CHAPTER 1

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LUBRICANTS

1 .1 Introduction

1.2 Alternative Sources of Energy-

Hydrocarbon Liquid

1.3 Non-Energy Applications of

Lubricants

1.4 Types of Lubricants

1.5 Physico-Chemical and

Performance Properties of
Fluid Lubricants

1.6 General Functions of a Lubricant

1.7 References
 CHAPTER 1

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF LUBRICANTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION :

In order to sustain the high growth rate of industry and the economy,
Management of Energy resources ranks very high on the priority list of the
planners. Considerable break-through has been achieved in substituting the
energy source in industry by Non-petroleum and Non-conventional forms of
energy. However there appears to be no substitute for transportation fuels in
the near future.

The search for alternative sources for hydro-carbons has been stimulated
in recent years due to the depletion of petroleum resources on one side and
the increasing demand for petroleum products on the other. Besides providing
energy, petroleum is also utilized for many Non-energy applications.

The world demand of petroleum products has been growing at a rate

higher than the discovery of new resources in the last decade. If the demand
rates sustain and if they are possibly met with increased production it is
estimated that the world presently known recoverable oil resources would be

exhausted before 2030.

As in other industrialised nations, in India too, in the last two decades,

oils share in the total energy consumed has been increasing, as shown in the

Table No. 1.1 below (1).

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 TABLE NO. 1.1

Crude Oil and Petroleum Products

Pfoduction and Imports (in Million Tonnes)

SNo Product Name 1970-71 1980-81 1985-86 1989-90

i. Crude Oil 6.87 10.5 30.2 34.1

Production

ii (a). Crude Oil 11.7 16.2 14.6 19.5

Imports

ii (b). Petroleum 0.8 7.3 1.9 3.9

Products

Total Quantity 12.5 23.5 16.5 23.4

In 1988-89 , the country consumed about 53.8 MT of Crude oil and

products out of which 21.8 MT was imported at a cost of Rs. 3854.76 crores in
foreign exchange. India's oil import bill rose sharply by over Rs. 1700 crores in
1990-91 as domestic production and availability of crude and petroleum

products fell far short of demands. With demand projected at 77.7 MT in 1994-
95 and over 100 MT by the turn of century, it would be necessary to import
around 36.3 MT of crude oil and products in 1994-95 and 57.8 MT in 1999-

2000.

In addition to the utilization of petroleum as a major source of energy,

its constituents are also utilised for many non-energy applications such as for

the production of lubricants,speciality products,additives,petrochemicals etc.

Engines developed during the past several decades,particularly those for

transport vehicles, are based on the use of liquid hydrocarbon mixture of

appropriate chemical composition.molecular weight range, physico-chemical

and performance parameters. Faced with the prospect of dwindling petroleum

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resources, technology will have to provide alternate liquid hydrocarbon materials
similar to current petroleum products to feed engines that will basically continue
to be of current design.

1.2 ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF ENERGY-HYDROCARBON LIQUID:

The urgency of solving the energy problem has prompted many countries
to initiate drastic moves to sustain economic growth by giving priority to
implementation of programmes to accelerate the development of alternative
sources of energy, such as the Geothermal, Solar power, Wind power, Coal
utilisation, Dendrothermal and the exploitation of plant species as commercial
sources of hydrocarbons. The plant kingdom provides a reservoir of 250,000
known species. Fewer than 0.1 % have enjoyed any significant commercial
recognition in the world. From this wealth of plant resources , it is anticipated
that new sources of energy producing plants could be identified and exploited.
The most successful species have been suggested to be those that can be
grown on arid lands. There are more than 175 million hectares of waste-land
in the country which are lying barren on account of high salt content, hard pans
rocky nature, wind and I or water erosion. High cost of reclamation of these
degraded lands is a problem. Selection of species appropriate for different

types of waste land is the only viable approach to transform these wasted
resources into useful assets. It is estimated that even if 10% of the total waste
land is utilized, it will provide about 3.4 MT of liquid fuels per year thus saving
about Rs. 830 crores in foreign exchange annually.

First, efforts to cultivate hydrocarbon producing plants for fuel production

were made by Italians in Ethiopia (1935-36) and by French in Morocco (1940).1n

recent years, Calvin and his collaborators have revived the idea again and
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have advocated study of energy crops as possible fuel stock for petroleum like
materials. Nuniber of latex producing species mainly belonging to the families
Euphorbiaceae and Asclepiadaceae were screened for assessing their suitability
as a source of low molecular weight and non-polar petroleum like hydrocarbons.
Euphorbia !athyris was considered as the most suitable Energy Farm (3,4,5).

