric. and trampling Neolithic
in situ Charcoals (***), articulated/disarticulated Si phytoliths
aggregates (****), faecal spherulites (*), bones (*), bird
eggshells (*) and herbivore excrements (cattle *** and
ovicaprine **). Calcitic crystallitic and undifferentiated b-
fabric. Amorphous yellow (*). Pedofeatures: granular
bioaggregates (þþ), Ca coatings (þ) and Fe (hydr)oxides
nodules (þþ).

CS. VIII 11 Sandy silts with phosphatized Microstructure: granular/platy. 10e20% porosity. Diffusse runoff and detrital Postcardial
herbivore excremental Groundmass: c/f 50 mm 1/3. Relative distribution: porphyric. gours Middle
aggregates Sedimentary crust fragments. Detrital gour fragments. Neolithic
Charcoals (*), herbivore excrements (**) and seeds (*).
Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Amorphous yellow/black fine
material. Pedofeatures: clay coatings (þ), Fe (hydr)oxides
orthic nodules (þ), granular bioaggregates and roots (þþ).

CS. VIII/X.2/ 11, 13 Clayey silts and scattered Microstructure: subangular blocky, granular and platy. 25 Hydromorphic conditions Postcardial
X.4 and 15 herbivore excrements with Fe e30% porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm 1/3. Relative (vivianite). Unlaminated Middle
(hydr)oxides traces distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (***), seeds (* VIII), calcitic colluvium (), stabling areas Neolithic
pseudomorphs (** VIII), calcitic pseudomorphs from druses traces (þ) /
(** CS.X.4), faecal spherulites (**), disarticulated Si Epicardial
phytoliths aggregates (*** VIII, **X.4), mineralized and Neolithic
charred herbivore excrements (**), amorphous
phosphatized herbivore excrements (* CS.X.4), bones (**),
light combustion bird eggshells (* CS.X.4), pottery and flint
fragments (*). Calcitic crystallitic and undifferentiated b-
fabric. Pedofeatures: depletion (þþ), clay coatings (þVIII
and X.4), Fe (hydr)oxides nodules (þþþ), Fe-P hypocoatings
(vivianite in VIII, X.2) (þþ) and granular bioaggregates (þþ).

CS. VIII/X.1 11, 12 Mineralized and charred Mineralized residues. Stabling areas with Postcardial
erubified residues of Thickness: 1e6 cm. Microstructure: granular/massive. 2 combustion. Middle
herbivore excrements and e10% porosity. Groundmass: Crystallitic calcitic Hydromorphic conditions Neolithic
plants in situ accumulation with some fine sands. Relative distribution: (vivianite)
porphyric. Charcoals (*/**), prismatic pseudomorphs (***),
droplets (**), mineralized herbivore excrements
(ovicaprines) (**). Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures:
granular bioaggregates (þþ/þþþ), Fe-P hypocoatings
(vivianite) in CS.X.1 and Fe (hydr)oxides nodules (þ).
CS. X.1 12 Charcoals residues
Thickness: 0,5 cm. Charcoals of tabular morphology with
woody structure.
Charred and rubified residues
CS. VIII/X.1 11, 12 Thickness: 1e3,5 cm. Microstructure: spongy/granular. 25
e30% porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm 1/2. Sandy silts with
some gravel. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals
(*/**), charred fragments (**), faecal spherulites (**),
charred/rubified herbivore excrements (**). Calcitic
crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: Fe (hydr)oxides nodules
(þþ) and granular bioaggregates (þþ/þþþ).

CS. XI 16, 17 Silty sands with clays with Microstructure: subangular blocky/massive. 5e30% Unlaminated colluvium/ Late Cardial
herbivore excremental porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm 2/1-1/2. Relative stabling areas traces (þ). Neolithic
aggregates distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (****), Si phytoliths (***), Hydromorphism
faecal spherulites (***), charred herbivore excrements (**),
bones (****) and pottery fragments (*). Calcitic crystallitic b-
fabric. Pedofeatures: roots traces (þþ), limpid clay coatings
(þþ), Fe (hydr)oxides orthic nodules (þ/þþþþ) and Ca
hypocoatings (þþ).

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada 35

Table 5 (continued )

Can Sadurní Can Sadurní Microfacies Micromorphology Pedosedimentary and Cultural

Sedimentary Archaeological anthropic processes context
layers layers

CS. XII 18 Stones, gravels and clayey
silts with herbivore
excremental aggregates
Microstructure: granular/subangular blocky. 25% porosity. Colluvium (þ)/stabling areas Cardial
Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 3/1. Relative distribution: porphyric traces () Neolithic
and chitonic. Charcoals (***), scattered faecal spherulites
(**), Si phytoliths (***), bones (**), herbivore excremental
aggregates (**), pottery and flint fragments (*). Calcitic
crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: clay coatings (þ) and Fe
dots and stainings (þ).

CS. XIII 19, 20 Clayey silts with granular/ Microstructure: granular/vesicular/subangular blocky. 20 Moderate freeze-thaw traces Mesolithic
vesicular microstructure and e25% porosity. Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 3/1- 1/2. Relative and solifluction
stones distribution: porphyric. Stones and gravels with subangular/
subrounded morphology with some fissures. Inclined or
vertical arrangement. Charcoals (**), bones (***/****). Calcitic
crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: Fe (hydr)oxides orthic
nodules (þ), limpid clay coatings (þþ) and dissolution
traces in limestones.

CS. XIV 21 Clayey silts and sands with Microstructure: vesicular/granular/subangular blocky. 20 Solifluction Epipaleolithic
vesicular microstructure and e25% porosity. Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 4/1- 1/2. Relative
stones distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (**/***), bones (**/****)
with light traces of combustion. Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric.
Pedofeatures: limpid clay coatings (þþþþ/þþþþþ),
dissolution traces in limestones and bones (þþþþþ), P-Ca
hypocoatings (þþþþþ), Fe (hydr)oxides orthic nodules
(þþ) and granular bioaggregates (þþ/þþþ).

