Fundamental Frequency and Harmonics

 Natural Frequency
 Forced Vibration
 Standing Wave Patterns
 Fundamental Frequency and Harmonics
Previously in Lesson 4, it was mentioned that when an object is forced
into resonance vibrations at one of its natural frequencies, it vibrates in a
manner such that a standing wave pattern is formed within the object.
Whether it is a guitar sting, a Chladni plate, or the air column enclosed within
a trombone, the vibrating medium vibrates in such a way that a standing
wave pattern results. Each natural frequency that an object or instrument
produces has its own characteristic vibrational mode or standing wave
pattern. These patterns are only created within the object or instrument at
specific frequencies of vibration; these frequencies are known as harmonic
frequencies, or merely harmonics. At any frequency other than a harmonic
frequency, the resulting disturbance of the medium is irregular and non-
repeating. For musical instruments and other objects that vibrate in regular
and periodic fashion, the harmonic frequencies are related to each other by
simple whole number ratios. This is part of the reason why such instruments
sound pleasant. We will see in this part of Lesson 4 why these whole number
ratios exist for a musical instrument.

Recognizing the Length-Wavelength Relationship

First, consider a guitar string vibrating at its natural frequency or harmonic
frequency. Because the ends of the string are attached and fixed in place to
the guitar's structure (the bridge at one end and the frets at the other), the
ends of the string are unable to move. Subsequently, these ends become
nodes - points of no displacement. In between these two nodes at the end of
the string, there must be at least one antinode. The most fundamental
harmonic for a guitar string is the harmonic associated with a standing wave
having only one antinode positioned between the two nodes on the end of
the string. This would be the harmonic with the
longest wavelength and the lowest frequency. The
lowest frequency produced by any particular
instrument is known as the fundamental frequency.
The fundamental frequency is also called the first
harmonic of the instrument. The diagram at the right
shows the first harmonic of a guitar string. If you
analyze the wave pattern in the guitar string for this harmonic, you will notice
that there is not quite one complete wave within the pattern. A complete
wave starts at the rest position, rises to a crest, returns to rest, drops to a
trough, and finally returns to the rest position before starting its next cycle.
(Caution: the use of the words crest and trough to describe the pattern are
only used to help identify the length of a repeating wave cycle. A standing
wave pattern is not actually a wave, but rather a pattern of a wave. Thus, it
does not consist of crests and troughs, but rather nodes and antinodes. The
pattern is the result of the interference of two waves to produce these nodes
and antinodes.) In this pattern, there is only one-half of a wave within the
length of the string. This is the case for the first harmonic or fundamental
frequency of a guitar string. The diagram below depicts this length-
wavelength relationship for the fundamental frequency of a guitar string.

The second harmonic of a guitar string is produced by

adding one more node between the ends of the guitar
string. And of course, if a node is added to the pattern,
then an antinode must be added as well in order to
maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes.
In order to create a regular and repeating pattern, that node must be located
midway between the ends of the guitar string. This additional node gives the
second harmonic a total of three nodes and two antinodes. The standing
wave pattern for the second harmonic is shown at the right. A careful
investigation of the pattern reveals that there is exactly one full wave within
the length of the guitar string. For this reason, the length of the string is
equal to the length of the wave.
The third harmonic of a guitar string is produced by
adding two nodes between the ends of the guitar string.
And of course, if two nodes are added to the pattern,
then two antinodes must be added as well in order to
maintain an alternating pattern of nodes and antinodes.
In order to create a regular and repeating pattern for this harmonic, the two
additional nodes must be evenly spaced between the ends of the guitar
string. This places them at the one-third mark and the two-thirds mark along
the string. These additional nodes give the third harmonic a total of four
nodes and three antinodes. The standing wave pattern for the third harmonic
is shown at the right. A careful investigation of the pattern reveals that there
is more than one full wave within the length of the guitar string. In fact, there
are three-halves of a wave within the length of the guitar string. For this
reason, the length of the string is equal to three-halves the length of the
wave. The diagram below depicts this length-wavelength relationship for the
fundamental frequency of a guitar string.

