Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
4, APRIL 2013
loss over the local area was 1.20 dB, on average, with a max-
imum standard deviation of 1.74 dB at one location. The precise
small-scale fading behavior of individual multipath components
at millimeter-wave frequencies is the subject of current mea-
surements in New York City.
To capture the various line-of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS
(NLOS) links present at each receiver location along the track,
25-dBi narrowbeam (7.8 beamwidth) horn antennas at the
TX and RX were systematically and iteratively steered in the
azimuth and elevation directions, emulating a beam-steering
antenna-array architecture. For LOS links, the transmitter and
receiver were pointed directly at each other in both azimuth
and elevation directions, corresponding to 0 azimuth scanning
angles for the transmitter and receiver. Often, it was possible to
receive many NLOS links for different TX/RX pointing angle
combinations, with multipath signals often 10–20 dB weaker
from the strongest received signal [15], [17]. Measurements
were recorded for all observed LOS and NLOS links at all
receiver locations.
The transmitter was placed at four rooftop locations within
the University of Texas at Austin campus: WRW-A, ENS-A,
ENS-B, and ECJ. At each transmitter location, the antenna was Fig. 3. Map of the northeastern corner of the University of Texas at Austin
mounted on a tripod 1.5 m above the roof toward the building’s campus showing the transmitter and receiver locations. All receiver locations
edge. Fig. 3 shows a map of all transmitter and receiver loca- were measured using a narrowbeam 25-dBi gain antenna. About half of the re-
ceiver locations were also measured using a wider beam 13.3-dBi antenna.
tions. There were a total of 36 unique receiver locations in the
environment, of which seven locations were measured from two
different transmitter locations, yielding 43 unique TX–RX mea-
surement locations. At each measurement location, there were ENS-A locations had TR distances of 75 to 295 m. For ENS-B,
typically 8 to 12 unique antenna pointing combinations between three of the 11 receiver locations were obstructed and the rest
the TX and RX that provided viable communication links, re- had clear LOS. ENS-B had the longest TR distances of 132
sulting in a total of 732 unique measured links, where each to 930 m. The last transmitter location was at the northeastern
TX–RX pointing angle combination was locally averaged at the corner of the ECJ building and was approximately 8 m above
receiver. a parking lot and a busy four-lane street. The bottom left of
All RX measurement locations used steerable receiver an- Fig. 4 shows the transmitter’s perspective from ECJ. Most
tennas with a 25-dBi vertically polarized rectangular horn an- locations near the urban residential area were obstructed from
tenna. In addition, about five of the same receiver locations for the transmitter by foliage and, thus, the TR separations were
each base-station transmitter were also measured using a wider shorter for ECJ, ranging from 29 to 225 m.
beamwidth 13.3-dBi vertically polarized rectangular horn an-
tenna. The 25-dBi receiver antenna locations ranged from 29
to 930 m from the transmitter. The 13.3-dBi antenna locations III. CELLULAR URBAN MEASUREMENT RESULTS
were between 70 m and 728 m from the transmitter.
The first transmitter location was on the northern edge of A. AOA Distributions
a five-story rooftop (23 m) labeled as WRW-A. An image
of the environment from the transmitter perspective is pre- AOA distributions were generated for each transmitter loca-
sented on the top left of Fig. 4. Eleven receiver locations were tion (e.g., base station). We defined a link as being any signal
examined from WRW-A using the 25-dBi antenna, with six with lower path loss than 160 dB, which is the maximum mea-
being partially obstructed and five having clear LOS. Using the sured by the channel sounder system [17], [19] . A scatter plot
13.3-dBi antenna, six receiver locations were measured, two showing all of the receiver and transmitter azimuth angle com-
of which were partially obstructed and four had clear LOS. binations for all links made at the WRW-A transmitter location
Transmitter-to-receiver (TR) separation distances at WRW-A is shown in Fig. 5. The right side of Fig. 5 contains a histogram
ranged from 61 to 265 m. The next two transmitter locations of the number of links for each receiver azimuth angle in 10
were an eight-story building (36 m) along the northern (ENS-A) incremental bins. The bottom of Fig. 5 shows the distribution
and eastern (ENS-B) edges of the rooftop. Fig. 4 shows the of transmitter azimuth angles. Only measurements performed
perspective of the transmitters with the top right for ENS-A with the 25-dBi RX antenna are included in the azimuth angle
and bottom right for ENS-B. For ENS-A, five of the 11 receiver histograms since the narrower beam is better suited for AOA in-
locations were obstructed and six locations had clear LOS using formation. The 13.3-dBi RX antenna measurements were con-
