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UMI A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor MI 48106-1346 USA 313/161-4700 800/521-0600Copyright by Julia Guemsey Kappelman 1997OF MACAWS AND MEN: LATE PRECLASSIC COSMOLOGY AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IN IZAPAN-STYLE MONUMENTS, Approved by Dissertation Committee: Lee ; a a a th 27 ALOF MACAWS AND MEN: LATE PRECLASSIC COSMOLOGY AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IN IZAPAN-STYLE MONUMENTS by Julia Guemsey Kappelman, B.S., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of ‘The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 1997UMI Number: 9802915 Copyright 1997 by Kappelman, Julia Guernsey All rights reserved. UMI Microform 9802915 Copyright 1997, by UMI Company. All rights reserved. ‘This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. UMI 300 North Zeeb Road ‘Ann Arbor, MI 48103To my parents, Tony and Rita GuemseyAcknowledgments T owe thanks to many individuals for facilitating the development of this study. First, I thank my committee members, David Freidel, Terence Grieder, Janice Leoshko, Kent Reilly, and Linda Schele, all of whom provided valuable insights which contributed greatly to my understanding of the significance of the Tzapan-style monuments within their cultural matrix. Janice Leoshko offered perceptive comments and models regarding the function of art within non- Westem cultures. Terence Grieder challenged me to consider the significance of the stela format as a communicative vehicle, and offered guidance throughout the course of my doctoral work. David Freidel’s work laid the foundations for my understanding of the Late Preclassic institution of kingship, and his insightful comments were always appreciated. Kent Reilly guided me through the intricacies of institutionalized shamanism and the Preclassic Period in Mesoamerica during countless hours of conversations, while his scholarship has provided a model for my own work in the Late Preclassic. My deepest appreciation goes to my advisor, Linda Schele, whose inspiration and philosophies have figured so prominently into this dissertation. She has been the major intellectual force in shaping my methodological approaches to and understanding of the art of Mesoamerica. Terrence Kaufman and John Justeson also played integral roles in the evolution of this study. My sincere thanks goes to them for sharing so generously their discoveries conceming the decipherment of the script of La Mojarra Stela 1. I worked with them during the Maya Meetings each spring in Austin for the last three years, during which time they patiently led me through the decipherment of the hieroglyphic text, and discussed its significance in relationship to the Izapan- style monuments. They also provided many valuable comments on a draft of thisdissertation, and engaged in hours of discussions over the conclusions reached within it. Thanks also go to Ann Cyphers Guillén, who welcomed me during my research in Mexico, and with whom I had some of my earliest conversations about the significance of the Izapan monuments. I also wish to acknowledge the generosity of John Clark, who provided me with drafts of the new drawings of the Izapa monuments which were commissioned by the New World Archaeological Foundation of Brigham Young University, and who shared his own thoughts on the archaeological evidence for simple chiefdoms whose foundations rested on a shamanic ideology during the Preclassic period along the Pacific Coast. [also thank Federico Fahsen, who made available to me revised drawings of many of the Kaminaljuyu monuments. Thave also benefited immeasurably from the dynamic discussions and debates [have had with my friends and colleagues at the University of Texas at Austin. I thank Matthew Looper for the discussions we shared during the 1996 Maya Meetings; he opened my eyes to significant aspects of the iconography of the Late Preclassic period. Likewise, I have enjoyed immensely the conversations ve had with Kathryn Reese-Taylor, discussing numerous aspects of the Late Preclassic period. She has been a sounding board for many of the ideas presented here. Lalso thank Elizabeth Pope, who read an early draft of portions of this study, and who was always generous in sharing her insights concerning the iconography of the Classic period Maya. Further thanks go to Heather Orr, Peter Keeler, Timothy Albright, Jeffrey Stomper, Rex Koontz, Khris Villela, Mark Van Stone and Allen Christenson. They generously provided resources, references, and friendship to me during the course of this project.also wish to acknowledge the generous support of the Department of Art and Art History, and the Graduate School of the University of Texas at Austin, during the course of my studies. In particular, Gwen Barton and April Caywood in the Art History department always remained calm, guiding forces in the final throes of dissertation and graduation paperwork. Finally, I wish to thank my family. My parents have supported me throughout the course of my graduate studies in more ways than it would be possible to list. They have also been a source of inspiration. My brother Michael and sister Sarah have also offered encouragement and humor throughout the years. Lastly, and most importantly, I thank my husband, John Kappelman. I could not have completed this project without him. Thank you.OF MACAWS AND MEN: LATE PRECLASSIC COSMOLOGY AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY IN IZAPAN-STYLE MONUMENTS Publication No. Julia Guernsey Kappelman, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 1997 Supervisor: Linda Schele This study explores the phenomenon of avian transformation performed by Late Preclassic (300 BC-200 AD) rulers in the imagery of Izapan-style monuments. This corpus of monuments takes its name from the site of Izapa along the coastal plain of modem Chiapas, Mexico. The term “Izapan-style,”” which refers to a unique mode of artistic expression which flourished during the Late Preclassic, also applies to contemporaneous stone carvings from sites located throughout the highlands and coastal piedmont of Chiapas and Guatemala, along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and in the valleys of central Veracruz, Mexico. This study will suggest that the bird transformation rituals that figure so prominently into the iconography of Izapan-style monuments reveal the shamanic foundations for rulership during this period, and illuminate the nature of the Principal Bird Deity as a manifestation of this ideology. Through an exploration of the vivid imagery of the Izapan-style corpus, the archaeological record, and the textual account of avian transformation recorded on La Mojarra Stela 1, it will be demonstrated that the Principal Bird Deity and its attendant iconography were villcentral to the articulation of rulership during the Late Preclassic period in Mesoamerica. This study will also explore the cosmological foundations that underpinned the phenomenon of avian transformation rituals, as well as the mythological identity of the Principal Bird Deity. Included within this discussion is an analysis of the iconographic assemblage associated with the Principal Bird Deity. As will be demonstrated, the iconographic assemblage which surrounded the Principal Bird Deity was part of the conceptual framework through which Late Preclassic rulership was articulated and symbolically defined. Importantly, one of the critical tenets of this ideology was the transformation of rulers into the Principal Bird Deity in legitimation of their status as the earthly analog to the primordial shaman, Itzamna, and as a validation of their claim to hegemony. Likewise, the evidence assembled in this study indicates that the iconography of rulership during the Late Preclassic period in Mesoamerica was shared across cultural and Linguistic boundaries, from the Mixe-Zoque speaking regions of Izapa