An extensive screening programme was conducted by Buchanan et-al.

(6, 7 ,8). More than 200 plant species covering 57 families were evaluated for
their suitability as a renewable source of fibre, carbohydrate

protein,hydrocarbons and rubber. Such species were rated according to

botanical characteristics and potential as multiuse hydrocarbon producing
crops. This study resulted in the identification of 14 potential biocrude and rubber

producing crops and were found to be capable of affording more than 5% oil

plus polymeric hydrocarbons on dry weight basis and were capable of producing
upto 22.4 tons/ha/yr of dry matter. Out of these Gophar plant (E.Lathyris) was

presented as potential "gasolene tree".

An analytical screening programme has been conducted by the United

Slates Dept. of Agriculture to evaluate and identify plant species as source of

high energy,easily extractable compounds suitable for fuel,chemicals and

petroleum-sparing chemical feed stock. In screening plant species as potential

crops, a rating system was established which emphasised potential economy

of crop production, total biomass yield, oil hydrocarbon and protein contents.
Perennials were given preference over annuals with the concept that culture

of the former would be less energy intensive.Plant families that have yielded

more than one promising species are Anacardiaceae, Asclepiadaceae.

Caprifoliaceae, Compositac, Euphorbiaceae and Labiatae.

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 Vegetable oils have been hydro-cracked using bifunctional catalyst (A1p 3
supported Rn) at an 300-693 K /100-150 atm. An 80% yield of usable fractions
of gaseous hydrocarbons, gasolene and diesel was obtained.

Adams et-al. (7) and Erdman et-al. {8) have analysed extractives from
Asclepias speciosa and calotropis procera respectively, for elemental analysis
and compared with fossil fuels.

Hydrocarbon oils of the algae Biotryococcus braunii, extracted from the

natural "bloom" of the plant were hydrocracked to produce a distilate comprising
of 67% diesel fuel fraction and 3% residual oil. The preliminary investigation of
the distilate indicated that the oil of B. braunii was more suitable as a feed
stock material for hydrocracking than transport fuels (9).

1.2.1 Indian Scene :

The Indian Institute of Petroleum, Dehradun started working on the

development of energy crops for liquid fuels in 1979 in collaboration with
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow under the sponsorship of the
Department of Science and Technology and later Department of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources. Screening of a list of 386 indigenous laticiferous
species belonging to the families of Euphorbiaceae, Asclepiadaceae,
Apocynaceae Urticaceae(Moraceae) Convolvulaceae and Sapotaceae, selected
on the basis of wide distribution, good latex content and because of common
occurrence, resulted in the selection of 54 potential species deserving further
study.(1 0,11)

Hydrocracking of biocrudes of Euphorbia nestifolia (1), E. Royleana(ll)

Calotropis Gigantea(IJI) and Cryptostegia grandiflora (IV) using Pd and Ni-W

based catalyst gave good conversion to liquid fuels ( 11 ).

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 The constituents of petroleum are also utilised for many non-energy
applications e.. g. for the production of lubricants,speciality products, additives
and petrochemicals. Any shortfall in the production of crude oil will equally
affect availability of these products which are vital for both industrial and
agricultural production.

1.3 NON-ENERGY APPLICATIONS OF LUBRICANTS:

Discovery of beneficial effects of lubricants have followed the making of

most primitive contrivances of mechanical type and it was recognised that the
lubricant not only lessened the muscular effort of using the contrivance, but
also diminishes the wear and tear of working parts. Prof. Vogelpohl has

estimated that one third to one half of total energy produced is consumed in
friction. The automobile engine delivers useful work only after the friction of
bearings, valves, piston-rings etc. have taken their due share. This useful work
is then largely consumed in gear-friction,rolling friction, brake friction, wind

friction.

It has been found that lubrication serves still another purpose that of

preventing the local heating rendering increased mechanical efficiency,

decrease of wear,elimination of destructive heating. It is difficult to find a solitary

individual to whom oil is not of value and interest.

Lubrication plays a most vital role in our great and complex civilisation.To

estimate the importance of this role one need only to consider that every moving
part of every machine is subjecte1 to friction and wear. Throughout the centuries
from ox-cart axles to grinding-wi1eel spindles, one of man's most persistent

problems has centred around the reduction and control of friction and wear.