The lithological and mineralogical fraction consists mainly of micritic limestone, quartz, feldspar, plagioclase and calcite.
Class frequencies after (Bullock et al., 1985): * Very few (<5%); ** Few (5e15%); *** Frequent (15e30%); **** Common (30e50%); ***** Dominant (50e70%); ****** Very
dominant (>70%).
Class abundance of pedofeatures after (Bullock et al., 1985): þ Rare (<2%); þþ Occasional (2e5%); þþþ Many (5e10%); þþþþ Abundant (10e20%); þþþþþVery abundant
(>20%).

replacement of the calcite by apatite (Karkanas and Goldberg,
2010). They are indicator characteristics of the oscillating humidi-
ty conditions typical of these records.
Disruptions in sedimentation are documented by biological
activity.
CS.XIII is distinguished especially by a granular microstructure,
with slight fissures of the detrital material and with orientation
changes (vertical or sloping) of bones, charcoals and some of the
stones of subangular and subrounded morphology (Fig. 5d), in-
dicators of a moderate freeze-thaw process (Van Vliet-Lanoe €, 2010)
that would cause cryoturbation processes. These characteristics
indicate a significant change in the environmental conditions of the
cave, which undoubtedly suffered the effects of frost once the cavity
had been occupied.
4.1.2. Gravitational and colluvium processes
These processes are responsible for most of the detrital sedi-
mentary record of the two cavities. Three types are distinguished,
and in the Neolithic sequence there are also contributions of an-
thropic origin: unlaminated colluvium with gravitational move-
ments, colluvium blocks and unlaminated colluvium where the clay
silt matrix predominates in relation to the coarse fraction.
4.1.2.1. Unlaminated colluvium with gravitational movements.
These are distinguished in the Epipaleolithic sequence of Guineu
(G. IIIa 12.7e12.2 and 11.5e11.1 cal ka BP). These deposits are
characterized by their matrix of silts and clays with sands together
with heterometric blocks of subangular morphology without in-
ternal ordering. The matrix and the wet conditions have been
determinant for the placement of the level.
The general subangular blocky microstructure is indicative of
wetting and desiccation of the matrix (Fitzpatrick, 1990). As
pedofeatures, as in CS. XIV there are mainly traces of clay
illuviation.
4.1.2.2. Colluvium and blocks. These are distinguished by the
presence of heterometric detrital deposits with blocks and some
angular stones resulting from collapses that were deposited in
cavities by the retreating openings to the exterior or from the slope
or dip slope of the karstic surface, creating gravitational debris
cones.
In the exterior part of Guineu there are large blocks resulting
from the collapse of the roof of the cavity. In contrast, in Can
Sadurní the cone is of greater amplitude and consists of clasts
originating from the outside. The roof of Can Sadurní, however,
presents no erosive signal, but the dissolution modelling corre-
sponds to the processes of cavitation in a duct flooded by water that
corresponds to a stage preceding the formation of the Holocene
deposit. The anthropic alteration of the entrance of the cavity is
very important and hides the lateral relation of the materials and
the geometry of the deposit towards the outside.
These detrital deposits are formed by different dry avenues that
created debris cones towards the interior of the cavity; the first and
the oldest having a greater slope than the more recent ones.
They are mainly developed in the following levels of Can
Sadurní and Guineu: CS.XII (Cardial Early Neolithic, 7.4e7.2 cal ka
BP), CS.IX (Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic, 6.8e6.3 cal ka BP), CS.
VII (Late Postcardial Middle Neolithic, 6.2e5.7 cal ka BP), G.II
(Postcardial Middle Neolithic) and G. Id (Late Postcardial Middle
Neolithic, 6.3e5.9 cal ka BP).
It is very difficult to discern which process triggered the great
contribution of blocks and stones since most are part of the collu-
vium filling. In any case, we consider hypotheses that could be the
result of denudation processes of a previous phase of alteration,
formation of collapse dolines, evolution of karren at depth and very
intense dissolution in more humid and temperate conditions than
the present ones. The morphology of the karren indicates an origin
under a pedologic coverage and later retouch under aerial
conditions.
36
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M.M. Bergada

Table 6
Synthesis of the micromorphological analysis description of the Cova de la Guineu.

Guineu Microfacies Micromorphology Pedosedimentary and Cultural

Sedimentary anthropic processes context
layers

G. Id Stones, clayey silts with sands Microstructure: granular. 25% porosity. Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 2/ Colluvium, block Late
1.Relative distribution:porphyric. Charcoals (**), bones (*) with light breakdown and Postcardial
traces of combustion. Calcitic crystallitic/undifferentiated b-fabric. pedogenesis (organic Middle
Amorphous black organic fine material/puntuaction organic matter. material) Neolithic
Pedofeatures:clay coatings/hypocoatings (þþ), granular bioaggregates
(þþþþþ) and roots.

G. Ie Sandy clays with stones Microstructure: granular/subangular blocky. 10e20% porosity. Unlaminated colluvium Late Cardial
Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 1/3. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals and variable Neolithic
(***), bones (*) with light traces of dissolution. Calcitic crystallitic b- hydromorphism
fabric. Pedofeatures: limpid clay coatings/hypocoatings (þþ), traces of
dissolution in dolomitic limestones (þ), Fe (hydr)oxides nodules (þ) and
bleached mottles (þ).

