Engineering Mechanics Lab Manual (Repaired)

Key Points to be known about Experiment No 1 & 2
To Verify Hook’s Law for Helical springs & to find their stiffness
Spring:
Spring is the device which is used to store energy under the application of stress and release this
absorbed energy slowly or rapidly depending upon its function i.e. spring used in brake & clutch
systems release absorbed energy rapidly while springs used in watches release energy slowly
until spring regain its original position.
Spring Classification:
Springs can be classified
1. On shape basis
2. On stress distribution basis
On the basis of shape, springs belong to following two categories.
 Coiled springs
 Leaf and Plate Springs
Coiled springs:
Coiled springs are those which consist of wire shaped in coil form. Coiling of wire may be in the
helix or spiral form. The springs which are coiled in the form of helix are known as Helical
springs and the springs which are coiled spirally are known as Spiral springs. Coiled springs can
be further categorized into
 Close coiled Helical springs

 Open coiled Helical spring
 Conical Helical springs
 Flat Spiral shaped springs
a) Close coiled Helical springs:
Close coiled helical springs are so closely coiled in helix form that each tern lies in plane
perpendicular to spring axis. Close coiled helical spring are also called as Tension springs
as these springs are subjected to extension. For these springs helix angle is very small i.e.
less than 10°.
b) Open coiled Helical spring
Open coiled helical springs are also called as compression springs as these springs are
subjected to compression. These springs have sufficient gap between two consecutive
wire turns hence helix angle is large.
c) Flat Spiral shaped springs:
These springs consist of flat metal strip, in the form of spiral, having one end fixed in
position while the other end is capable of being wound.
Fig 1: Open Coiled Helical spring
Fig 2: Tension spring
Fig 3: Flat Spiral shaped spring
Fig 4: Conical Helical spring

Leaf springs:
These springs are also called as carriage springs or laminated springs. These springs consist of
plates of different sizes, bent in concentric arcs. Under the application of load these spring share
load jointly as they are connected together.
Fig 5: Leaf Springs
Classification of springs on the basis of stress distribution:

Springs can be classified on the basis of type of stress produced under any load. This category
includes
1. Torsion springs
2. Bending springs
3. Springs having both Torsion and Bending stress
Torsion springs:
Torsion springs include close coiled helical springs in which helix angle is very small. When
axial load (Extension / Tensile load) is applied, it will cause spring wire to twist hence under the
application of axial load, shear stress due to torque (P x R) or torsion will be produced in spring
(Fig 6). Spiral Spring lies in this category too. In torsion springs, stress is torsion shear stress
predominately.
Bending springs:
Bending springs are those which bend under the application of load. Leaf springs lie in this
category. In these springs major stress is tensile and compressive stress (Bending Stress) under
the application of loads (Fig 7 & 8).
Springs having both Torsion and Bending stress:
Open coiled helical springs or Compression springs lie in this category. These type of spring
undergoes both bending and torsion stress because of large helix angle.
Fig 6: Torsion in close coiled helical springs
Fig 7: Tension stress in Top fibers & Fig 8: Tension stress in bottom fibers & compression stress
Compression stress in bottom fibers in top fibers

Applications of springs:
Use of spring is everywhere from simple ball point & doors to complex structures. Choice of
spring type depends upon function for it is being used. Springs are used in
 To absorb shocks, vibration and energy in car springs, Railway buffers, air-craft landing
gears etc. for this purpose, compression and leaf springs are usually used
 To apply forces in braking & clutch systems
 To store energy and release it slowly as in clocks, watches and toys. For this purpose
usually spiral spring are being used
 As shock absorbers and vibration dampers in earthquake resistant buildings
Fig 8: Leaf springs in cars Fig 9: Spiral springs in clocks
Fig 10: Shock absorbers in

landing gears of air-crafts
Fig 11: Shock absorbers in earth resistant Buildings Fig 12: Buffer* stops in railway station.
*Buffers have spring inside them and stop incoming train by absorbing its energy
Experiment No 1
To Verify Hook’s Law for Helical springs & to find their stiffness
Aim:
Aim of this experiment is to
 investigate relationship between force and strain