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Friction consumes and wastes energy. Wear causes changes in dimensions
and eventual breakdown of the machine element and the entire machine and
all that depends upon it.

In the operation of industrial and power plant machinery,there is definite

relationship between lubrication and maintenance. Each is a form of insurance
to management that production will be dependable,in other words,that
machinery will keep operating.Today after the Installation-Engineer has handed
over a machine to plant, it becomes the responsibility of

(1) The Operating Engineer who keeps it running.

(2) The Maintenance Engineer who sees that it is kept in good running
condition.
(3) The Lubrication Engineer who sees that the working parts are
properly lubricated so that the maintenance engineer can keep costs
of repair to a minimum.
(4) The Production Engineer who sees that the raw materials are
received in time and finished products taken care of so that no
delay occurs in handling of materials anywhere.

In fact the lubrication engineer has the greatest responsibility because

unless he uses good judgement in selecting plant lubricants and plans for their
application by dependable means, some machine part may fail due to starved

lubrication.

Lubrication became a science more than half a century ago when the
theory of the formation and maintenance of lubricating film with the clearance
space of a plain or slave-type bearing was developed. Research has been

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more progressively undertaken by scientists in recent years until today the
theory of lubiication and study of nature of lubricants, both petroleum and
synthetic are major objectives in the research laboratories of the petroleum
industry, many higher learning research institutes etc.

A lubricant is any material placed between two relatively moving surfaces

so that the friction between them is reduced. The two basic means by which
this may be achieved (i} solid lubrication, in which each surface is coated with
substance havirig a lower coefficient of friction than the materials of the original
surfaces; and (ii) fluid lubrication, in which a film of fluid is interposed between
the surfaces. The distinction between solid and fluid lubrication is one of action
by which friction is reduced,

1.3.1 Action of a Solid Lubricant :

A solid lubricant may act in one of the two ways. It may cling to the
bearing surfaces, filling in the minute cavities and rough spots and providing a
smooth surface of solid lubricant that slides over the corresponding surface on
the other bearing member. Graphite acts in this manner, as do most other
lubricants applied in powder form. Other solid lubricants react chemically with
the bearing surfaces producing a "plate" of alloy with better anti-friction

characteristics than the parent metal. Most so-called "Extreme Pressure

Additives"have this effect.

1.3.2 Action of a Fluid Lubricant :

Most fluid lubricants have no chemical affinity for the material of the

bearings in which they are used. While their molecules also tend to stick to the

bearing surfaces.they do so by molecular attraction. This force is in some way

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akin to magnetism, and lie flat against the surface instead of sticking out
vertically from it. The film so formed is neither so strongly attached nor so
thick as that based on the absorbed film provided by polar molecules.

1.4 TYPES OF LUBRICANTS :

Lubricants may be classified as follows.

(i) Solid Lubricants (ii) Synthetic Lubricants (iii) Grease

Lubricants(iv)Metal cutting and machining Lubri_cants (v) Metal forming
Lubricants (vi) Fluid Lubricants

1.4.1 Solid Lubricant :

The most important and widely used solid lubricants at present are
molybdenum disulphide and graphite. Solid lubricants are used in case of
considerarbly difficult situation such as extreme load, high temperature, non-
standard environmental conditions etc.

Molybdenum-di-sulphide (MoS 2 ) is obtained by mining molybdenite

followed by extraction,purification and micronising to a fine powder. MoS 2 is a
black crystalline solid which easily shears,possesses a low coefficient of friction
and is not only resistant to heat, but also to common solvents and majority of
chemicals. Its stability to oxidation is good with no significant change below
25o·c and not till 5oo•c in air does rapid oxidation begin. Because of its crystal
structure, MoS 2 has the ability to act as lubricating solid and is composed of
repeated layers of sulphur, molybdenum and sulphur. Its proper application
forms a thin, tenacious and tough film preventing metal to metal contact between
opposing faces or mating surfaces even during extreme bearing pressures or
close fits. Lubricants containing MoS 2 are used for lubricating dynamic

machinery.
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 Graphite occurs naturally and is manufactured by graphitization of
petroleum and. other cokes. It possesses a flat thin crystalline structure which
closely adheres to the mating surfaces and is a good conductor of heat. Graphite
is an inert material, which is unaffected by acids, alkalis and solvents. It helps
metallic surfaces to resist seizure even at high loads when used as a lubricant.
It is not widely used in lubricating fluids or greases like the former one, since

it generates greater wear. Since graphite withstands considerably higher

temperature (upto 600'C), it is extensively used as a lubricant in hot metal
working.