G.IIb Mineralized and charred erubified Mineralized residues. Units:1, 4, 6 and 8. Thickness 1e4,5 cm. Stabling areas with Postcardial
residues of herbivore excrements and Microstructure: massive. 2e10% porosity. Crystallitic calcitic combustion Middle
plants in situ accumulation with some fine sands. Relative distribution: porphyric. Neolithic
Charcoals (*), prismatic pseudomorphs (****), droplets (**), mineralized
herbivore excrements (ovicaprines) (**) and pottery fragments (*).
Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures:granular bioaggregates (þ), Fe
nodules, dots and stainings (þ).
Charred and rubified residues. Units: 2 and 7. Thickness 1e2,5 cm.
Microstructure: spongy/granular. 25e30% porosity. Groundmass: c/f
50 mm 1/2 sandy silts. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (**/***),
charred fragments (**), faecal spherulites (**), charred/rubified herbivore
excrements (**) and bones (*). Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures:
Ca hypocoatings (þ), Fe dots and stainings (þþ) and granular
bioaggregates (þþþ).

G.IIb Sandy silts Units: 3 and 5. Thickness 2,5 - 4 cm. Microstructure: granular. 25% Diffusse runoff Postcardial
porosity. Groundmass: g/f 50 mm 2/1.Relative distribution: porphyric. Middle
Charcoals (***), bones (*) with light traces of combustion. Calcitic Neolithic
crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: clay coatings (þþ), Ca coatings/
hypocoatings (þ) and granular bioaggregates (þþ).

G. II Sandy silts with clays and stones with Microstructure: subangular blocky. 30% porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm Colluvium Postcardial
subrounded anthropic components 1/2. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (***), charred and Middle
mineralized herbivore excrements (**), prismatic pseudomorph Neolithic
aggregates (**), bones (**), pottery fragments (**) and malacological
remains (*). Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: clay hypocoatings
(þ), Ca hypocoatings/coatings (þþ), Fe dots and stainings (þ) and
granular bioaggregates (þþþ).

G. IIIa Stones and sandy silts with clays Microstructure: subangular blocky. 15% porosity. Groundmass: c/f 50 mm Unlaminated colluvium Epipaleolithic
2/1. Relative distribution: porphyric. Charcoals (*) and bones (*) with with gravitational
light traces of combustion. Calcitic crystallitic b-fabric. Pedofeatures: movements
clay coatings/hypocoatings (þþþ), Ca hypocoatings (þ), Fe dots and
stainings (þ) and granular bioaggregates (þþþ).

The litological and mineralogical fraction consists mainly of dolomitic limestone, quartz, calcite, dolomite and feldspar.
Class frequencies after (Bullock et al., 1985): * Very few (<5%); ** Few (5e15%); *** Frequent (15e30%); **** Common (30e50%); ***** Dominant (50e70%); ****** Very
dominant (>70%).
Class abundance of pedofeatures after (Bullock et al., 1985): þ Rare (<2%); þþ Occasional (2e5%); þþþ Many (5e10%); þþþþ Abundant (10e20%); þþþþþVery abundant
(>20%).

This type of contribution begins in the case of Can Sadurní in
CS.XII and in Guineu by the present data in G. II. This implies the
formation of the debris cone and the entrance of detrital materials
occurred in the later stages.
In Can Sadurní, the largest clasts of CS. XII are deposited with the
longest axes parallel to the slope, together with very angular
gravels indicating a particularly dry and cold period. There is
stratigraphic discontinuity with respect to CS. XIII (Mesolithic). On
the other hand, from 6.8 to 6.3 cal ka BP, the blocks and stones
(CS.IX) are arranged with the longest axis perpendicular to the
slope, indicating a movement in more humid conditions; in erosive
contact and with a shallower slope than during the Cardial
Neolithic. Along the temporal period that represents the whole
deposit, there are pauses and reactivations that cause a replace-
ment of coarse fraction and redistribution of the finer ones,
especially towards the more distal parts.
This last episode correlates with G. II (Postcardial Middle
Neolithic), presenting an erosive contact with G. IIIa (Epi-
paleolithic). This process also recurred during 6.2e5.7 cal ka BP in
Can Sadurní (CS VII - VI) with an erosive contact, and in Guineu (G.
Id). In this latter cave, two great blocks that were detached from the
roof are located in the top wall of the level.
From the micromorphological point of view they are charac-
terized by a groundmass rich in the coarse fraction, with little in-
ternal cohesion. It consists of mixed bone and malacological
remains, charcoals, pottery and a few excremental aggregates of
ovicaprids (Fig. 5e). The microstructure is weak granular/sub-
angular blocky, with traces of material rotation, characteristic fea-
tures of these records (Bertran and Texier, 1999; Karkanas and
Goldberg, 2013). In Guineu, G. Id, an enrichment of organic

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada 37

Fig. 5. Micromorphological features of the pedosedimentary processes in the sites located between c. 13.0e6.0 cal ka BP.
a. Can Sadurní. CS.XIV. Vesicular microstructure. Vesicle voids (v). PPL.
b. Can Sadurní. CS.XIV. Fine material hypocoating with oriented domains (arrow) in a void. XPL.
c. Can Sadurní. CS.XIV. Traces of very sharp dissolution in bone fragment (arrow). In the interior, a fine hypocoating can be observed. PPL.
d. Can Sadurní. CS.XIII. Vertically oriented coarse material: gravels and charcoal fragments. PPL.
e. Guineu. G.II. Subrounded pottery (P) fragment together with a burned ovicaprine coprolite (C) and subrounded morphology wood ash aggregates mixed in the groundmass (A).
PPL.
f. Can Sadurní. CS.X. Phosphatic accumulations in excremental aggregate with the presence of vivianite (v). XPL.
g. Can Sadurní.CS.VIII. Field view of a gour fragment (arrow).
h. Can Sadurní. CS.VIII. Gour groundmass. Note microsparitic calcite hypocoating (arrow) in the top of the gour.
38
et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Fig. 6. Stabling area with combustion (layer cake). Guineu (G.IIb): micromorphological features.
a. General view. At the top, mineralized residues appear and at the bottom, rubified and charred residues.
b. Detail of the previous image. 1. Ash accumulation composed of calcite pseudomorph of plant origin with some charcoal fragments and ovicaprine mineralized coprolites. 2.
Charcoals (arrows) charred and rubified droppings. XPL.
c. Detail of a burned ovicaprine coprolite. Note the presence of the carbonized organic coating covering the faecal spherulites (arrow). XPL.
d. Detail of wood ashes (prismatic calcitic pseudomorphs) (arrows). PPL.
e. Detail of charred and rubified dropping. In arrow faecal spherulithes.
XPL.