 understand elasticity and stiffness properties
Hook’s Law:
According to Hook’s law, Restoring force in helical spring is directly proportional to axial strain
produced under application of any axial load and its direction is always opposite to direction in
which axial strain is being produced.
F restoring ∝ - X
F restoring= - K X
K is known as spring constant or spring rate or stiffness. Stiffness is defined in such way that
force required to produce unit axial deflection or strain.
K= F / X
Apparatus:
 close coiled Helical Spring with hook
 Retort stand (with clamp)
 Weights
 Scale
Procedure:
 Check zero error of Hook’s apparatus. Pointer should coincide with zero scale value. If it’s not so
it means your apparatus has some value of zero error note this value and subtract this from all
readings while recording.
 Place the weight (Equivalent to 2 N) one by one and note the pointer reading showing extension
strain.
 Load should be increased uniformly W= 2, 4, 6, 8…..N. Note strain readings for all increasing
load. This is known as forward Pass.
 Unload loads one by one and note strain reading for decreasing load. This is known as backward
pass.
 Forward pass and backward pass reading should tally and take their mean.
 Tabulate your readings on next page.
Graphs:
Plot following graphs for both spring
 Between load and axial strain

 Between stiffness and weight
Precautions:
1. Always work with single spring at a time.
2. Note zero error of Hook’s apparatus.
3. Allow spring to be stable then note reading. Don’t note the reading when the spring is vibrating.
4. Don’t overload the spring as overloading can cause spring to plastically deform.
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY ISLAMABAD
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING (DCE)
Course title: Engineering Mechanics (LAB) Module Conveyor: Engr Nisar Ali Khan
Lab Instructor: Engr Muhammad Adeel Credit Hours: 2+1=3
Course Code: CE 104 Date: ----------------------------------------------
Lab Report Practical # 1:
To Verify Hook’s Law for Helical spring and measure its stiffness
Observations & Calculations:
For spring 1:
Serial No Load Applied Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness

W (N) reading by Pointer reading by (X) K= F / X
(mm) Pointer N/mm or
(mm) lbs/inch
For spring 2:
Serial No Load Applied Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness

W (N) reading by Pointer reading by (X) K= F / X
(mm) Pointer N/mm or
(mm) lbs/inch
Spring 1
Paste Your Graph Here
Graph between Load (N) along Y-axis & Strain (X) along X-axis
Graph between Stiffness (K) along Y-axis & Force (N) along X-axis
 Paste Properly Titled Graphs by using Excel

Spring 2
Graph between Load (N) along Y-axis & Strain (X) along X-axis
Graph between Stiffness (K) along Y-axis & Force (N) along X-axis
 Paste Properly Titled Graphs by using Excel

Experiment No 2
To measure shear modulus of Helical springs
As we have discussed before that close coiled helical spring (Extension springs) is subjected to
shear stress under the application of axial load (W). The shear stress induced in spring is of two
type i.e.
 Direct shear stress due to axial load (W)

 Torsion shear stress due to torque ( W x R )
Hence it is necessary to understand Modulus of rigidity which is also known as shear modulus
donated by symbol “G”. Shear Modulus addresses torsion effect while Elastic modulus
addresses bending effects.
Shear modulus is defined as ration of shear stress to shear strain.
G = Shear stress / Shear strain

G = (F / A) / (Δ X / l)
G=Fxl/AxΔX
Shear modulus of close coiled helical springs can be evaluated by following formula
G = 64 W R3 n / d4 X
Here
 W = Axial Load (N)

 R = radius of spring coil = Mean Diameter / 2 = Dm / 2
 Mean diameter = (Outside Diameter + Inside Diameter) / 2 = Do + Di / 2
 n = Number of turns for spring
 d = Diameter of spring wire
 X = axial strain in spring
Note: Measure Do, Di and d quantities by using vernier caliper & check for zero error if any.
To measure shear modulus of Helical springs

Observations & Calculations:
For spring 1:
Do = ------------- Di = ------------- Dm = ------------- d = --------- n = -------------
Serial Load Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness G = 64 W R3 n