and La Mojarra, to the highlands and lowlands of the Late Preclassic Maya.Table of Contents List of Figures.. Chapter One: Introduction and Methodology Purpose and Outline of this Study. The Late Preclassic “Izapan Style” ‘The Creation Narrative in the Popol Vuh and Classic Period Inscriptions. The Astronomical Symbolism of Creation. Analysis of the Principal Bird Deity’s Role within the Maya Itzam-yeh as the way of Itzamna. Diagnostic Attributes of the Principal Bird Deity during the Classic Period. Chapter Three: The Principal Bird Deity in the Late Preclassic Cosmic Environment Introduction. The Principal Bird Deity at the North Pivot: Disseminator of the Cosmic Cords.. Cosmic Cords and the Identification of Late Preclassic “Sak Nik Serpents. Sak Nik Vision Serpents.. Sak Nik Vision Serpents and the Locations of Creation.. The Astronomical Implications of the Sak Nik Cords. xThe Jester God Insignia... The Late Preclassic Symbol System of Rulershi The Bird, the Portal, and the Flower ‘Conclusior Chapter Five: Avian Transformation: The Performance of Rulership during the Late Preclassic Introduction... Evidence from the Olmec Region. Late Preclassic La Mojarra: Introduction. Synopsis of the Inscription on La Mojarra Stela Macaw Transformation during the Late Preclassic.. The Ritual Costum Conclusions. Chapter Six: The Mythological and Cosmological Foundations for Macaw Transformation during the Late Preclassic Conclusions: Ritual Transformation and the Validation of Power.. Chapter Seven: Comparisons and Continuities through Ti Introduction. Maya Late Preclassic Mask Programs. Sak Nik Cords and the Iconography of The Principal Bird Deity at Chichén Itzd... Sak Nik Tconography at Chichén Itz. Beyond Chichén: The Principal Bird Deity at Uxmal and Mayapan. The Principal Bird Deity at El Tajin, Veracruz. Conclusions.Chapter Eight: Conclusion Introduction. Avian Transformation and the Performance of Rulership.. ‘The Mythological and Cosmological Foundations for Macaw Figures... References Cited... Vita..List of Figures Dlustrations for Chapter One (pages 229-267) 1.1 Chronological table for Southem Pacific Coast and Guatemalan Highlands. After Parsons 1986: Table 1. 1.2 Map of Izapan-style sites. Modified after Parsons 1986: fig. 3. 13 a, Izapa Stela 3 and Altar 2, an example of the Izapan “stela-altar” tradition. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 2.7. b. Izapa Stela 5 tracing. After Norman 1976: fig. 4.1. 1.4 Map of Group B, Izapa, showing location of monuments. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: 178, 1.5 Possible Early and Middle Formative stelae pi a. La Venta Stela 2. After Drucker 1952: 174, b. San Lorenzo Monument 1. After Coe and Diehl 1980: fig. 423. c. San Lorenzo Monument 14. After Coe and Diehl 1980: fig. 439. 1.6 Possible Middle Formative stelae 5. a. Oxtotitlin Mural 1. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 50. b. La Venta Altar 4. After Grove 1973: 131. c. La Venta Stela 1. After Ochoa and Castro-Leal 1986: 63. 1.7 The celt as a possible Middle Formative stela prototype. a. Incised celt from Arroyo Pesquero. After Joralemon 1976: fig. 8e. b. La Venta Offering 4. Drawing by Linda Schele. After Reilly 1994: fig. 5.33. 1.8 Basalt columns as possible stela prototypes. a. Kaminaljuyu Stela 9. After Parsons 1986: fig. 5. . Alvarado Stela. Paddock 1966: fig. 81. 1.9 The niche figure tradition. a. Izapa Miscellaneous Monument 2. Drawing by Ramiro Jiménez Pozo. After Norman 1976: fig. 5.26. b, La Venta Stela 1. After Ochoa and Castro-Leal 1986: 63. ¢. La Venta Altar 4. After Grove 1973: 131. 1.10 The framing device in stelae compositions. a. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. b. El Bail Stela 1. Drawing by Linda Schele. c. La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 1.11 Chronological chart for Izapa, Kaminaljuyu and Chalchuapa. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 7.1.1.12 Izapa Miscellaneous Monument 2. Drawing by Ramiro Jiménez Pozo. After Norman 1976: fig. 5.26. 1.13 Comparison of in-turning basal panels. a. Chalcatzingo Monument 21. After Cyphers 1982: plate 9. b. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. c. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 1.14 Comparison of in-turning basal panels. a. Dallas-Guerrero Tablet. Drawing by F. Kent Reilly. After Reilly 1994: fig. 3.49. b. San Miguel Amuco, Guerrero stela. Drawing by Anne Bouvier. After Soustelle 1984: 124. ¢. Chaicatzingo Vase. Drawing by F. Kent Reilly after photo by Justin Kerr in Reilly 1994: fig. 6.20c. 4. Joralemon’s “Olmec Dragon” from a Tlatilco ceramic vessel. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 101. ¢. Los Mangos, Catemaco Monument 1. After De La Fuente 1973: 160. £ na glyph from the text of La Mojarra Stela 1. 1.15 Incensarios represented in stelae imagery. a. Izapa Stela 24. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.25. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 1.16 Map of Izapa by Eduardo Martinez. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: end map. 1.17 Monuments bearing Late Preclassic Cycle 7 calendrical dates. a. Tres Zapotes Stela C. After Coe 1976: fig. 4. b. Chiapa de Corzo Stela 2. After Lee 1969: fig. 60. c. Abaj Takalik Stela 2. After Smith 1984: fig. 45. d. El Baiil Stela 1. Drawing by Linda Schele. 1.18 Monuments bearing Late Preclassic Cycle 8 calendrical dates. a. Abaj Takalik Stela 5. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Tuxtla Statuette. After Justeson and Kaufinan 1993: fig. 3. c. La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 1.19 Map showing the sources of epi-Olmec inscriptions and the distribution of Mixe-Zoquean languages of Southem Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest. After Justeson and Kaufman 1993: fig. 1. 1.20 La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 1.21 Glyphs on the wings of Izapa Stela 4 flying figure compared to glyphs from the La Mojarra Stela | text. Izapa Stela 4 figure after Norman 1976: fig. 35. 1.22 A comparison of Izapan-style monuments. xiva. Abaj Takalik Stela 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. . Izapa Stela 1. After Smith 1984: fig. 51a. 1.23 Incensarios represented in stelae imagery: Izapa Stela 24 (after Norman 1976: fig. 3.25) and Kaminaljuyu Stela 11 (drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen). 1.24 Comparison of basal panels on Abaj Takalik Stela 4 (after Quirarte 1977: fig. 10.4) and Izapa Stela 67 (after Norman 1976: fig. 3.43). 1.25 Maudslay’s “Serpent Bird” wings. From Bardawil 1976: fig. | after Maudslay 1889-1902: volume 1, plate 46 and volume 4, plate 43. 1.26 Kidder, Jennings, and Shook’s “Profile Serpent Head X” motif. After Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 97. 1.27 Serpent wings noted by Kidder, Jennings, and Shook. a. Figure with serpent wings on cylindrical tripod. After Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 205d. b. Comparison of serpent wings to Maudslay’s “Serpent Bird” of the Maya. 1.28 Principal Bird Deities perched in trees at Palenque: the Sarcophagus Lid from the Temple of Inscriptions (after Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:13), and the panels from the Temples of the Cross (after Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 1:9) and Foliated Cross (after Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 1:9). 1.29 zapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 1.30 Kaminaljuyu Altars 9 and 10. a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9. Redrawn by Cortez 1986: fig. 25a after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 1.31 Comparison of winged figures from Kaminaljuyu and Izapa. a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Izapa Stela 2, inverted detail. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. «. Izapa Stela 4, inverted detail. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 1.32 The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. 