the 25-dBi antenna and two of the five selected receiver loca- ducted in the same locations and yielded similar results, al-
tions for the 13.3-dBi antenna measurements were obstructed. though the number of observed links was slightly less due to
RAPPAPORT et al.: BROADBAND MILLIMETER-WAVE PROPAGATION MEASUREMENTS AND MODELS 1853
has a wide array of objects surrounding it. The data show that fu-
ture millimeter–wave base-station transmitter antennas need to
point in the general direction of the receiver, and further suggest
that base stations need not provide a beam that is steerable over
more than a 60 span in urban environments. Indeed, as seen in
Fig. 5, the angular path distribution for the receiver azimuth an-
gles is more spread out, most notably for shorter TR distances,
yet the majority of usable receiver antenna angles are still con-
centrated near boresight since these links tend to travel shorter
distances (e.g., less path loss) and have less extreme reflection
angles. For the receiver, 70.7% of the links had azimuth angles
within of boresight with 64.6% for links shorter than
150-m TR distance. A total of 75.9% of the links were made
within (70.9% for links less than 150 m) and 84.5%
within (81% for links less than 150 m). These num-
bers are summarized in Table I for all transmitter locations.
The site-specific environmental features dominate propaga-
tion for millimeter wave cellular. For example, at base station
WRW-A, many more links occur for the positive receiver az-
imuth angles due to the natural asymmetry of the transmitter
antenna with respect to the nearby ENS building. ENS is sit-
Fig. 4. Images of the four transmitter (base station) locations looking toward uated northeast of WRW as seen in Fig. 6, and the transmitter
their environments: WRW-A (top left), ENS-A (top right), ECJ (bottom left), location is almost exactly aligned with the western side of ENS.
and ENS-B (bottom right).
For the majority of measured locations, the receiver was placed
in the courtyard seen in the upper left of Fig. 4. Thus, there
was a larger open area to the right of the receiver in the west-
ward direction than to its left where ENS blocked most of the
eastern direction as seen in Fig. 6. The presence of ENS and
other nearby multistory buildings (e.g., ECJ, PAT, RLM) re-
duced the number of large receiver azimuth angles by narrowing
the view of the receiver antenna from both sides. This is espe-
cially true for receiver locations 4, 6, and 8. These types of be-
haviors were consistently observed throughout this study, sug-
gesting that site-specific RF planning based on ray tracing or
other predictive methods will be useful for deployments [18],
[31] .
The scatter plots and histograms for ENS-A and ENS-B
transmitter locations are shown in Figs. 7 and 8, respectively.
An even tighter distribution of transmitter azimuth angles was
observed, since the increase in transmitter antenna height led
to longer TR separation distances and fewer scatterers in the
vicinity of the transmitter. However, the building spacing in
Fig. 5. Scatter plot of the RX and TX azimuth angles for the links made with the environments of ENS-A and ENS-B was much greater than
the WRW-A transmitter at 38 GHz. The distribution of links as a function of the for WRW-A as seen in Fig. 4. Therefore, a larger spread of
transmitter azimuth angle for steerable 25-dBi transmitter and receiver antennas
is shown below the scatter plot, and the distribution of the number of links as
receiver azimuth angles was observed for the ENS locations,
a function of the receiver azimuth angle and TR distance is seen to the right of with 53.3% and 66.1% of the links being less than
the scatter plot. off-boresight for ENS-A and ENS-B, respectively, and similar
behavior when angles up to were considered as seen
in Table I. The longer TR distances of ENS-B links and, thus,
a broader beamwidth that could not resolve individual links and greater propagation loss explain why there are fewer links with
12 dB less link budget. large receiver angles.
The transmitter azimuth angle distribution in Fig. 5 is very The ECJ transmitter location was the lowest in height, only
narrow, with only 1.7% of the links having an off-boresight 8 m above ground. One would expect a lower base-station an-
transmitter azimuth angle larger than . The concentra- tenna height would yield results that closely resemble ground
tion of transmitter azimuth angles near boresight could be ex- communications links [15] rather than higher transmitter loca-
plained by the low number of nearby scatterers in the rooftop tions. Fig. 9 shows that only 11.5% of all links were made with
environment. Hence, potential scatterers are more predominant transmitter azimuth angles greater than . And 64.8%
at the ground-based mobile receiver antenna, which commonly of the receiver azimuth angles were less than for ECJ
1854 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 61, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
TABLE I
SUMMARY OF THE RECEIVER AZIMUTH AOA DISTRIBUTIONS FOR ALL ENVIRONMENTS
Fig. 8. Scatter plot and distribution of the RX and TX azimuth angles for links
at ENS-B at 38 GHz using steerable 25-dBi TX and RX antennas.