No Applied W reading by reading by (X) K= F / X / d4 X
(N) Pointer Pointer N/mm N/mm2
(mm) (mm)
For spring 2:
Do = ------------- Di = ------------- Dm = ------------- d = --------- n = -------------

Serial Load Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness G = 64 W R3 n
No Applied W reading by reading by (X) K= F / X / d4 X
(N) Pointer Pointer N/mm N/mm2
(mm) (mm)
Points to ponder
 What is difference between stiffness and flexibility?
 Upon what factors stiffness of spring depends upon?
 Slope of load (W) and axial strain (G) gives?
 Area under load versus axial strain gives?
 A spring having Length (L) is divided into 3 equal parts. What will be its effect on spring
stiffness?
 What should be shape of stress strain graph for pure elastic material?
 Under application of axial tension load in close coiled helical spring, Shear stress due to
torsion is induced. Explain this phenomenon.
 Under application of load, leaf springs are subjected to tensile and compressive stress.
Explain this phenomenon.
 Why spring should not be overloaded?
 What is difference between Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity?
 What is relationship between stiffness and Modulus of Elasticity?
 What is unit of Shear Modulus?
 What will be effect on stiffness when two springs having stiffness K are connected in
series?
 What will be effect on stiffness when two springs having stiffness K are connected in
parallel?
 What do you means by terms a) Helix angle b) Pitch of spring c) Free length of spring
d) Setting of spring e) Solid length of Spring f) Slenderness ratio of Spring.
 What are different failure mechanisms of springs?
 Shear modulus of close coiled helical springs can be evaluated by following formula
G = 64 W R3 n / d4 X
Prove this expression mathematically.
Instructions:
 Answer each question very precisely.
 Submit an assignment of answers for above questions in hard form.
 Copying assignment is strictly prohibited.
 Submission time is one Week.
Date: -------------------------------
Key Points to be known about Experiment No 3 & 4& 5
To Verify Equilibrium conditions for co-planar concurrent forces
Co-planar Forces:
The forces, whose line of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces. “Plane” is
surface enclosed by any two dimensions i.e. X-Y plane, Y-Z plane & X-Z plane. Three
dimensional system including X-Y-Z dimension is known as “Space”.
Co-planar parallel forces:

Parallel forces can be in the same direction or in opposite direction. Use of either positive (+) or
negative (-) symbol will specify direction. The sign of direction can be chosen arbitrarily,
donating, one direction positive (+) makes opposite direction negative (-). The forces, whose
lines of action are parallel and lie on same plane, are known as Co-planar parallel forces.
Spatial parallel forces:

The forces, whose lines of action are parallel and lie on space (3D co-ordinate system) instead of
plane, are known as Spatial parallel forces.
Fig 1: Co-planar parallel forces Fig 2: Spatial parallel forces
Concurrent forces:
The forces, which meet at one point, are known as Concurrent forces.
Collinear forces:
The forces, whose lines of action lie along same line, are known as collinear forces.
Co-planar concurrent forces:
The forces, whose lines of action lie on same plane and meet at same point, are known as Co-
planar concurrent forces.
Fig 3: Co-planar concurrent forces Fig 4: Co-planar collinear forces
Non-coplanar concurrent forces:

The forces which act at same point but their lines of action doesn’t lie on the same plane are
known as non-coplanar concurrent forces.
Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces:

The forces, which don’t meet at one point and their line of actions don’t lie on the same plane are
called non-coplanar non-concurrent forces.
Fig 5: Non-coplanar concurrent forces Fig 6: Co-planar non-concurrent forces