matter is visible in the exterior sector. It is characterized by intense - Eluviation/illuviation. This is generally present and is typical of
biological activity, mainly of roots as documented both by the this type of context where water infiltrates and involves a
channel microstructure and by the presence of their remains. This percolation of fine material (clay) that is then retained in the dry
corroborates its aerial exposure for an extended period of time. voids of the lower levels (Ferna ndez et al., 2015).
- Hydromorphism features. These occur in nodules of iron oxides
and hydroxides and in rare cases of manganese, and have a
4.1.2.3. Unlaminated colluvium. This is characterized by a fine ma-
special importance in the sequence of the Late Cardial Neolithic,
trix of clayey silt; in places there is a significant increase in the
Epicardial until the Postcardial Middle Neolithic from Can
sandy fraction, along with some stones and scattered blocks. From
Sadurní. They are indicators of water saturation, mainly tem-
the micromorphological point of view they are characterized by a
porary or deficient drainage, and coincide with the increase of
massive/subangular blocky microstructure with a very fine sepa-
pastoral activity in the interior of the cave.
ration between the aggregates, common traces in these contexts
(Mücher et al., 2010). Components of anthropic origin also appear
An interesting feature is the presence of vivianite in Can Sadurní
dispersed in the groundmass.
(Fig. 5f). Reducing conditions and abundant availability of iron and
In some levels sedimentary contributions are weak and so hu-
phosphorus are required for its formation (McGowan and
man activity is better reflected and the removal of its components is
Prangnell, 2006; Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010). In our case, its
lower. This is the case of CS. XI (Late Cardial Neolithic) and CS.X
genesis is the result of the abundance of residues rich in phosphate
(Epicardial Neolithic) dated between 7.2 and 6.6 cal ka BP, G.Ie (Late
(excrement and plant matter) in a reducing context (Nicosia, 2008).
Cardial Neolithic, 7.1e6.9 cal ka BP) and CS.VIII (Postcardial Middle
In Guineu, in the Late Cardial Neolithic (G. Ie), oxide and hy-
Neolithic, 6.5e5.9 cal ka BP). In others, there is an increase in the
droxide nodules are observed and there are bleached mottles
sandy fraction, anthropic components are less conserved and are
characteristic of a variable hydromorphism in reducing conditions
removed as in some microfacies of CS.XI (Late Cardial Neolithic).
(Dorronsoro et al., 2015).
Among the most common pedofeatures are:

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada
- Biological activity. Especially roots, in voids, features that indi-
cate surface exposure in some episodes; and where calcitic
hypocoatings appear in root biopores as a result of the rapid
precipitation of calcium carbonate due to root metabolism
(Durand et al., 2010).
4.1.2.4. Diffuse runoff. This process is not generalized and is located
in the Postcardial Middle Neolithic in Can Sadurní (CS.VIII,
6.5e5.9 cal ka BP) and in Guineu (G.IIb, 6,4e5,9 cal ka BP). It is
characterized by the sedimentation of silty clays and sands in an
environment of very low energy; in others, the runoff is more active
with the formation of sedimentary crusts.
In the wall of the SE sector of Can Sadurní (CS.VIII, 6.5e5.9 ka BP)
staggered gours follow the slope of the wall, in contact with the
sedimentary deposit of the cavity (Fig. 5g). These are very similar in
morphology to lithochemical gours but have a matrix of silts and
dark clays with sands. The microstructure is massive, with some
traces of carbonates (Fig. 5h). They have been formed by the
percolation of water from the wall of the cavity, which leaches the
fine sediment deposited on it. The fine sediment accumulates in a
fine corrugated line of small puddles created from the irregularities
of the floor and where the slope weakens. The repetition, perhaps
seasonal, of this phenomenon causes the wall to grow without
erosion, thus the dam increases its height and thickness for new
contributions of water with a new load of muddy sediment. The
continuity of the growth without the erosion breaking the form is
because the water never surpasses laminar slip-flow. When the
gours are well formed they are staggered downwards and the lower
ones receive the water from the overflow of the higher ones. This
has a regulating and laminating effect on the flow and guarantees
the continuity of the process. They mark a stable episode inside the
cavity.
4.2. Anthropic sedimentation located between c. 7.4e6.0 cal ka BP
The sedimentation generated by the human activity of this
period is closely related to stabling practices, mainly ovicaprids, in
the studied sites. Different types of contributions are located:
4.2.1. Clayey silts with sands and stones with herbivore excremental
aggregates and phosphated inclusions
The evidence is found in Can Sadurni, in the Early Cardial
Neolithic between 7.4 and 7.2 cal ka BP (CS.XII, layer 18). It is
notable for the presence of faecal calcium spherulites (Canti, 1997)
in the groundmass. Also, there is an appearance of excremental
aggregates that because of their composition and internal fabric
may be from ovicaprines (Courty et al., 1989; Bergada
, 1998; Polo
Díaz, 2010). Diagnostic components of this activity are scarce and
spatially very dispersed which leads us to suggest that some ovi-
caprid stabling has occurred (Bergada
and Cervello
 , 2011; Bergada