Fig. 7. Scatter plot and distribution of the RX and TX azimuth angles for links
at ENS-A at 38 GHz using steerable 25-dBi TX and RX antennas.
Fig. 9. Scatter plot and distribution of RX and TX azimuth angles for links at
growing to 75.4% of angles within of boresight. Sim- ECJ at 38 GHz using 25-dBi steerable antennas at TX and RX.
ilar results were measured when considering only links shorter
than 150-m TR separation (see Table I).
The ECJ environment included a parking lot and streets Overall, fewer large receiver azimuth angle links were made
within 150 m from the transmitter location with several re- with the wider beam 13.3-dBi receiver antenna, since the
ceiver locations near a residential area. At receiver locations smaller receiver antenna gain offers less link margin and is thus
near the transmitter, many scatterers were identified, including unable to detect paths traveling longer distances. The data in
those at large azimuth angles off-boresight. On the other hand, Figs. 5–9 show that lower base-station height yields a greater
fewer links with large receiver angles were found for the res- range of transmitter azimuth angles for creating links. The
idential area receiver locations since these areas were heavily site-specific environment controls the distribution of receiver
shadowed by trees, thus incurring additional penetration loss. azimuth angles, since the majority of reflectors are closer to
RAPPAPORT et al.: BROADBAND MILLIMETER-WAVE PROPAGATION MEASUREMENTS AND MODELS 1855
TABLE II each receiver location. Table III shows that the transmitter lo-
SUMMARY OF PATH-LOSS EXPONENTS AND STANDARD DEVIATION FOR cation with the fewest partially obstructed LOS links, ENS-B,
ALL 38-GHZ CELLULAR MEASUREMENTS WITH STEERABLE TX AND RX
ANTENNAS experienced the lowest LOS path loss including both clear and
partially obstructed links with exponents of 2.01 and 2.03 for
the 25-dBi and 13.3-dBi RX antennas, respectively. In contrast,
the transmitter location with the most partially obstructed LOS
links was ECJ, which had the highest LOS path-loss exponents
of 2.99 and 2.74. It is worth noting from Table III that when
a link could be made, the wider beam 13.3-dBi RX antenna
provided less path loss when compared with the narrowbeam
25-dBi antenna at the exact same location, indicating that wider
beamwidths capture more signal energy at the mobile RX, albeit
the receiver position. These are key results that directly impact with less overall link budget available.
cell- and base-station layout and antenna design [18]. Another environment-dependent quantity is the variability of
B. Propagation Path Loss the path loss of LOS links, as expressed by , the standard
deviation (e.g., shadowing) of the least-squares fit error. By
Path loss was extracted for every measured multipath com- comparing ENS-B and ECJ LOS measurements, it is clear that
ponent (e.g., link) made with every unique pair of transmitter the more obstructed regions, such as those measured from the
and receiver pointing angles across the 43 measurement loca- ECJ base station, have a more variable LOS path loss than the
tions. For each measured link, the radio path was identified as less obstructed environment for the ENS-B transmitter. While
clear LOS for an unobstructed path when the TX and RX an- ENS-B had modest variation in LOS path loss from its best fit,
tennas were pointing at each other, partially obstructed LOS resulting in shadowing standard deviation of 6.56 and 5.31 dB
with some physical obstructions when the beams were pointed for the 25- and 13.3-dBi RX antennas, respectively, it can be
at each other, and NLOS links where antennas were pointed off seen that ECJ had a much higher shadowing variation of 13.92
boresight, thereby exploiting reflections. Path loss scatter plots and 12.46 dB. The strongest NLOS links also had greater vari-
were modeled using the standard log-normal shadowing model ance at these more obstructed locations [32].