1.4.2 Synthetic Lubricant :

The products which are not directly obtained by the direct (straight run)

distillation of crude belong to this category. Though at times vegetable oil or

mineral oil or coal tar or similar such materials were used to generate this type
of lubricant, the same is obtained now a days by chemical synthesis of petroleum

feed stocks. Synthetic lubricants account for nearly one percent of total lubes.
The use of synthetic lubricant is growing up fast due to certain parametric
advantages such as, lower viscosity than mineral oils, higher flash point, lower

pour point, better temperature characteristics, good thermal and oxidation

stability. Silicons, organic-ester, phosphate ester, polyalkylene glycols and
synthetic hydrocarbons are the main synthetics. These lubricants are used for
aerogas, turbine engines, crank-case, etc.

1.4.3 Grease Lubricant :

When lubricating fluid, that is mineral oil or synthetic oil is thickened by

a thickening agent to a consistent semi solid state, grease is formed. Though

metallic soaps, organa-modified clays, colloidal silicas, carbon black.

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phthalocyanine pigments, alkyl urea derivatives etc. are used as thickners but
the type of material used has an important effect on the grease properties.

1.4.4 Metal Cutting and Machining Lubricant :

Lubricant separates the relevant metal surface from the tool with a film
in metal cutting and machining operations. The lubricant reduces friction,
dissipates heat and prevents welding of metal to the tool. Friction and metal
particle build up are reduced, resulting higher machining rates and/or increased
tool life by making the lubricant effective under extreme pressure conditions
by using extreme pressure agents in the same . Normally the extreme pressure
additives are organic compounds containing either sulphur or chlorine or
phosphorous or a combination of these.Cutting lubricants consist of the following
types :

(i) Mineral oils (ii) mineral oils containing sulphur or sulphur compound

extreme pressure(EP) agents (iii) combination of mineral oil and fatty oil (iv)
combination of mineral oil, sulphur. chlorine and organic EP agents (v)
combination of mineral oil, emulsifier and EP agent and (vi) synthetic soluble
oil consisting synthetic lubricant fluid with surface agent.

1.4.5 Metal Forming Lubricant :

In Metal forming operations such as deep drawing, roll forming, blanking

and piecing, lubricant with boundary lubrication properties is essential to combat

with the high pressures between the surfaces. Most of the types of lubricants
employed possess close resemblance to those of the former types and usually

contain fats and extreme pressure additives of same kind including lubricating

solids such as chalk, zink oxide, molybdenum-di-sulphide etc. Such lubricants

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are often applied in the form of a liquid or paste and may be divided into two
main groups :,

(i) the first group consists of oil without emulsifier which may be diluted
only with suitable organic solvents and low viscosity mineral oils and

(ii) the second group consists of products which are water extendible.

1.4.6 Fluid lubricant :

First, mineral oil is derived from crude petroleum by distilling of more

volatile components such as gasolene, kerosene, fuel oil and gas oil.
Secondly, the residue is subjected to further distillation and other necessary
treatments such as acid treatment refining of solvent, filtration through fuller's
earth bauxite or clay, hydrogenation and other chemical treatment to produce
lubricant base stocks in a range of viscosities. The base stocks are then
blended to generate finished lubricating oils. Finally, additives are added
into the finished lubricating oils to improve the properties for its wide industrial

applications.

1.5 PHYSICO-CHEMICAl AND PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES OF

FLUID lUBRICANTS :

The various properties of fluid lubricants are as follows:-

1. 5. 1 Viscosity :

The viscosity of a fluid lubricant may be defined as its ability to flow

at a definite temperature and is measured in time in seconds required by 60

ml of the same to flow through a standard orifice under a standard falling

head.
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I. 5.2 Kinematic Viscosity :

The time required by a fixed amount of lubricant to flow through a

capillary tube under the force of gravity is known as its kinematic viscosity. It
is expressed either in stokes or centistokes.

t .5.3 Absolute Viscosity :

The tangential force on unit area of either one or two parallel planes at
unit distance apart when the space is filled with liquid and one of the planes
moves relative to the other with unit velocity in its own plane is known as the
absolute viscosity. It is expressed in poise (gm/cm-sec) or centipoise. Thus
kinematic viscosity of a fluid is defined as a ratio of its absolute viscosity to the

specific gravity at the same temperature i.e.