et al., in press). They are comparable to other Mediterranean re-
cords of similar chronologies (Angelucci et al., 2009). It should also
be added that colluvial reactivations and the sepulchral use
(Antolín et al., 2011a) could have contributed to the dispersal of the
remains of these occupations.
During the Late Cardial Neolithic and Epicardial in Can Sadurni
between 7.2 and 6.6 cal ka BP (CS.XI, layers 17 and 16 and CS X
layers 15, 14, 13) the presence of these components increases,
although they are still spatially dispersed. Some of the excrements
appear with slight traces of combustion. Also, the calcitic
39
pseudomorphs (druses), which are indicators of ash, present
varying morphologies, more or less spherical that according to
Brochier (1996) are more commonly found in leaves of woody
materials. In addition, phytoliths of silica of varied morphologies
appear.
The sedimentary contributions are of lower intensity, which
favours their preservation in the sedimentary record. Remains of
bird eggshell are also located in the groundmass, which demon-
strates that there were phases of abandonment in Can Sadurní that
would have been used by the birds to nest (Bergad
a et al., 2018).
Regarding Guineu (G.Ie), at the moment, remains of pastoral ac-
tivity have not been documented, but only a sector of 4e5 m2 in the
exterior of the cave has been excavated to date.
4.2.2. Mineralized and charred erubified residues of herbivore
excrements and plants in situ
These are located during the Postcardial Middle Neolithic cor-
responding to Can Sadurní, c. 6.6e5.9 cal ka BP (CS.X, layer 12 and
CS.VIII layer 11) and in Guineu, c. 6.4e5.9 cal ka BP (G. IIb). The
detrital sedimentation decreases markedly and there are areas with
combustion, which are characterized by the following sequence of
microfacies (from top to bottom):
1. Mineralized residues (ash). Among the components are: excre-
mental aggregates, calcitic pseudomorphs (druses and prisms)
(Canti, 2003) and rounded micritic residues called droplets
(Courty et al., 1989; Polo Díaz, 2010). The prismatic pseudo-
morphs correspond, as druses, to the remains of woody plants;
although the prisms are in the bark and the druses in the leaves
(Brochier, 1996). The droplet micritical residues are the result of
a very high combustion of the vegetal remains (Courty et al.,
1989; Polo Díaz, 2010).
2. Woody charcoal residues (in some cases this microfacies is
located in Can Sadurní).
3. Charred and rubified residues. It consists mainly of charred and
rubified excremental and plant fragments, amorphous yellow
phosphated accumulations and organic fine material.
These accumulations recorded in Can Sadurní and Guineu
(Bergada
et al., 2005a and Bergada

et al., in press) (Fig. 6a and b),
have been referred to as a layer-cake stratigraphy (Macphail et al.,
1997). Once the animals leave the cavity, the excremental resi-
dues are exposed at the surface and after that, burning would occur
at a low temperature and in reducing conditions (Fig. 6b and e) e
microfacies 3 -. The presence of an upper layer e microfacies 1-
mostly formed by woody plants (Fig. 6d) and by some excrements
(Fig. 6c) in such cases, the combustion would have been more
ventilated and at a higher temperature; the fact that woody char-
coals are located (microfacies 2) would correspond to the same
episode but with less ventilation. The accumulation of woody re-
mains from the stable structure or from remains of tree branches
that would have served as food for livestock (Bergada
et al., 2018).
The reason for these burning practices may lie in a need to clean
up the place, once the occupation is restarted as has been docu-
mented in other records (Angelucci et al., 2009; Bergad
a et al.,
2005b; Courty et al., 1991; Macphail et al., 1997; Polo Díaz, 2010;
Polo Díaz et al., 2014; Verdasco, 2016). This practice has also been
documented experimentally (Verge s et al., 2016) and ethnograph-
ically (Verdasco, 2016).
These areas with combustion alternate with others without
40
et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Fig. 7. Stabling area without combustion. Can Sadurní (CS. VIII): micromorphological features.
a. Layers of disarticulated silica phytoliths with a fine organophosphate groundmass, slightly compacted next to a dung (D). PPL.
b. Same as (a) in XPL. Undifferentiated b-fabric is distinguished in the phosphated area with silica phytoliths.
c. See in detail the silica phytoliths (arrows). PPL.
d. Fragment of bovine coprolite. Note the articulation of phytoliths inside (arrow). PPL.
e. Same as (d) in XPL.

combustion, especially in Can Sadurní. It is common of this type of
deposit and has also been described in other Neolithic Mediterra-
nean records in caves and rockshelters (Angelucci et al., 2009;
Boschian, 2006; Boschian and Miracle, 2007). Although for the
moment its interpretation is complex, it has been suggested that it
may be the result of the alteration and trampling of unburned or
partially burned stabling areas (Boschian, 2006), also as a product
of very irregular combustion (Brochier, 2002) or of domestic ac-

,
tivities simultaneous to or between this pastoral activity (Bergada
1997; Polo Díaz, 2010; Egüez et al., 2016).
4.2.3. Layers of phytoliths and organophosphated herbivore
excrements in situ
In some sectors of Can Sadurní, such as in F-9 (CS.VIII layer 11)
and the Postcardial Middle Neolithic, layers have been located
consisting of articulated and disarticulated phytoliths of varied
morphologies with a fine organophosphated groundmass (Fig. 7a, b
and 7c) and coprolites which correspond in composition and in-
ternal fabric most likely to cattle (Fig. 7d and c) (Bergad
a, 1998; Polo
Díaz, 2010) and others to ovicaprines (Bergada
et al., 2018). These
accumulations represent a pattern different from the previous one,
with vegetal, excremental accumulations or a combination of both

Fig. 8. Cumulated probability curves obtained from the CalPal2007- Hulu calibration of the dates coming from Cova de Can Sadurní and Cova de la Guineu compared with the d18O
variation curves obtained in the NGRIP and GRIP cores, following the GICC05 Age Model (Lowe et al., 2008). It is observed as from c. 12.7e7.4 cal ka BP there is a great discontinuity
in the recorded caves dominating the hiatus phases. From c. 7.4e6.0 cal ka BP there is a certain continuity in the sequence and climatic variability.

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada 41

Table 7
Chronostratigraphy in karst records from Epipaleolithic to the Mid/Early Neolithic (c. 13.0e6.0 cal ka BP) in the Catalan Coastal Ranges: Cova de Can Sadurní and Cova de la
Guineu. In gray, the recorded sedimentary episodes; in orange, the episodes where a detrital sedimentation dominates with collapses and debris cones of an arid environment
and, in blue, episodes where anthropic sedimentation dominates in a humid and stable environment. Can Sadurní (S) and Guineu (G).