After a discussion of the first three harmonics, a pattern can be recognized.

Each harmonic results in an additional node and antinode, and an additional
half of a wave within the string. If the number of waves in a string is known,
then an equation relating the wavelength of the standing wave pattern to the
length of the string can be algebraically derived.

This information is summarized in the table below.

# of # of Length-
Harmonic # of
Waves Anti- Wavelength
# Nodes
in String nodes Relationship
1 1/2 2 1 Wavelength = (2/1)*L
2 1 or 2/2 3 2 Wavelength = (2/2)*L
3 3/2 4 3 Wavelength = (2/3)*L
4 2 or 4/2 5 4 Wavelength = (2/4)*L
5 5/2 6 5 Wavelength = (2/5)*L

The above discussion develops the mathematical relationship between the

length of a guitar string and the wavelength of the standing wave patterns for
the various harmonics that could be established within the string. Now these
length-wavelength relationships will be used to develop relationships for the
ratio of the wavelengths and the ratio of the frequencies for the various
harmonics played by a string instrument (such as a guitar string).

Determining the Harmonic Frequencies

Consider an 80-cm long guitar string that has a fundamental frequency (1st
harmonic) of 400 Hz. For the first harmonic, the wavelength of the wave
pattern would be two times the length of the string (see table above); thus,
the wavelength is 160 cm or 1.60 m. The speed of the standing wave can
now be determined from the wavelength and the frequency. The speed of the
standing wave is
speed = frequency • wavelength
speed = 400 Hz • 1.6 m
speed = 640 m/s
This speed of 640 m/s corresponds to the speed of any wave within the guitar
string. Since the speed of a wave is dependent upon the properties of the
medium (and not upon the properties of the wave), every wave will have the
same speed in this string regardless of its frequency and its wavelength. So
the standing wave pattern associated with the second harmonic, third
harmonic, fourth harmonic, etc. will also have this speed of 640 m/s. A
change in frequency or wavelength will NOT cause a change in speed.
Using the table above, the wavelength of the second harmonic (denoted by
the symbol λ2) would be 0.8 m (the same as the length of the string). The
speed of the standing wave pattern (denoted by the symbol v) is still 640
m/s. Now the wave equation can be used to determine the frequency of the
second harmonic (denoted by the symbol f2).
speed = frequency • wavelength
frequency = speed/wavelength
f2 = v / λ2
f2 = (640 m/s)/(0.8 m)
f2 = 800 Hz

This same process can be repeated for the third harmonic. Using the table
above, the wavelength of the third harmonic (denoted by the symbol λ3)
would be 0.533 m (two-thirds of the length of the string). The speed of the
standing wave pattern (denoted by the symbol v) is still 640 m/s. Now the
wave equation can be used to determine the frequency of the third harmonic
(denoted by the symbol f3).
speed = frequency • wavelength
frequency = speed/wavelength
f3 = v / λ3
f3 = (640 m/s)/(0.533 m)
f3 = 1200 Hz

Now if you have been following along, you will have recognized a pattern.
The frequency of the second harmonic is two times the frequency of the first
harmonic. The frequency of the third harmonic is three times the frequency of
the first harmonic. The frequency of the nth harmonic (where n represents
the harmonic # of any of the harmonics) is n times the frequency of the first
harmonic. In equation form, this can be written as
fn = n • f 1
The inverse of this pattern exists for the wavelength values of the various
harmonics. The wavelength of the second harmonic is one-half (1/2) the
wavelength of the first harmonic. The wavelength of the third harmonic is
one-third (1/3) the wavelength of the first harmonic. And the wavelength of
the nth harmonic is one-nth (1/n) the wavelength of the first harmonic. In
equation form, this can be written as
λn = (1/n) • λ1
These relationships between wavelengths and frequencies of the various
harmonics for a guitar string are summarized in the table below.
Harmonic Frequency Wavelength Speed
fn / f1 λn / λ1
# (Hz) (m) (m/s)
1 400 1.60 640 1 1/1
2 800 0.800 640 2 1/2
3 1200 0.533 640 3 1/3
4 1600 0.400 640 4 1/4
5 2000 0.320 640 5 1/5
n n * 400 (2/n)*(0.800) 640 n 1/n