1.33 Tzakol 3 Bowl with winged figure. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 149. 1.34 Codex style vase with transformation scene between the Principal Bird Deity and God D. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 154. 1.35 The royal costume of the Principal Bird Deity. a. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11, detail. After Schele and Freidel 1990: 109.b. Personified wing. After Bardawil 1976: fig. 2b. 1.36 Various representations of the Principal Bird Deity. ‘a Paris Codex, page 11. After Villacorta and Villacorta 1970. , The Late Preclassic to Classic Zapotec Ave de Pico Ancho. From Taube 1987: fig. 3 after Caso and Bemal 1952: 214. c. Piedras Negras Stela 11. After Schele and Miller 1986: fig. 11.4. 1.37 The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. 1.38 Izapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 1.39 The Principal Bird Deity perched in the tree on the panel from the Temple of the Cross, Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 1:9. 1.40 The Principal Bird Deity in the iconography of Late Preclassic Maya mask Programs. a. Nakbé Structure 1 northem basal mask. After Hansen 1992: fig. 51. . Cerros Structure 5C-2nd upper western mask. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 3:12. 1.41 La Venta Stela 2. After Drucker 1952: 174. 1.42 Yaxchildn Lintel 15. Drawing by Ian Graham. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 65. 1.43 The way glyph and shamanic transformation. a. Examples of the way glyph. After Houston and Stuart 1989: fig. 1. b. The Altar de Sactificios Vase. After Schele and Mathews in press. 1.44 The referencing of shamanic abilities through costume paraphernalia. a. Tikal Stela 29, detail. After Schele and Mathews in press. b. Classic period vessel. After Schele and Mathews in press. . Tikal Stela 9. From Houston and Stuart 1996: fig. 8 after Jones and Satterthwaite 1982: fig. 13a. 1.45 Examples of the interweaving of iconography and hieroglyphic text. a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9. Redrawn by Cortez 1986: fig. 25a after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. b. Izapa Stela 11. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.11. Dlustrations for Chapter Two (pages 268-322) 2.1 Creation text from Quirigué Stela C. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:5. 2.2 Madrid Codex, p. 71, detail. Drawing by C. Villacorta. 2.3. Classic bowl depicting the resurrection of the Maize God. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.4 Creation text from the Tablet of the Cross from Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:7b. xvi2.5. Creation text from the Tablet of the Cross from Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2.8a. 2.6 The Tablet of the Cross from Palenque, main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.7 Creation text from the Tablet of the Cross from Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:10a. 2.8 The “Blowgunner” Vase and text. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.9 The Wakah Kan conformation. a. The sky with the Milky Way in the Wakah Kan conformation. b. The Tablet of the Cross from Palenque, main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.10 The “Blowgunner” Vase and text. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.11 The sky with the Milky Way in the Crocodile Tree conformation. 2.12 The battle between the Hero Twin and the Principal Bird Deity. a. Izapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by ‘Ayax Moreno. b. Tonind stucco. After Schele and Looper 1996: 20. 2.13 The Cosmic Monster conformation. a. The sky with the Milky Way in the Cosmic Monster conformation. b. Incised bone from Tikal Burial 116. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.14 The sky with the Milky Way in the Na Te’ K’an conformation. 2.15 The Na Te’ K’an conformation in the iconography. a. The Tablet of the Foliated Cross from Palenque, main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. Classic bowl depicting the resurrection of the Maize God. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.16 The Na Te’ K’an conformation in the iconography. a. Izapa Stela L1. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.11. b.El Bail Monument 7. After Paddock 1966: fig. 57. 2.17 The Jk’ Way conformation. a. The sky with the Milky Way in the /k’ Way conformation. b. The “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.18 The conformations of the Milky Way on 13 August 100 BC at the site of Tzapa. a. Wakah Kan. . Crocodile Tree. c. Cosmic Monster. 4. Na Te’ K’an. 2.19 The conformations of the Milky Way on $ February 98 BC at the site of Tzapa.a. Na Te’ K'an. b. Ik’ Way. ©. Wakah Kan. 2.20 a. The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. The Blom Plate, After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 425. 2.21 The Tablet of the Foliated Cross from Palenque, main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.22 Izapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 2.23 Early Classic double-cylinder vase. Photo by Justin Kerr. 2.24 a. Polychrome vase. After Coe 1978: fig. 8. b. The sky with the Milky Way in the Wakah Kan and Crocodile Tree conformations. 2.25 The circular movement of the Milky Way around the north pivot: Na Te’ Kan, Ik’ Way, and Wakah Kan. 2.26 Stucco vessel from Kaminaljuyu. Drawing by Cortez 1986 after Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 207e. 2.27 a. Creation text from the Tablet of the Cross from Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2.8a. b. Creation text from the Tablet of the Cross from Palenque. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:10a. 2.28 a. Orange background plate depicting the movements of the Principal Bird Deity. After Robicsek and Hales 1981: fig. 87. b. The movements of Ursa Major around the north pivot: Na Te’ K’an, Ik’ Way, and Wakah Kan. 2.29 The Principal Bird Deity from House E at Palenque. After Maudslay 1889- 1902, vol. IV: plate 43. 2.30 The Principal Bird Deity on Caracol Stela 5. After Betz and Satterthwaite 1981: fig. 6. 2.31 Vessel from Tikal Burial 72, Structure 5SG-8. After Schele and Freide! 1990: 2.32 Protoclassic incised slate mirror back, private collection. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 134. 2.33 Pibna from the Cross Group at Palenque with Itzam-ych on the entablature. After Schele and Mathews in press. 2.34 Classic period vessel depicting ceremony performed outside a conjuring house. After Schele 1992: 178. 2.35 Copan’s Rosalila structure with stucco facade of Itzam-yeh. After Fash 1991: 100.2.36 Temple of the Warriors, Chichén Itza, west front facade. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 3:28. 2.37 Piedras Negras Stela 11. Drawing by Linda Schele. After Schele and Miller 1986: fig. 1.4. 2.38 Unprovenienced Classic period incised bone. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.39 The Principal Bird Deity from House E at Palenque. After Maudslay 1889- 1902, vol. IV: plate 43. 2.40 Paris Codex, p. 11, detail. Drawing by C. Villacorta, 2.41 Tikal Temple 4, Lintel 3. Drawing by William Coe. 2.42 Quirigué Stela F south. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 2.43 Classic Maya vase with Holmul Dancer. 2.44 Sarcophagus lid, Palenque Temple of the Inscriptions. Drawing by Merle Greene Robertson. 2.45 The Tablet of the Cross from Palenque, main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.46 The Principal Bird Deity disseminating the cosmic cords. a. Piedras Negras Stela 11, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. After Schele and Miller 1986: fig. 114. b. Vessel from Tikal Burial 72, Structure 5G-8, detail. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 5:8. . The Principal Bird Deity from House E at Palenque. After Maudslay 1889-1902, vol. IV: plate 43. 