Age Can Palaeoenvironment

Pedosedimentary and anthropic processes Guineu Cultural sequence
yr BP Sadurní cal ka BP
VII-VI Late Postcardial Middle
Colluvium and clastic dejection. High energy. Erosive contact (S/G) Id Arid ( c.6.2 - 5.7)
6.000 (10 - 10b) Neolithic
Stabling area/Layer cake (S/G) X-VIII Humid (stability in the Postcardial Middle
IIb
Diffuse runoff (S/G) / gours with high detrital component (S) (12 - 11) environment) (c. 6.6 - 5.9) Neolithic
Colluvium and clastic dejection. High energy. Erosive contact (S/G) IX (11b) II Arid (c. 6.8 - 6.3)
Hydromorphism (S) ?
Epicardial and Late
7.000 Humid (c. 7.1 - 6.7)
Cardial Neolithic
Unlaminated colluvium (S/G), Stabling area (+) (S) XI-X (17-13) Ie
Colluvium and clastic dejection. High energy. Stabling area (-) (S) XII (18) ? Arid (c. 7.4 - 7.2) Cardial Neolithic

Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus

8.000
Solifluction processes/cryoturbation XIII (20-19) Less humid (c. 8.2 - 8.0) Mesolithic

9.000

Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus

10.00

(c. 10.7 - 10.4)

XIV (21)
Fine material colluvium with gravitational movements/Solifluction
11.00 Fresh and humid Epipaleolithic
processes

IIIa (c.11.5 - 11.1)

12.00 Hiatus Hiatus Hiatus

(c. 12.7 - 12.2)

Fine material colluvium with gravitational movements/Solifluction
XIV (21) IIIa Fresh and humid Epipaleolithic
processes

in the form of beds without traces of combustion. It should be noted
that they exhibit some scattering due to the diffuse runoff, tram-
pling effects and biological activity.
We propose that the combustion would occur in the accumu-
lations where woody debris would be present. Episodes of aban-
donment have also been detected, characterized by the presence of
eggshell fragments indicating birds nesting in the cave.
5. Discussion
5.1. Are there any chronostratigraphic discontinuities during the
Epipaleolithic and Mesolithic?
In the studied caves during c. 12.7e7.4 cal ka BP several stages of
hiatus are distinguished and are reflected in the following episodes
(Fig. 8 and Table 7):
- c. 12.7e11.1/10.4 cal ka BP
This episode would coincide with the Younger Dryas and the
start of the Holocene. In general, YD has been widely recognized in
different proxies in Iberia and has a tendency towards cold and
relatively arid conditions (Bartolome  et al., 2012; Cacho et al., 2010).
In our records, there is a dominance of solifluction and colluvial
deposits of fine and gravitational material in fresh and humid
conditions. This agrees with the archaeobotanical and faunistic
data of Can Sadurní (Antolín et al., 2011b, 2013) and there is a hiatus
between 12.2 and 11.5/10.7 cal ka BP.
In the stratigraphic and sedimentary sequences of caves and
rockshelters of the Mediterranean basin and Ebro valley, cold/fresh
episodes are documented (Angelucci, 2005; Aura et al., 2011;
Bergada
, 1998; Ferrer, 2015; García-Argüelles et al., 2013 Montes
et al., 2016), some with erosive events (Aura et al., 2011). In the
north-east of the Iberian Peninsula there is generally a hiatus that
coincides with the second half of the YD and the start of the Ho-
locene (García-Argüelles et al., 2013) corresponding to the records
analyzed in this paper (Fig. 9).
This interruption could be related to the phase of increased
humidity observed in speleothem records that would have allowed
the advance of the glaciers in the northern Iberian mountains
(García-Ruiz et al., 2016). On the contrary, in other areas such as
Arba de Biel in the Ebro Valley, an occupation gap (Montes et al.,
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et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada

Fig. 9. Stages of discontinuities referenced on the basis of the data obtained from Iberian NE archaeological sites, mentioned in the text, from their probability curves obtained from
the CalPal2007- Hulu calibration, compared with the d18O variation curves obtained in the NGRIP and GRIP cores, following the GICC05 Age Model (Lowe et al., 2008). We observe
that in the second half of Younger Dryas there is a generalized hiatus with the exception of Parco and Cativera and sedimentary episodes and human occupations are presented in a
more fragmented way during Early Holocene.

2016) is detected between 12.2 and 10.1 cal ka BP, linked only to a
cultural strategy of territorial use and not to an episode of depo-
sitional hiatus.
This change in the environment that is reflected in the second
half of the YD and Preboreal could have contributed to the very
uneven Epipaleolithic occupation registered in different contexts
and geographical areas.
- c. 11.1/10.4e7.4 cal ka BP
This coincides fully with the Holocene Climatic Optimum
(Morello n et al., 2009) although it appears apparently synchronous
in different records of Iberia, the climatic conditions were not
reached at the same time (Moreno et al., 2012) and there are dif-
ferences between the northern and southern areas as mentioned in
the introduction. Rapid climatic changes (RCCs) begin to manifest
at early dates in different types of records and both lacustrine and
karst speleothems (Burjachs et al., 2016; Moreno et al., 2013; Pe rez-
Sanz et al., 2013).
In the studied caves, this stage is characterized by a phase of
hiatus that is interrupted in Can Sadurní by the sedimentary
episode CS.XIII dated 8.2e8.0 cal ka BP. In the pollen studies of cores
near our study area, subhumid climatic conditions occur between c.
10.7/8.9 and 7.9 cal BP, although in the Garraf massif vegetal ther-
mophilic communities begin to appear, which would demonstrate
the initiation of Mediterranean climatic conditions during this time
(Riera et al., 2007).
In sites, generally caves and rockshelters, of NE Iberia between
c.11.1/10.4e8.2 cal ka BP there is a variability of sedimentary con-
tributions marked by stages of discontinuities that mostly respond
to hiatuses (Fig. 9). In Cova del Vidre (Tarragona) and Cova del Parco
(Lleida) these gaps are generalized during this period (Bergada
,