[14], where the measured path loss data was fitted with a MMSE
best-fit path loss exponent. The log-normal shadowing model is C. Millimeter-Wave Cellular RMS Delay Spread
given by (1), where the path loss is in dB and is a func-
The RMS delay spreads cumulative distribution functions
tion of distance and assumed to be a random value. Path loss is
(CDFs) for all LOS and NLOS links at each transmitter location
related to a close-in free-space reference distance, 5 m,
are shown in Fig. 10 using a 25-dBi receiver antenna. Some
and is modeled by the path loss exponent and a shadowing
location-specific variations were observed since ENS-B had
random variable which is represented as a Gaussian random
the lowest mean RMS delay spread of 5.3 ns versus the highest
variable in dB with zero mean and dB standard deviation [34].
mean RMS delay spread of 16.5 ns at ECJ. As previously
(1) mentioned, differences in environment and TR separations
make these two transmitter location links quite different from
The log-normal shadowing model has been used to model any each other. Another noticeable trend is the 99-percentile values,
arbitrary link without consideration of antenna characteristics. which show that WRW-A and ENS-B had significantly lower
However, the introduction of steerable and highly directional maximum RMS delay spreads (65.4 ns and 27.6 ns at 99%, re-
antennas leads to a significant dependence of the path-loss ex- spectively) than the other two environments. A possible reason
ponent and on antenna orientations. Since TX and RX an- for WRW-A having fewer very high RMS delay spread links is
tennas were pointed at a wide range of angles, we considered that none of the WRW-A receiver locations were near a street,
radio propagation path loss for two cases: one case was when while the other transmitter environments contained receiver
TX and RX antennas had a visible line of sight between each locations adjacent to a wide street. The street was found to be a
other, and were pointed at each other (LOS-directed), and the good environment for yielding high RMS delay spreads, since
other case was when the RX and TX antennas did not have a vis- it has many reflective objects spaced in nearly regular intervals
ible LOS due to obstructions, and were not pointed at each other for long distances and very few obstructions that block reflected
so that reflections or scattering could be used to make a NLOS or scattered waves. For example, a street is typically lined with
link (NLOS-directed). LOS-directed antennas consistently had parked vehicles for many tens of meters. In addition, a street
lower path loss than NLOS, even in cases with partially ob- has many light poles, moving vehicles, surrounding buildings,
structed LOS link due to foliage or edges of buildings. The prop- street signs, and pedestrians, all of which have been found to
agation results were discussed previously in [17]. Table II sum- be reflectors at millimeter-wave frequencies [15]. ENS-B links
marizes those results. had, on average, a longer separation distance. These longer
The measured data are further separated by transmitter loca- links had significantly lower delay spreads due to the attenua-
tions with the model parameters summarized in Table III. Under tion of longer traveling paths, as discussed in Section III.
the assumption that a system with antenna steering capability The dependence on receiver antenna gain can be seen by com-
will first search for the best possible link, the NLOS parame- paring the results in Figs. 10 and 11, which plot the CDFs be-
ters are specified for the best (lowest path loss) NLOS link at tween RX antennas. While all of the plots in Fig. 10 look sim-
1856 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ANTENNAS AND PROPAGATION, VOL. 61, NO. 4, APRIL 2013
TABLE III
SUMMARY OF PATH-LOSS EXPONENTS AND SHADOWING STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR ALL TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER LOCATIONS AND LINKS AT 38 GHZ
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IEEE Global Commun. Conf., Houston, TX, 2011. M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering
[16] C. R. Anderson and T. S. Rappaport, “In-building wideband parti- from Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA,
tion loss measurements at 2.5 and 60 GHz,” IEEE Trans. Wireless in 1982, 1984, and 1987, respectively.