Centipoise
= Centistokes
Sp.gravity
1.5.4 Viscosity Index :

The Viscosity Index (VI) of a lubricant can be represented by an empirical

number indicating the rate of change in viscosity of the same within a given
range of temperature and may be evaluated from the following formula

Where U 1 is the viscosity of the lubricant in Saybolt Universal Seconds

(SUS) at 37.77•c (100.F) where V.I. is to be calculated; L, the viscosity of a

lubricant in SUS at 37. 77"C ( 1oo• F) of Zero V. I. having the same viscosity at
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98.88'C (210'F) as the lubricant whose V. I. is to be calculated and H 1 the
viscosity of a lubricant in SUS at 37. 77'C (1 OO'F) of 100 V. I. having the same
viscosity at 98.88'C (210'F) as the lubricant whose V. 1. is to be calculated.

1.5.5. Specific Gravity :

The specific gravity may be defined as the ratio of the weight in air of a

given volume of lubricant at a given temperature to the weight in air of an

equal volume of distilled water at the same temperature.

1.5.6 Interfacial Tension :

The interfacial tension may be defined as the force required to pull a

platinum wire ring from the surface of water into a layer of lubricant and is

measured in dyne I em.

1.5.7 Cloud Point :

The cloud point of lubricant may be defined as the temperature at which

paraffin wax or other solidifiable compounds present theirin begines to
crystallize or separate from solution when the lubricant is chilled under specified
conditions. Lubricants which are almost wax-free show no cloud point.

1.5.8 Pour Point :

The pour point of a lubricant may be defined as the lowest temperature

at which it would pour or flow under specified conditions when the same is

chilled at a fixed rate without any interruption.

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t .5.9 Flash Point :

The flash point of a lubricant may be defined as the lowest temperature

at which it releases vapour that would ignite when a small flame is periodically
passed over the lubricant surface.

1. 5.1 0 Closed and Open Flash Point :

The closed flash point of a lubricant may be defined as the temperature

at which the application of the flame results in a distinct flash in the interior of
the cup and is measured in •c.

The Open Flash Point is ascertained by healing the lubricant in an open

cup. Though the open cup flash pain\ gives a higher value than the closed
one, but the latter is useful for detecting whether the lubricant has become
contaminated with inflammable products of lower boiling point.

I .5.11 Fire Point :

The fire point may be defined as the lowest temperature at which a

lubricant ignite and continues burning, atleast for 5 seconds.

1. 5. 12 Neutralization Number :

The neutralization number (also known as acidity) may be defined as

the number of miligrams of potassium hydroxide needed to neutralize the acid
contained in one gm. of lubricant. The increase in neutralization number or

acidity of a lubricant indicates its degree of deterioration.

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I. 5. I 3 Precipitation Number :

The precipitation number may be defined as the number of millilitres of

precipitate generated when 10 ml of the lubricant is mixed with 90 ml of
precipitation naphtha and placed in a centrifuge tube and rotated at 1500 rpm
under certain conditions. The materials which are insoluble in precipitation
naphtha represent undesirable matters in a lubricant.

1. 5. 14 Carbon Residue :

The carbon residue of lubricant may be defined as the amount of carbon

deposit or residue remaining in the lubricant when the same has been subjected
to extreme heat by burning it in a crucible under controlled conditions. It may

be evaluated as'follows and expressed in percentages.

Wt. Of Residue
Carbon Residue (%) = ---------- X 100
Wt. of original lubricant

1. 5. 15 Sulphated Residue :

The sulphated residue of a lubricant may be defined as the concentration

of metal (except lead) additives in the same. It also gives an idea whether the

lubricant contains an appropriate amount of additives or not and normally lies

in the range of 0-2.5% by weight.

1.5.16 Coking Tendency:

The coking tendency of a lubricant (whether non-additive oil or additive

oil) may be defined as the tendency of the same to form solid decomposition

products when in contact with surfaces at higher temperatures. It gives an

idea at what temperature decomposition products of a lubricant begin to form

and how much they tend to increase at other higher temperatures. 11 is measured

1n grams at particular temperatures.

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1. 5. 17 Silver Corrosion :

The silver corrosion tendancy of a heavy duty lubricant may be defined

as to whether the addilives of the same are completely corrosive to the metallic
silver or not.

1 . 5. 1 8 Dynamic Demulsibility :

The dynamic demulsibility of a lubricant may be defined as the measure

of its ability to dissociate itself from water under actual circulating conditions.