et al. / Quaternary Science Reviews 184 (2018) 26e46
M.M. Bergada
1998); in others, there are occasional episodes of detrital inputs
characteristic of wet, fresh or arid contexts as in Balma del Gai
(Barcelona), Abric del Filador y Molí del Salt (Tarragona) (Bergada
,
1998; García-Argüelles et al., 2013; Vallverdú and Carrancho,
2004); some are also characterized by a beginning of pedogenesis
with carbonation processes as in Abric de la Cativera (Tarragona)
(Angelucci, 2005) or travertinization in Font del Ros (Barcelona)
(Jorda et al., 1992) or by stalagmite formation in Cueva de Seso
(Huesca) (Bartolome  et al., 2012). One aspect that we would like to
emphasize by the documented data is that perhaps the rockshelters
may be a type of record that better reflects the sedimentary and
palaeoenvironmental variations of this stage.
A solifluction level (c. 8.2e8.0 cal ka BP) is located in Can
Sadurní, in a less humid environment with slight traces of cry-
oturbation that could be related to the global event of 8.2 Ka cal BP
with a tendency to cold and arid conditions. At the same time be-
tween c. 8.4 and 7.9 cal BP in the Delta del Llobregat near the site,
the existence of pre-Neolithic fires with a brief climatic oscillation
of drier conditions towards c. 7.9 cal BP has been demonstrated
(Riera et al., 2007).
This event is not very well represented in the Iberian Medi-
terranean basin in rockshelters and caves; but some dated
around this event are characterized from a sedimentary point of
view by an arid environment, such as Tossal de la Roca and Abric
de la Falguera, both in Alicante (Cacho and Jord a, 2009; García-
Puchol and Aura, 2006), or by a clear truncation episode, an
erosive phase, such as the Balma Margineda rockshelter (Berger
and Guilaine, 2009). These traits would coincide at the human
level with the pre-Neolithic gap (Morales and Oms, 2012) or
archaeological silence (Gonza lez-Samperiz et al., 2009). The latter
authors attributed this to environmental conditions being
unfavourable for habitability in some areas. It is noteworthy that
in this episode there is a tendency to a cultural gap in the
Mediterranean from Greece to Iberia (Berger and Guilaine, 2009).
Therefore, it seems that a change in the distribution pattern of
human occupation coincides with the c. 8.2 cal ka BP event, with
paleoecological and palaeoenvironmental implications of great
importance.
Towards c. 8.0e7.4 cal ka BP, at the transition between the
Mesolithic and the Neolithic, most records of continental and ma-
rine continuous sequences of Iberia experienced conditions tending
to aridity, as indicated in the Introduction. In other contexts a cli-
matic variability is observed, such as in the river records of the
middle Rhone valley where stability episodes dating from 8.05 to
7.7 ka and others with a high hydrological activity dating to
7.7e7.49 ka are located (Berger et al. al., 2016).
In Can Sadurní and Guineu, it is difficult to verify this episode
because it is also represented by another hiatus phase, coinciding
with other cavities such as Cova d'en Pardo (Ferrer, 2015) and Cova
del Vidre (oral communication Dr. Josep Bosch). There are data
based on the study of speleothems in the Cueva de los Molinos
(Teruel) through the analysis of stable isotopes (d18O and d13C) and
trace elements of speleothemic carbonate (Moreno et al., 2013),
which indicate the existence of two events dated 8.2 and 7.4 ka that
are interpreted as cold and very humid, typical of an environment
with a very dense vegetation cover.
Together, these data allow us to develop the hypothesis that,
despite this being a complex stage and marked in some records by
climatic variability, the signals reflected in the cavities, during c.
12.7e7.4 cal ka BP are those representing episodes of some sta-
bility. This could also correspond to an environment lacking sea-
sonal acute episodes; which would explain the interruptions in
detrital contributions into the interior of the caves at the analyzed
sites.
43
5.2. Are there any episodes of climatic variability in caves from the
Early Neolithic period onwards?
The geoarchaeological and microstatigraphic study of the cav-
ities that are the object of our study reveals that from c. 7.4 to 6.0 cal
ka BP there was a certain chronostratigraphic continuity (Fig. 8)
with a series of successive sedimentary processes mainly of the
detrital and anthropic type that are expressed in episodes of short
duration (Table 7). From these we highlight:
a) Detrital sedimentation formed by collapses that involved the
formation of debris cones and the entrance of detrital materials
in mass, with blocks and stones, typical of an arid environment,
with colluvium reactivations.
They have been identified in different episodes:
- from 7.4 to 7.2 cal ka BP corresponding to the Cardial Early
Neolithic in Can Sadurní (CS. XII, layer 18).
- from 6.8 to 6.3 cal ka BP corresponding to the Early Postcardial
Middle Neolithic in Can Sadurní (CS IX, layer 11b) and probably
in Guineu (G. II)
- from 6.2 to 5.7 cal ka BP corresponding to the Late Postcardial
Middle Neolithic in Can Sadurní (CS.VII-VI, layer 10b and 10) and
Guineu (G. Id)
These episodes would be in accordance with the proposal of
Wanner et al. (2011) on a global scale in which he identified a more
recent phase of Bond 5 (5a) dated around 7.5 cal ka BP and located a
concentration of dry events between the 7.2e5.7 cal ka BP.
In these episodes, the one that corresponds to the Cardial Early
Neolithic compares the best with other sites in other zones of Iberia
as well as the Levante area, where the processes of mass movement
and colluviation have caused fillings in the slopes and caves (Ferrer,
2015; Fumanal, 1995).
Fire episodes were located in the pollen core from the Delta del
Besos in Barcelona, an area close to our studies, (Riera et al., 2007),
as well as in the Rhone middle valley (Berger et al., 2016) where
intense peaks of localized fires occurring between 7.57 and 7.32 ka
were revealed. For Berger et al. (2016), these episodes reflect vari-
ations in climatic and atmospheric activity responsible for periods