Equilibrium Equations in Plane:
A body at rest is called to be in Static equilibrium and a body moving with constant velocity but
zero acceleration is said to be in Dynamic equilibrium.
In Plane (2D co-ordinate system), for a body to be in equilibrium following three conditions
need to be satisfied.
ΣF=0
Σ F(X) = 0………….. (i)
Σ F(Y) = 0………… (ii)
Σ M (about axis normal to plane containing individual vectors) = 0…………… (iii)
The body, fulfilling first two equilibrium equations, is said to be in Translational equilibrium.
The body, satisfying 3rd equilibrium equation, is said to be in Rotational equilibrium and the
body, satisfying all three equations of equilibrium, is said to be in Complete equilibrium.
Let’s try to understand no of equilibrium equations that need to be satisfied for a body in Plane.
Suppose there is beam in Y-Z plane.
(+) Z-axis
F2 F1
F5 F4
A F3 B
(-) Y-axis (+) Y-axis
(-) Z-axis
Fig 7: Free body diagram of a beam placed in Y-Z plane
A beam AB is subjected to coplanar parallel forces i.e. F1, F 2, F3, F4 & F5. For complete
equilibrium there are three conditions that need to be satisfied.
Sum of forces along Y-axis i.e. F4 & F5 must be equal to zero.
Σ F(Y) = 0………….. (i)

Sum of forces along X-axis i.e. F1, F2 & F3 must be equal to zero.
Σ F (Z) = 0…………… (ii)

Sum of Moments due to F1, F2 & F3 should be zero. Direction of moment due to each force is
about axis normal to Y-Z plane i.e. X-axis. Moment due to F4 & F5 will be zero.
Σ M (X) = 0…………… (iii)
Equilibrium Equations in space:

No of equations, for a body placed in space (3D co-ordinate system) to be in complete
equilibrium, are six in total.
Σ F(X) = 0………….. (i)

Σ F(Y) = 0………….. (ii)
Σ F (Z) = 0………… (iii)
Σ M (X) = 0 for forces acting in Y-Z plane…………… (iv)
Σ M (Y) = 0 for forces acting in X-Z plane…………… (v)
Σ M (Z) = 0 for forces acting in X-Y plane…………… (vi)
Fig 8: Moment about X-axis due to Force in Y-Z plane Fig 9: Moment about Z-axis due to force in X-Y plane
Practical life Problem:
A ship is in a dock and is secured to bollards on the harbor walls by two thick ropes. It is facing
into a very strong wind which is putting a force of 28 000 N on the ship. This is shown in the
diagram below
Fig 10: A ship, secured to bollards on the harbor walls by two thick ropes
(A). Calculate the tension T in the top rope.
(B). Calculate the force at 90 degrees to the wind that is acting on the bottom bollard. Which
direction is it acting in?
(C). What is the overall force acting on the ship? Explain your answer.
*Source of this example is http://www.antonine-education.co.uk

Solution:
(A). Free body diagram of above example will be like below
T
T Y= T sin 10°
Wind Force = F = 28,000N

T X= T Cos 10° 10°
T X= T Cos 10° 10°
T Y= T sin 10°
T
As whole system is in equilibrium hence applying equilibrium equation
Σ F(X) = 0
+ F- T Cos 10° - T Cos 10° = 0
2 T Cos 10° = 28,000
T = 14,213 N
(B). Force at 90 degrees to the wind that is acting on the bottom bollard is T Y.
T Y= T sin 10°
T Y = 14,213 x sin 10°
T Y = 2468 N
(C). As Boat isn’t moving and at rest so it is in Static equilibrium So overall force acting on the
ship is zero as wind force is being balanced by tension force in strings.
Experiment No 3
To Verify Equilibrium conditions for co-planar concurrent forces
by Gravesand’s Apparatus using Resolution of vectors
Aim:
 Verify equilibrium conditions for co-planar concurrent forces.

 Find the unknown weight of a given body.
Apparatus:
 A vertical wooden board with two pulleys called as Gravesand’s apparatus

 Slotted weights
 Two hangers, String, Paper sheet, Drawing pins, a strip of mirror, Wooden slab, Set
square, Protractor & a spring balance.
Procedure:
 Clamp the board in the vertical position by using a plumb-line and fix a sheet of paper on
it with drawing pins.
 Take sufficiently long piece of fine string and tie the two hangers at its ends.
 Tie another short string in the middle of the first string to make a knot at “O”.
 Tie the unknown weight at the other end of the second string.
 Arrange them on the pulleys as shown in figure with slotted weights on hangers.
 Adjust the weights so that the knot “O” is in the middle of the paper.
 To mark the direction of the force acting along a string, place a mirror strip below the
string and adjust the position of the eye so that there is no parallax between the string
and its image and mark the two points “E” and “F” at edges of the mirror where the
image of string leaves mirror.
 Similarly mark the directions of other two forces.
 Remove the hangers along with weights and note carefully the weight & inclination of
each hanger and the slotted weights on them.
T2 F T1
E
O
W2 W1
W Unknown
Calculations:
As system of three coplanar forces is in equilibrium so following equations must be satisfied.
Σ F(Y) = 0
T1sinα+T2sinβ=W Unknown
Error:
After finding unknown weight analytically, measure actual weight force by using weight
balance. There might be some error because of following reasons.
 Pulleys may have friction.