1.5. t 9 Foaming :

The foaming characteristics of lubricant may be defined as the volume

of oil foam generated under certain conditions, set up and at specified
temperatures. It is measured in milli-litres.

1.6 GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF A LUBRICANT:

According to various uses to which a lubricant is generally put, the

general requirements of a lubricant are

(i) It must not contain contaminants. There are variety of ways with
which a lubricant can be contaminated. Particulate matter, moisture, acidic
combustion products etc. can find their way into lubricants which are employed
in multifarious applications. A variety of chemical additives can be used to
prevent these contaminants from producing harmful effects to the equipments/
components. Additives which provide dispersancy, corrosion protection
detergency and rust protection are required. These chemicals must provide

both oxidative as well as thermal stability.

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 (ii) It must act as a coolant. The lubricant removes heat generated either
by friction or by transfer from contact with substances at higher temperature or
other sources such as the combustion process and while performing above
function, lubricant should remain in a relatively unchanged condition. Thus it
becomes essential to know the specific heat characteristics of the formulated
lubricant, its thermal conductivity and also the thermal and oxidative stability.

(iii) It must reduce fric\ion.Consideration of coefficient of friction or

oiliness is important. Besides this, consideration of the viscosity temperature

index and the Viscosity-Pressure index, also the thermal and oxidative stability
of the lubricant are equally important.

(iv) Energy Conservation :- The demand for petroleum products is

growing at a rate of 6 to 12% per annum. The indigenous crude production is

declining and the refining capacity is stagnant at 51 million MT. Precious foreign
exchange levels are low, and balance of payment position is critical. Hence it

becomes all the more important to conserve the fuel! energy which is possible

only by improving the quality of fuels and lubricant.

(v) Environmental Protection :- Automotive engine exhausts lead to

increase beyond safe limits in pollution levels in the metropolitan cities w.r. to

CO/N0 2 hydrocarbons and particulate matters. Newer engine designs and

emission control devices may have a desired impact on lubricant performance

and thus the need to formulate lubricants which could assist in the performance

of newer engines and do not contribute to increased particulate or other

ecological damage. Similarly industrial lubricants, specially the metal working

oils be formulated for sale disposal after use such that ecological balance is

not disturbed.
('8)
 {vi} Increased Equipment Life : Equipment design, dust contamination
control, main'tenance procedures, operating habits have the impact on
equipment life, but if the proper quality lubricants are used, effects of some of
these factors can be minimised avoiding unnecessary wear and tear leading to
increased equipment life.

{vii) Opertor/User Safety : Large quantity of metal working fluids are

used in engineering industry for carrying out cutting, threading, honing, drawing
operations. The industrial practices in India are still ancient, operators directly
come in contact with cutting fl.uids, thus to avoid any ill effect on their health
the metal cutting fluid mal")ufacturers must use non-toxic chemical additives.

(viii) Increased Oil Life: India's lubricant consumption is 10,00,000

MTPA and is likely to shoot up to 18,00,000 MTPA by year 2000. Since
production of lube base stocks is limited 500,000 MTPA and balance
requirement is met through imports, it is pertinent that lubricants having long
useful life be developed and marketed. It is important to note that inspite of
increased Automotive population and increased industrial activity, the demands
for lubricants in developed countries have not grown. In India, lube fuel ratio is

2.5% in comparison to 1% in developed countries thus there is considerable

scope to improve the lubricant performance.

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1. 7 REFERENCES :

( 1) Edit Indian Petroleum and Natural Gas Statistics

(1989-90), Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas,
New Delhi.
(2) Edit Urja, 30, No.5, (1991 ), 59.
(3) Calvin, M. Science, 184, (1974), 375.
(4) Calvin, M. Naturwissenschaften, 67, (1980), 525.
(5) Calvin, M. Science, 219, (1983), 24.
(6) Bagby, M.O. Biomass as a Non-fossil Fuel Source.
Buchanan, R.A. & D I Klass (Ed), ACS Symp. Series, 144,
Otey, F.H. (1981),125.
(7) Adams, R.P. Biomass, 4, (1984), 81.
Balandrian, M.F. &
Martineau, J.R.
(8) Edman, M.D. Econ. Bot., 35, (1981), 467.
Erdman, B.A.
(9) Hillen. I. W. Fuel, 59, (1980), 446.
Wake, L.V. &
Warren, D.R.
(10) Bhatia, V.K. Biomass, 4, (1984), 151.
et-al.
(11) Shrivastava, G.S. Fuel, 64, (1985), 720.
et-al.

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