of aridity. Data coinciding with the contributions of Vannie
re et al.
(2011) indicate that in the Mediterranean there is a synchronicity
between the episodes of fires with the climatic droughts that were
determinant during these stages.
These traits indicate that the Cardial Neolithic was a stage of
very active morphogenesis with a high probability of not being able
to identify settlements in the open air of this stage and even earlier
(Berger and Guilaine, 2009; Berger, 2011; Berger et al., 2016); which
would lead us to consider that the cavities would act as sedimen-
tation traps capable of retaining such contributions from the
outside and would constitute the most favourable deposits for the
conservation of these occupations.
Subsequently, two events dated 6.8e6.3 and 6.2e5.7 ka cal BP
correspond to phases of instability with reactivations of gravita-
tional processes. These reactivations caused erosive contacts in the
underlying sedimentary levels in some sectors of the cavities that in
Guineu occurred in the Epipaleolithic level. From this stage, cor-
relations with other nearby records have not yet been observed.
b) (Less) detrital sedimentation and (more) anthropic sedimenta-
tion. It is located in two episodes dated c.7.1e6.7 cal ka BP cor-
responding to the Epicardial and Late Cardial periods and c.
6.6e5.9 cal ka BP, Postcardial Middle period, the latter with
greater representation in the sequences. The sedimentation
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M.M. Bergada
generated by human activity is strongly present in the caves
with animal stabling practices (mainly ovicaprids) in which
levels with burnt material (layer-cake) or without are alter-
nated. The environment was humid, with some stability, espe-
cially during the Late Cardial/Epicardial period, in which an
increase of hydromorphic processes is detected, possibly
reflecting non-permanent water saturation. It correlates with
the data provided by anthracology of Guineu (Allue  et al., 2009);
as well as the palynological analyses indicating an expansion of
wetlands in the deltaic plains of Llobregat (Riera et al., 2007). It
also reflects the same environmental conditions during the
Postcardial Middle Neolithic and the appearance of detrital
gours in Can Sadurní are typical of a stable environment.
It is at this episode that the use of the cavities for animal pens is
recorded with good resolution, quite possibly favoured by the
environmental conditions. Most probably this anthropic sedimen-
tation is responsible for the episodes of oscillating humidity re-
flected in the sequences of the caves where, if not for this
contribution, perhaps a hiatus would be located. On the other hand,
the detrital contributions are smaller and this can favour the ten-
dency to create palimpsests in the different occupations of the
cavities. This is the case in Can Sadurní CS.VIII (level 11) where a
burial phase dated 6.3e6.1 cal ka BP overlaps a stabling phase dated
6.6e6.4 cal ka BP (Antolín et al., in press; Edo et al., in press a).
6. Conclusions
Holocene climatic variability is clearly reflected in caves in the
Catalan Coastal Ranges of NE Iberia during the Middle and Early
Neolithic.
The detailed analysis of the sedimentary sequences of these
caves offers data that complement the palaeoenvironmental
studies obtained from high resolution records and especially at this
stage, c.13e6.0 cal ka BP, in which there are considerable changes in
ecosystems and within human communities.
Through the geoarchaeological and microstratigraphic studies
of the analyzed karst records we highlight two stages:
a) c. 12.7e7.4 cal ka BP, corresponding to the Epipaleolithic and
Mesolithic. This period is characterized by the presence of
stratigraphic, chronological and cultural discontinuities. Epi-
sodes dated 12.7e12.2 cal ka BP (Younger Dryas first half), 11.5/
11.1e10.7/10.4 cal ka BP (beginning of the Early Holocene) and
8.2e8.0 cal ka BP (onset of the Middle Holocene). The conditions
are fresh and humid; although in the range 8.2e8.0 there is less
humid.
However, the trait characterizing this episode is the location of
the hiatus phases - depositional pauses - indicative of biostasy
phases or absence of seasonal acute episodes. This is corroborated
in the caves of the NE of Iberia; as well also as a certain tendency in
the Mediterranean area (Berger and Guilaine, 2009).
Our opinion is that, added to these hiatuses, there is a lack of
anthropic occupation that suggests during this period there was a
change of strategy of the hunter-gatherer communities in the use of
the cavities.
b) c. 7.4e6.0 cal ka BP, corresponding to the Neolithic, is the one
that offers the greatest resolution in the cavities. It is manifested
in our records with an important detrital and anthropic sedi-
mentation rate.
Climate variability is recorded. There are alternating cumulative
episodes of short duration, characteristic of the morphogenesis of
slopes in an arid Mediterranean environment.
These short and cyclical periods could be correlated with the so-
called RCCs, arid events, which in our context would be the
following: c. 7.4e7.2 cal ka BP- Cardial Neolithic; c. 6.8e6.3 cal ka
BP- Early Postcardial Middle Neolithic and c.6.2e5.7 cal ka BP- Late
Postcardial Middle Neolithic.
These arid events alternate with episodes of stability that are
more humid and coincide with a better sedimentary record of the
pastoral activity during the Epicardial and Late Cardial Neolithic (c.
7.1e6.7 cal ka BP) and Postcardial Middle Neolithic (c. 6.6e5.9 cal ka
BP).
It is interesting to emphasize from an archaeological point of
view that the caves played an important role in the use of territory
in Neolithic communities; they were used mainly as stabling, which
is a great anthropic contribution to the sedimentary record.
Acknowledgments
This research is part of the HAR2014-55131 research project of
the MICINN, 2014/100780 and 2014/100482 of Generalitat de Cat-
alunya and the Quality Research Group of Generalitat de Catalunya
SRG2014-108.
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