Commun., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 922–928, May 2004. He is an Outstanding Electrical and Computer En-
[17] T. S. Rappaport, Y. Qiao, J. I. Tamir, J. N. Murdock, and E. Ben-Dor, gineering Alumnus and Distinguished Engineering
“Cellular broadband millimeter wave propagation and angle of arrival Alumnus from his alma mater. He holds the David
for adaptive beam steering systems,” in Proc. IEEE Radio Wireless Lee/Ernst Weber Chair in Electrical and Computer
Symp., Jan. 2012, pp. 151–154. Engineering at Polytechnic Institute of New York
[18] J. N. Murdock, E. Ben-Dor, Y. Qiao, J. I. Tamir, and T. S. Rappaport, University (NYU-Poly), Brooklyn, NY, USA, and
“A 38 GHz cellular outage study for an urban outdoor campus envi- is Professor of Computer Science and Professor of
ronment,” in Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. Netw. Conf., 2012, pp. Radiology at NYU. In 2012, he founded NYU WIRELESS, a multidisciplinary
3085–3090. research center involving NYU’s engineering, computer science, and med-
[19] T. S. Rappaport, E. Ben-Dor, J. N. Murdock, and Y. Qiao, “38 GHz ical schools. Earlier in his career, he founded the Wireless Networking and
and 60 GHz angle-dependent propagation for cellular & peer-to-peer Communications Group (WNCG) at the University of Texas at Austin (UT),
wireless communications,” in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Commun., Jun. USA. Prior to UT, he was on the electrical and computer engineering faculty
2012, pp. 4568–4573. of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA,
[20] S. C. Swales, M. A. Beach, and J. P. McGeehan, “A spectrum efficient where he founded the Mobile and Portable Radio Research Group (MPRG),
cellular base-station antenna architecture,” in Proc. Antennas Propag. one of the world’s first university research and teaching centers dedicated to the
Soc. Int. Symp., Jul. 1992, vol. 2, pp. 1069–1072. wireless communications field. In 1989, he founded TSR Technologies, Inc.,
[21] J. C. Liberti and T. S. Rappaport, “Analysis of CDMA cellular radio Blacksburg, a cellular-radio/personal-communications-services software radio
systems employing adaptive antennas in multipath environments,” in manufacturer that pioneered cellular E-911 and test equipment that he sold in
Proc. IEEE Veh. Technol. Conf., 1996, vol. 2, pp. 1076–1080. 1993 to what is now CommScope, Inc. In 1995, he founded Wireless Valley
[22] S. Rajagopal, S. Abu-Surra, Z. Pi, and F. Khan, “Antenna array de- Communications Inc., Austin, TX, USA, a site-specific wireless network
sign for multi-Gbps mmWave mobile broadband communication,” pre- design and management firm that was sold in 2005 to Motorola, Inc. He has
sented at the IEEE Global Commun. Conf., Houston, TX, 2011. testified before the U.S. Congress, has served as an international consultant for
[23] M. Copper and M. Goldburg, “Intelligent antennas: Spatial division the ITU, has consulted for more than 30 major telecommunications firms, and
multiple access,” Annu. Rev. Commun., pp. 999–1002, 1996. works on many national committees pertaining to communications research
[24] P. Xia, S.-K. Yong, J. Oh, and C. Ngo, “A practical SDMA protocol and technology policy. He is a highly sought-after consultant and technical
for 60 GHz millimeter wave communications,” in Proc. Asilomar Conf. expert, and serves on the Board of Directors of the Marconi Society. He has
Signals, Syst., Comput., Oct. 2008, pp. 2019–2023. authored or coauthored more than 200 technical papers, over 100 U.S. and
[25] C.-S. Sum, M. Rahman, Z. Lan, J.-Y. Wang, R. Funada, T. Baykas, international patents, and several best-selling technical books.
H. Harada, and S. Kato, “A scalable heuristic scheduling strategy for Dr. Rappaport was elected to the Board of Governors of the IEEE Communi-
60 GHz WPAN STDMA system with directional antennas,” in Proc. cations Society (ComSoc) in 2006, and was elected to the Board of Governors
IEEE Int. Conf. Commun., 2010, pp. 1–6. of the IEEE Vehicular Technology Society (VTS) in 2008 and 2011.
RAPPAPORT et al.: BROADBAND MILLIMETER-WAVE PROPAGATION MEASUREMENTS AND MODELS 1859
Felix Gutierrez, Jr. (S’08) received the B.S. degree Yijun Qiao (S’08) received the B.S. degree in
in electrical engineering from the University of Texas electrical engineering from the University of Texas
at Austin (UT), USA, in 2006, the M.S. degree in at Austin, Austin, TX, USA, in 2012 and is currently
electrical engineering from Texas A&M University, a graduate ECE student at Rice University, Houston,
College Station, TX, USA, in 2008, and is currently TX.
pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering at As an Engineering Honors student, he joined
UT. Prof. Theodore S. Rappaport’s research team in Fall
He completed an internship with ETS-Lindgren, 2010 and worked on the millimeter-wave channel
Cedar Park, TX, USA, in 2010. He is currently a sounding project for one year. He developed a
Visiting Research Scholar at the Polytechnic Institute measurement track now being used for propagation
of New York University (NYU-Poly), Brooklyn, research at Polytechnic Institute of New York
NY, USA. He has worked on millimeter-wave and sub-terahertz semiconductor University (NYU-Poly), Brooklyn, NY, USA.
circuits and antennas for next-generation wireless communications.