4d. Tikal Temple 4, Lintel 3, detail, Drawing by William Coe. . Quirigua Stela F north, detail. Drawing by Matthew Looper. £ Palenque Tablet of the Cross, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. g, Sarcophagus lid, Palenque Temple of the Inscriptions, detail. Drawing by Merle Greene Robertson. 2.47 Texts from central panel, Hieroglyphic Stairs, Yaxchilén Temple 33, naming the ballcourt. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 8:7a. 2.48 a. Copan ballcourt marker. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 8:92. b. Panel 7, Hieroglyphic Stairs, Yaxchilén Temple 33. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 8:13. 2.49 a, Principal Bird Deity from backside of Ballcourt A-IIB, Copén. Photograph by Jeffrey Stomper. b. Principal Bird Deity from Ballcourt A-III. After Kowalski and Fash 1991: fig. 4. 2.50 a. Incised bone from Tikal Burial 116. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. Classic vase, Kerr 1183. After Kerr, ed. 1989: 65. 2.51 a. Quirigué Stela C, detail of text. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:5.b. Text from the “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.52 a. Classic vessel. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 154. b. Tikal Burial 148 mural, detail. After W. Coe, ed. 1990: fig. 175. ¢. Scrolls of ch ‘ulel. After Schele and Mathews in press. 2.53 a. Quirigué Stela E, basal register. Drawing by Matthew Looper. b. Sarcophagus lid, Palenque Temple of the Inscriptions, detail. Drawing by Merle Greene Robertson. 2.54 a. Classic vessel, Kerr 1004. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. c. Quadripartite Bowl headdress. After Hellmuth 1986. 2.55 Copan’s Rosalila structure with stucco facade of Itzam-yeh. After Fash 1991: 100. 2.56 Late Classic vessel from Tikal. After Coe 1967. 2.57 Rollout photograph of carved cylindrical tripod, Kerr 3863, by Justin Kerr. 2.58 Early Classic black basal flange bowl. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. 2.59 Polychrome vessel from northem Petén. After Coe 1978: fig. 8. 2.60 Late Classic polychrome vessel. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 150a. 2.61 Classic vessel. After Robicsek and Hales 1981: vessel 108. 2.62 The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.63 The sky with the Milky Way in the Crocodile Tree conformation. 2.64 a. Early Classic black basal flange bowl. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. b. Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of profile of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 140c. 2.65 Black basal flange bowl, detail. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 1.32b. 2.66 a. Early Classic double-cylinder vase. Photo by Justin Kerr. b, Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. ¢. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. 2.67 a. Tzakol phase vessel from the Petén. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 143a. b. Tzakol phase vessel. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 131b. . Early Classic rectangular cache vessel, detail. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 132a, 2.68 a. Cylindrical tripod. After Coe 1982: fig. 25. . Cylindrical tripod, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 141. ¢. Cylindrical tripod, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 143. 2.69 a. Orange background plate. After Robicsek and Hales 1981: fig. 87. . Palenque Tablet of the Cross, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. . Piedras Negras Stela 11. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.70 a. Vessel from Tikal Burial 72, Structure 5G-8, detail. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 5:8.b. Protoclassic incised slate mirror back, private collection. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 134. ¢. The “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. 2.71 a. Tzakol 3 cylindrical tripod. Drawing by Susanna Reisinger in Hellmuth 1986: fig. 131a. b. Cylindrical tripod, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 143. 2.72 a, Tepeu | Red Band style plate. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 131c. b. Unprovenienced Classic period incised bone. Drawing by Linda Schele. c. The Blom Plate, detail. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 131d. 2.73 a. Carved bowl in Kerr Collection, New York. Drawing by author after Coe 1978: fig. 18. b. Early Classic Tiquisate vessel. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 118. Illustrations for Chapter Three (pages 323-363) 3.1 Kaminaljuyu Altar 9. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. 3.2 Kaminaljuyu Altar 10. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.3 a. Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. b. Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 12, detail of avian mask. After Valdés 1990: 48, c. Cerros Structure SC-2nd, east panel, detail of avian mask. After Schele and Freidel 1990: 113. 3.4 a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of bird. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1963: fig. 5.2b. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of uk and sak nik serpent assemblage. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. 4. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of tzuk and sak nik serpent assemblage. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. ¢. Dos Pilas Stela 25, detail of floral representation. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 4: 2. £ Naranjo Stela 31, detail of floral representation. After Stone n.d.: fig. 3.1. 3.5 Abaj Takalik Altar 13. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.6 a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. b, Abaj Takalik Altar 13, top register. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.7 a. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of bird. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1963: fig. 5.2b.c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4. Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. ¢. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. 3.8 a, Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of teuk and sak nik serpent assemblage. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. 3.9 Abaj Takalik Altar 13. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.10 Abaj Takalik Altar 12. After Orrego 1988: fig. 22. 3.11 Izapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 3.12.a. Palo Gordo Monument 1. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. b. Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 75. c. Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. d. Palo Gordo Monument 1. Photo by Termer 1973: fig. 37. €. Palo Gordo Monument 1. Photo by Termer 1973: fig. 37. 3.13 a, Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. b. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of bird. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1963: fig. 5.2b. a. Kaminaljuy Altar 10, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico e. Early Ch Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. £ Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. g. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of tzuk and sak nik serpent assemblage. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. h, Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. 3.14 a. Palo Gordo Monument 1. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74, b. Kaminaljuyu Monument 42. After Parsons 1986: fig. 63. 3.15 a. El Mirador Stela 2. Drawing by J. Hansen in Hansen 1991. b. Abaj Takalik Monument 6. After Parsons 1986: fig. 11. 3.16 a. Piedras Negras Stela 14, detail. After Looper 1995a: fig. 5.8. . The sak nik nal “white flower” phrase. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 4:2c. ¢. Palenque Tablet of the Cross, detail of flower. Drawing by Linda Schele.4. Palenque Tablet of the Foliated Cross, detail of text. After Schele 1992: 163. ¢. Palenque Palace Tablet, detail of text. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 4:30. £ “Child of father” expression. After Schele 1992: 44. 3.17 a. Piedras Negras Stela 14, detail. After Looper 199Sa: fig. 5.8. b. Protoclassic incised slate mirror back, detail, private collection. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 134. ©. Quirigua Altar P’, detail of text. After Schele and Looper 1996: 93. 3.18 a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.19 Abaj Takalik Stela 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.20 Nakbé Monument 8. After Hansen 1993: fig. 68. 3.21 a. Abaj Takalik Stela 1, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Nakbé Monument 8, detail. After Hansen 1993: fig. 68. c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. ¢. Kaminaljuyu Altar 14 fragment. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.22 zapa Stela 23, After Norman 1976: fig. 3.24. 3.23 Izapa Stela 7. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.7. 3.24 Izapa Stela 18. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.16. 3.25 Tres Zapotes Stela D. After Smith 1984: fig. 50. 3.26 Abaj Takalik Altar 12. After Orrego 1988: fig, 22. 3.27 a. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. c. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. . Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. 3.28 Palenque Palace Tablet, detail of text. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 4:30. 3.29 Abaj Takalik Stela 4. Drawing from Orrego 1988: fig. 24. 3.30 a. Classic period vessel with birth of the Maize God. Drawing by M. Quenon. b. Classic period vessel with birth of the Maize God. Drawing by C. Tate 1985: fig. 7. 3.31 Izapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43.3.32 Abaj Takalik Stela 4. After Quirarte 1981: fig. 7. 3.33 a. Guillen phase vessel from Izapa. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 7.104. b. Stone scepter found in association with Hato phase um burial, Mound 30d. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 4.11. ¢. Stone scepter found in association with um burial, El Sitio, Guatemala, After Shook 1965: fig. 1d. 3.34 a. Incised bone from Tikal Burial 116 with canoe scene. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. Codex-style plate with Maize God resurrection scene. Drawing by K. Taube after Robicsek and Hales 1981: vessel 116. c. Classic period vessel with Maize God resurrection scene, Kerr 4681. Drawing by M. Quenon. 3.35 a. The sky with the Milky Way in the Cosmic Monster conformation. b. The sky with the Milky Way in the Na Te’ K'an conformation. 3.36 a. Izapa Stela 22. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.21. . Izapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. c. Abaj Takalik Stela 4. After Quirarte 1981: fig. 7. 3.37 a. The sky with the Milky Way in the /k’ Way conformation. b. The “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. 3.38 a. Quirigué Stela F south. Drawing by Matthew Looper. , Quitigua Stela F north. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 3.39 a. Izapa Stela 22. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.21. b. zapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. . Abaj Takalik Stela 4. After Quirarte 1981: fig. 7. 3.40 a. Classic period vessel depicting the location Na Ho Kan. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:31. , Paris Codex, page 19, detail. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 2:32. 3.41 a. Bench in Copan Structure 9N-82. Drawing by Barbara Fash. b. Quirigua Stela F south. Drawing by Matthew Looper. c. The Birth Vase, detail. After Taube 1994: 657. 3.42 a. Abaj Takalik Stela 5. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Bench in Copén Structure 9N-82, detail. Drawing by Barbara Fash. 3.43 Abaj Takalik Stela 2. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 3.44 a. The Tablet of the Foliated Cross from Palenque, detail of main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. Bonampak Stela 1, detail. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 3:8. ¢. Structure H-X-Sub-3, Waxaktun, detail. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 3:9. waxiv3.45 a. Izapa Stela 22. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.21. . [zapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. ©. Abaj Takalik Stela 4. After Quirarte 1981: fig. 7. 3.46 Izapa Stela 5. After Norman 1976: fig. 4.1. 3.47 a. The sky with the Milky Way in the /’ Way conformation. b. The “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9. Drawn by Cortez 1986 after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. 3.48 a. The sky with the Milky Way in the Cosmic Monster conformation. b. [zapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. 3.49 Dresden Codex, page 42c. Drawing by C. Villacorta. Illustrations for Chapter Four (pages 364-415) 4.1 a. Abaj Takalik Stela 5. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. ©. Abaj Takalik Stela 1, detail of sak nik serpent. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 42 a. El Bail Stela 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. El Bail Stela 1, detail of personified sak nik. Drawing by the author. 43 a. Tikal Stela 29. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 4:11. b. El Baiil Stela 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4.4 a. Tikal Temple 4, Lintel 3, detail of personified sak nik. After Looper 199Sa: fig. 5.7a. b. Copan Altar 0. After Looper 1995a: fig. 5.7b. c. Yaxchilén Lintel 13. After Tate 1992: fig. 90. . Yaxchilén Lintel 14. After Tate 1992: fig. 90. . Quirigué Stela C, north. Drawing by Matthew Looper. £ Quirigué Stela F, south. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 45 a. Quirigué Altar P*. Drawing by Andrea Stone. b. Quirigué Altar P’, detail of personified sak nik head. Drawing by Andrea Stone. 4.6 a. Quirigué Zoomorph P, detail of personified sak nik head. Drawing by Matthew 7 b. Bench in Copén Structure 9N-82, detail. Drawing by Barbara Fash. 4.7 a. Quirigua Stela C, north. Drawing by Matthew Looper. », Quirigua Stela A, north. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 4.8 a. Piedras Negras Stela 11. After Schele and Miller 1986: fig. IL4. b. The Principal Bird Deity from House E at Palenque. After Maudslay 1889- 1902, vol. IV: plate 43.¢. Pibna from the Cross Group at Palenque with Itzam-yeh on the entablature. After Schele and Mathews in press. 49 a. Dresden Codex, God H appellative. After Stone n.d.: fig. 1a. b. Dresden Codex, page 20b. Drawing by C. Villacorta. 4.10 a. Izapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. b. The “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. 4.11 Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. 4.12 a, Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail of personified sak nik. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. b. Quirigua Zoomorph P, detail of personified sak nithead. Drawing by Matthew Looper. ©. Quirigud Stela C, north, detail of personified sak nik. Drawing by Matthew Looper. . Quirigué Altar P’, detail of personified sak nik head. Drawing by Andrea Stone. e. El Baiil Stela 1, detail of personified sak nik. Drawing by the author. 4.13 a. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. b, Structure H-X-Sub-3, Waxaktun, detail. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 3:9. c. El Baiil Stela 1, detail of personified sak nik. Drawing by the author. 4.14 a. Izapa Throne 1. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 2.9. b. Izapa Throne 1, detail. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: fig. 2.9. c. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail of personified sak nik. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. 4.15 a. Izapa Throne 1, detail of top. After Taube n.d.: », zapa Stela 18, detail. After Norman 1976: fig. 3. c. Abaj Takalik Stela I, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. e. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. £ Kaminaljuyu Altar 14. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. g. Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. 4.16 a. [zapa Stela 8. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.8. b. El Peri Altar. After Taube n.d.: fig. 6d. 4.17 a. Carved femurs from Chiapa de Corzo, photograph. After Agrinier 1960: figs. 16b and d. b. Carved femurs from Chiapa de Corzo, drawing. After Agrinier 1960: figs. | and 9.4.18 a. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 3 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fi b. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 1 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 1. . Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. 4.19 a. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 3. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 9. b. Carved boulder at Tonald, Chiapas, Mexico. After Ferdon 1953: plate 22a-d. 4.20 Izapa Stela 67. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.43. 4.21 a, La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. c. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 3 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 9. d. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 1 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 1. e. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail of personified sak nik. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. 4.22 a, Hauberg Stela, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 6b. b. El Zapote Stela 1, detail. Drawing by Ian Graham. c. Tikal Stela 31, detail. After Jones and Satterthwaite 1982: fig, 51. 4. Lowland Maya belt celt fragment from Costa Rica. Drawing by Dorie Reents-Budet. ¢. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. 4.23 a. El Mirador sherd. After Fields 1989: fig. 39. b. La Venta Stela 1, detail. After Parsons 1986: fig. 1. c. La Venta Altar 4. After Grove 1973. d. Viejon vessel motif. After Bemal 1969: fig. 25. ¢. Chalcatzingo Monument 9. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 266. £. Tres Zapotes Stela D. After Bemal 1969: plate 16b. 4.24 a, La Mojarma Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. b. O'Boyle Mask, detail. After Méluzin 1995: fig. fig. 29. 4.25 a. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 8. After Stirling 1943. b. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5. After Stirling 1943. ¢. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, After Stirling 1943. 4.26 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. b. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5, detail. After Stirling 1943, c. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, detail. After Stirling 1943. xvii4.27 a. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. b. Yaxchilén Lintel 13. After Tate 1992: fig. 90. 4.28 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. b. Carved shells from Holmul. After Merwin and Vaillant 1932: fig. 29. 4.29 a. Tikal Stela 31, detail. After Jones and Satterthwaite fig. 51. b. Peariman Conch, detail. After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 308. c. Palenque Oval Palace Tablet. Drawing by Linda Schele. 4.30 a. Carved shell from Holmul. After Merwin and Vaillant 1932: fig. 29. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. c. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5, detail. After Stirling 1943. d. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, detail. After Stirling 1943. 4.31 a. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. b. El Baiil Stela 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen 4.32 Waxaktun bowl and isolated elements. After Hellmuth 1987: figs. 290-293. 4.33 a. Waxaktun bowl, isolated sak nik-tailed serpent. After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 292. b. Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. ¢. Izapa Stela 7. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.7. 4.34 Loltun Cave relief. Drawing by Linda Schele. 4.35 a. Loltun Cave relief, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. . Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5, detail. After Stirling 1943. 4. Carved shell from Holmul. After Merwin and Vaillant 1932: fig. 29. ¢. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, detail. After Stirling 1943. 4.36 Dumbarton Oaks pectoral. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 32a. 4.37 a. Dumbarton Oaks pectoral, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 32a. b, La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. c. Loltun Cave relief, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. d. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5, detail. After Stirling 1943. e. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, detail. After Stirling 1943. 4.38 Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4.39 The Jester God insignia. After Schele and Miller 1986: 53. 4.40 Cerros pendant heads. After Freidel 1990: fig. 4.2. 4.41 a. Tikal Burial 85 fuschite mask. After Schele and Freide! 1990: fig. 4:4. b, Dumbarton Oaks pectoral. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 32a. 4.42 a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 1. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 20. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen.¢. Izapa Stela 5, detail. After Norman 1976: fig. 4.1. 4.43 Izapa Stela 12. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.12. 4.44 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 20, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. c. Tikal Stela 31, detail. After Jones and Satterthwaite fig. 51. d. Cueva de Sangre, Late Classic Jester God. After Hansen 1992: fig. 117g. 4.45 El Sitio, Guatemala celt. After Looper 1993: fig. 2. 4.46 “King Com’” fasciated ear. After Cordry 1988 fig. 14. 4.47 a. Arroyo Pesquero incised celt (after Joralemon 1976: fig. 8e) and Reilly’s (1994) reinterpretation (drawing by F. Kent Reilly). b. Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz celt. After Pifia Chan and Covarrubias 1964: fig. 1. ¢. Teopantecuanitlén Monolith 1. Drawing by Linda Schele. 4.48 a. Celt from La Venta Offering 4. After Reilly 1994: fig. 3.45. b. Celt of unknown provenience. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 173. 4.49 a. La Venta Stela 2. After Drucker 1952: fig. 49. b, La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. c. San Miguel Chapultepec Stela, detail. After Stirling 1943. 4. Dumbarton Oaks pectoral, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 32a. ¢. Cerro de las Mesas Stela 5, detail. After Stirling 1943. £ Loltun Cave relief, detail. Drawing by Linda Schele. 4.50 a. Pomona, Belize “charlie chaplin” figure. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 23. b. Rio Azul tomb murals. Drawing by David Stuart. 4.51 Rio Azul greenstone mask. Drawing by Nicholas Hellmuth. 4.52 a. Shook Panel. After Miller and Taube 1993: 39. b. The Ahaw Pectoral. Photo by Dr. Leoncio A. Garza Valdés in Stross (1994b: fig. 3). 4.53 a. Stone figure from Arroyo Pesquero. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. c. Kaminaljuyu Stela 20, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4. Cueva de Sangre, Late Classic Jester God. After Hansen 1992: fig. 117g. 4.54 a. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Palo Gordo Monument 1. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. 4.55 a. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. b, Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. 4.56 a. Palenque House E, detail of westem facade. After Robertson 1985. b. Palenque House E, stucco sculpture from north wall of northeastern room. ‘After Schele and Miller 1986: fig. 22. 4.57 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. After drawing by George Stuart. voxixb. T646 glyph. . Floral cartouche from Palenque House E. After Robertson 1985. d. Palo Gordo Monument 1. After Parsons 1986: fig. 74. 