The table above demonstrates that the individual frequencies in the set of
natural frequencies produced by a guitar string are related to each other
by whole number ratios. For instance, the first and second harmonics have
a 2:1 frequency ratio; the second and the third harmonics have a 3:2
frequency ratio; the third and the fourth harmonics have a 4:3 frequency
ratio; and the fifth and the fourth harmonic have a 5:4 frequency ratio. When
the guitar is played, the string, sound box and surrounding air vibrate at a set
of frequencies to produce a wave with a mixture of harmonics. The exact
composition of that mixture determines the timbre or quality of sound that is
heard. If there is only a single harmonic sounding out in the mixture (in which
case, it wouldn't be a mixture), then the sound is rather pure-sounding. On
the other hand, if there are a variety of frequencies sounding out in the
mixture, then the timbre of the sound is rather rich in quality.
In Lesson 5, these same principles of resonance and standing waves will be
applied to other types of instruments besides guitar strings.

Investigate!
The harmonics of an instrument, when played together, sound good. Use
the Timbre widget below to investigate this principle. Use the frequencies provided and try
some combinations of your own.
Timbre

窗体顶端
Enter the frequency of any four sounds. Then click on the

Mix Em and Play button to see the wave pattern and hear the sound.
256
Frequency 1 (Hz)

512
Frequency 2 (Hz)

768
Frequency 3 (Hz)

1024
Frequency 4 (Hz)

Mix Em and
Play

We Would Like to Suggest ...

 Why just read about it and when you could be

interacting with it? Interact - that's exactly what you do when you use one of
The Physics Classroom's Interactives. We would like to suggest that you
combine the reading of this page with the use of our Standing Wave Patterns
Interactive. You can find it in the Physics Interactives section of our website.
The Standing Wave Patterns Interactive provides the learner an environment
for exploring the formation of standing waves, standing wave patterns, and
mathematical relationships for standing wave patterns.

Visit: Standing Wave Patterns Interactive

Check Your Understanding

1. Anna Litical cuts short sections of PVC pipe
into different lengths and mounts them in putty
on the table. The PVC pipes form closed-end air
columns that sound out at different frequencies
when she blows over the top of them. The actual
frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to
the wavelength of the sound; and thus, the
frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to the length of air inside the
tubes. Express your understanding of this resonance phenomenon by filling in
the following table.

See Answer
 2. In a rare moment of artistic brilliance, a Physics teacher pulls out
his violin bow and strokes a square metal plate to produce vibrations
within the plate. Often times, he places salt upon the plate and
observes the standing wave patterns established in the plate as it
vibrates. Amazingly, the salt is aligned along the locations of the
plate that are not vibrating and far from the locations of maximum
vibration. The two most common standing wave patterns are
illustrated at the right. Compare the wavelength of pattern A to the
wavelength of pattern B. Suppose that the fundamental frequency
of vibration is nearly 1200 Hz. Estimate the frequency of vibration of the plate
when it vibrates in the second, third and fourth harmonics.
See Answer

3. When a tennis racket strikes a tennis ball, the racket begins to vibrate.
There is a set of selected frequencies at which the racket will tend to vibrate.
Each frequency in the set is characterized by a particular standing wave
pattern. The diagrams below show the three of the more common standing
wave patterns for the vibrations of a tennis racket.

a. Compare the wavelength of pattern A to the wavelength of pattern B. Make

your comparison both qualitative and quantitative. Repeat for pattern C.
See Answer

b. Compare the frequency of pattern A to the frequency of pattern B. Make

your comparison both qualitative and quantitative. Repeat for pattern C.
 See Answer

c. When the racket vibrates as in pattern A, its frequency of vibration is

approximately 30 Hz. Determine the frequency of vibration of the racket when
it vibrates as in pattern B and pattern C.

See Answer