4.58 La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 4.59 Early Classic vessel from the Petén region. Drawing by S. Houston after rollout photograph by Justin Kerr. 4.60 a. Early Classic vessel from the Petén region, detail. Drawing by Justin Kerr. b. Early Classic vessel from the Petén region, detail. Drawing by Justin Kerr. Iustrations for Chapter Five (pages 416-454) 5.1 Oxtotitlan Mural 1, Guerrero, Mexico. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 150. 5.2 La Venta Altar 4. After Grove 1973: 131. 5.3 La Venta Altar 4, cosmographic reconstruction. Redrawn by Reilly 1994: fig. 4.52 after Grove 1973: 131. 5.4 Tres Zapotes Stela D. After Smith 1984: fig. 50. 5.5 a. Costa Rica jade spoon with Joralemon’s God III. After Joralemon 1976: fig. 20h. . Design on ceramic vessel from Tlapacoya with Joralemon’s God I. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 120. 5.6 a. La Venta obsidian core from Tomb C, Complex A. After Joralemon 1976: fig. 4b. b. The Humboldt Celt. After Joralemon 1971: fig. 32. 5.7 a, Incised celt from Chalcatzingo, recto and verso, After Coe et al. 1995: fig. 125, b. Stela from San Miguel Amuco. After Soustelle 1984: 124. 5.8 a, Seated figure from Arroyo Pesquero. Drawing by Linda Schele. ». Detail of cape of seated figure from Arroyo Pesquero. After Joralemon 1976: fig. 20m. ¢. Quirigud Stela F, north. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 5.9 La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 5.10 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text in column A. 5.11 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at L2-L3. 5.12 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text in column M. 5.13 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at N30-N32. 5.14 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at N33-N37. 5.15 Tuxtla Statuette, detail of text at B5-C2. 5.16 Tuxtla Statuette. After Justeson and Kaufman 1993: fig. 3. 5.17 a. Tuxtla Statuette, detail of text at BS-C2. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at 09.5.18 a. Occurrences of Justeson’s and Kaufman's “beard.mask” glyph on La Mojarra Stela 1 at N36, Q14, and on the Tuxtla Statuette at B6. b. Head variant glyph from La Mojarra Stela 1 at R10. 5.19 Izapa Stela 11. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.11 5.20 Kaminaljuyu Stela 10. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 5.21 Kaminaljuyu Stela 19. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 5.22 Monument J-41 from Building J, Monte Albin. After Caso 1947: fig. 23. 5.23 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at OS. b. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at 020. 5.24 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at P32-P39. 5.25 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of “tattoo” on body of figure. 5.26 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at P40-Q17. 5.27 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at Q3-Q17. Suggested re-structuring of text by author. 5.28 Occurrences of Justeson’s and Kaufinan’s “eccentric flint” glyph on La Mojarra Stela | at N23 and P10. 5.29 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at R26-R27. 5.30 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at $13-S24. 5.31 Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno with na “earth” glyph beneath. 5.32 a. Cylindrical tripod, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 141. b. Stucco vessel from Kaminaljuyu. Drawing by Cortez 1986 after Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 207e. 5.33 a. Izapa Stela 4, detail. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by ‘Ayax Moreno. b. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. c. Early Classic black basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. 4. Early Classic basal flange bowl, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 132b, e. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of bird. Redrawn by Cortez 1986: fig. 25a after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. £. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fabsen. 5.34 Izapa Stela 4, detail of winged figure. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 5.35 zapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. $.36 Izapa Altar 3. After Norman 1976: fig. 5.5. 5.37 Carved bowl in Kerr Collection, New York. Drawing by author after Coe 1978: fig. 18.5.38 Tzakol phase vessel. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 131b. 5.39 a. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. b. Izapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. c. Izapa Altar 3. After Norman 1976: fig. 5.5 5.40 Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax 5.41 apa Stela 60, After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. 5.42 a, Izapa Stela 18, detail of sky band. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.16. b. Maudslay’s “Serpent Bird” wings. From Bardawil 1976: fig. 1 after Maudslay 1889-1902: volume 1, plate 46 and volume 4, plate 43. c. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of glyphs for “macaw” and “feather.” 5.43 a. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. b. Izapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. c. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of glyph for “macaw.” 4. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at $17-S18. 5.44 Incised celt from Chalcatzingo, recto and verso. After Coe et al. 1995: fig. 125. 5.45 Bird mask from Kaminaljuyu Tomb If burial. After Shook and Kidder 1952: fig. 8la and b. 5.46 Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 5.47 Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 5.48 Izapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. 5.49 Early Classic Tzakol 3 lid. After Hellmuth 1978: 208. 5.50 Pyrite encrusted mirror from Zaculeu. Drawing by Cortez 1986: fig. 48 after Woodbury and Trik 1953: 131. 5.51 La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. 5.52 Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 5.53 Pyrite encrusted mirror from Zaculeu. Drawing by Cortez 1986: fig. 48 after Woodbury and Trik 1953: 131. 5.54 Izapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. 5.55 a. Pyrite encrusted mirror from Zaculeu, detail of bird. Drawing by Cortez 1986: fig. 48 after Woodbury and Trik 1953: 131. , Early Classic Tzakol 3 lid, detail of bird. After Hellmuth 1978: 208. ¢. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 4. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 5.56 Early Classic Tzakol 3 lid, photo. After Hellmuth 1978: 208. Ff5.57 a. Izapa Stela 4, detail. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. b. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. c. Fragment of pyrite mirror from Zaculeu. After Woodbury and Trik 1953: fig. 130. 4. Pyrite mirror from Kaminaljuyu. After Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 534. ¢. Pyrite mirror from Kaminaljuyu. After Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 53e. £ Pyrite mirror from Kaminaljuyu. After Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 53b. 5.58 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. Drawing by George Stuart. 5.59 a. La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. b. La Venta Stela 2, detail of headdress. After Drucker 1952: fig. 49. . Stone figure from Arroyo Pesquero, detail of back of headdress. Drawing by Linda Schele. d. La Venta Mosaic Pavement Number 2. After Reilly 1994: fig. 5.21. 5.60 a. La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. . Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. c. Izapa Stela 4. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 5.61 a. Kaminaljuyu Stela 10. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 10, detail. After drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. Illustrations for Chapter Six (pages 455-485) 6.1 Stucco vessel from Kaminaljuyu. Drawing by Cortez 1986 after Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 207e. 6.2 Tzakol 3 bowl from the Petén. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 149. 6.3 a. Vessel from Tikal Burial 195. After Coe 1967. b. Tepeu | bowl. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 125c. 6A Delataille Vessel. Drawing by Lin Crocker in Hellmuth 1988: fig. 4.2. 6.5 Delataille Vessel, detail of serpent throne. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.6 a, Delataille Vessel, detail of Itzamna. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. Kaminaljuyu Altar 9, detail of bird. Redrawn by Cortez 1986: fig. 25a after Parsons 1983: fig. 5.2b. c. Kaminaljuyu Altar 10, detail of bird. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 6.7 a. Delataille Vessel, detail of Itzamna. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. Stucco vessel from Kaminaljuyu. Drawing by Cortez 1986 after Kidder, Jennings, and Shook 1946: fig. 207e.6.8 a. Tzakol 3 vessel lid or plaque from Waxaktun Burial A22, detail of Itzamna representation. After Smith 1955: fig. 7c. b. Delataille Vessel, detail of Itzamna. After drawing by Lin Crocker. c. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11, detail. After drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. d. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of glyph at 05. e. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of glyph at R27. 6.9 Rio Azul Tomb 19, detail of mural. After Taube n.d.: fig. 16). 6.10 a. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of headdress. After drawing by George Stuart. b. Kaminaljuyu Stela 20. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 6.11 a. Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. T646 glyph from House E at Palenque. After Robertson 1985. c. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of floral cartouche. After drawing by George Stuart. 6.12 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.13 a. Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. The Blom Plate. After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 425. c. The Tablet of the Foliated Cross from Palenque, detail of main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 6.14 a, Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. T646 glyph from House E at Palenque. After Robertson 1985. ¢. Palo Gordo Monument 1, back of bird’s head. After Parsons 1986: fig. 7. d. Early Classic double-cylinder vase, detail of bird. Photo by Justin Kerr. ¢. Early Classic black basal flange bowl. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. 6.15 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.16 The sky with the Milky Way in the Jk’ Way conformation. 6.17 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.18 The sky with the Milky Way in the Crocodile Tree conformation. 6.19 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.20 Classic period vessel with God D raising Crocodilian World Tree. After Robicsek and Hales 1981: vessel 108. 6.21 The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. 6.22 a. Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. The Blom Plate. After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 425. 6.23 a. Vessel in the form of a contortionist, Tlatilco, 1250-900 BC. After Coe et al. 1995: no. 38. b, Olmec acrobat, h. 22 centimeters, National Museum of Anthropology, Mexico City. After Tate 1995: fig. 24. ¢. Shook Panel. After Miller and Taube 1993: 39. 4d. Classic period vessel with Maize God. Photograph by Justin Kerr. voaiv6.24 a. Delataille Vessel, detail of glyph. After drawing by Lin Crocker. b. Tzakol period cache vessel, detail of glyph. Drawing by Susanna Reisinger in Hellmuth 1988: fig. 4.98. cc, Waxaktun Tzakol period cache vessel, detail of glyph. After Hellmuth 1988: fig. 4.9b. . Tikal Burial 48 mural, detail of glyph. Drawing courtesy of the University of Pennsylvania Tikal Project in Hellmuth 1988: fig. 4.9c. ¢. Delataille Vessel, detail of glyph. After drawing by Lin Crocker. £ Inscription from the “Cosmic” Plate. Drawing by Linda Schele. 6.25 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.26 Delataille Vessel, detail. After drawing by Lin Crocker. 6.27 Tapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 6.28 The sky with the Milky Way in the Crocodile Tree conformation. 6.29 Izapa Stela 2, New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 6.30 a, Izapa Stela 4, New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. b. Izapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. 6.31. The Blom Plate. After Hellmuth 1987: fig. 425. 6.32 Izapa Stela 2, New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 6.33 a. [zapa Stela 60. After Norman 1976: fig. 3.41. b. Tonind stucco. After Schele and Looper 1996: 20. 6.34 a. Kaminaljuyu Stela 11. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b, Kaminaljuyu Stela 10, Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 6.35 a. The “Blowgunner” Vase. Drawing by Linda Schele. b. Izapa Stela 25. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 6.36 La Mojarra Stela 1, detail of text at S13-S21. 6.37 The sky with the Milky Way in the Crocodile Tree conformation. 6.38 The sky with the Milky Way in the /k’ Way conformation. 6.39 Izapa Altar 20. New World Archaeological Foundation drawing by Ayax Moreno. 6.40 Map of Group B, Izapa, showing location of monuments. After Lowe, Lee, and Espinosa 1982: 178. 6.41 La Mojarra Stela 1. Drawing by George Stuart. Mlustrations for Chapter Seven (pages 486-528)7.1 Cerros Structure 5C-2nd facade, reconstruction drawing. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 3:12. 7.2. Kobunlich facade masks. After Roman Pacheco et al. 1981. 7.3 Abaj Takalik Stela 5. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 7.4 Quirigua Stela F south. Drawing by Matthew Looper. 7.5 Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 12. From Hansen 1992 after Valdés 1990: 48. 7.6 The Tablet of the Cross from Palenque, detail of main panel. Drawing by Linda Schele. 7.7 Cerros Structure SC-2nd facade, detail of west upper mask, reconstruction drawing. After Schele and Freidel 1990: fig. 3:12. 7.8 Nakbé Structure 1, basal mask and panels. After Hansen 1992: fig. 57. 7.9 a. Nakbé Structure 1, basal mask and panels. After Hansen 1992: fig. $7. b. Abaj Tajalik Altar 13. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. 7.10 Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 3 facade masks. After Freidel, Schele, and Parker 1993: fig. 3:9. 7.11 Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 2, east side. From Hansen 1992: fig. 120 after Valdés 1990: 44. 7.12 Comparison of personified sak nik heads. a. Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 2, detail. From Hansen 1992 after Valdés 1990: 44. b. El Bail Stela 1, detail. Drawing by the author. c. La Mojarra Stela 1, detail. Drawing by George Stuart. 4. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 3 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 9. ¢. Carved femur from Chiapa de Corzo, detail of Bone 1 personified sak nik. After Agrinier 1960: fig. 1. £ Early Classic carved vessel in Dumbarton Oaks collection, detail. After Schele and Miller 1986: plate 67a. g. Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 2, east side, detail. From Hansen 1992 after Valdés 1990: 44, 7.13 Waxaktun Group H, plan. After Valdés 1990. 7.14 Cerros Structure 5C-2nd facade. After Freidel 1981. 7.15 a. Abaj Takalik Altar 13, detail. Drawing courtesy of Federico Fahsen. b. Early Classic black basal flange bowl. After Hellmuth 1986: fig. 128. c. Tikal Temple 4, Lintel 3, detail. Drawing by William Coe. 4. Unprovenienced Classic period incised bone. Drawing by Linda Schele. 7.16 a. Waxaktun Structure H-Sub 12, detail. From Hansen 1992 after Valdés 1990: 48, b. Nakbé Structure 1, detail of basal mask and panel. After Hansen 1992: fig. 57.