 Marking of strings or angle measurement isn’t correct.
 Weights may not be accurate.
 String used for practical is too stiff to respond to weights.
Percentage Error can be determined by following formulae
Percentage Error = (W actual – W unknown)*100/ (W actual)
Precautions:
 The board should be kept vertical by using a plumb line.

 The pulleys should be frictionless. If necessary, pulleys should be oiled.
 The hangers carrying the weights should not touch the board.
 Mark the points (only when the hangers get steady) with the help of mirror strip using a
pencil.
 Take a proper account of the zero error of spring balance while measuring weights with
it.
Observations:
Serial T1 Inclination T2 Inclination T1sinα+T2sinβ= % Error = (W actual –

No (N) of T 1=α (N) of T 2=β W Unknown WUnknown)*100/ (W actual)
Experiment No 4
Verification of Parallelogram law of Forces by Gravesand’s
Apparatus
Aim:
 Verify Parallelogram law of forces analytically and graphically
Parallelogram law of forces:

According to Parallelogram law of forces, if two vectors acting on a particle at the same time be
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from
a point their resultant vector is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the same point.
Fig 1: Parallelogram law of forces
Magnitude & Direction of Resultant vector is given by following formulae

R = √ (P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQcos Ɵ)
α = tan -1 [QsinƟ / (P + QsinƟ)]
Magnitude of Resultant is determined by above formulae analytically. Analytical method has

advantage over graphical method as graphical method needs drawing aids like Pencil, Scale,
drawing Sheet etc.
Graphical Method:
Determining resultant of coplanar forces graphically i.e. by using drawing aids. Resultant value
obtained after graphical method should be equal to W 3 and its direction will be opposite to
direction of unknown W 3.
Apparatus:

 Slotted weights
Procedure:
 To mark the direction of the force acting along a string, place a mirror strip below the
string and adjust the position of the eye so that there is no parallax between the string
and its image and mark the two points “E” and “F” at edges of the mirror where the
image of string leaves mirror.
 Similarly mark the directions of other two forces.
B T2 F T1 A
E
D C Fig 2: free body Diagram
O W1
W2
W3
 Now select a suitable scale to represent magnitude of W 1 and W 2 on graph paper e.g.
1cm = 1 N or any other suitable scale and mark points C & D on “OA” & “OB” lines
respectively.
 Make a parallelogram by drawing equal in magnitude & parallel to OC line named as DP.
Similarly draw equal in magnitude & parallel to “OD” line named as “CP” (Fig 3 & 4).
 Now measure the diagonal “OP” of parallelogram OCPD and evaluate its magnitude “R”
according to suitable scale. Its magnitude should be equal to W 3 and in opposite
direction to W 3 Fig (5).
B A
D
C
Fig 3: Step 1 to make Parallelogram on graph paper
P
B A
D
C

P
B A
D R
W2 C
O W1
W3
Error:
There might be difference between values of “R” & “W 3” as
 Pulleys may have friction.

 Marking of strings or angle measurement isn’t correct.
 Weights may not be accurate.
 String used for practical is too stiff to respond to weights.
Percentage Error can be determined by following formulae
Percentage Error = (W 3– R)*100/ (W 3)
Similarly find error between “R” and “W 3” during Analytical Method and note it.
Precautions:

pencil.
it.
Verification of Parallelogram law of Forces by Gravesand’s Apparatus

Observations & Calculations during Analytical method
Serial W1 W2 W3 Angle (Ɵ) R = √ (P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQcos Ɵ) Percentage Error =

No (N) (N) (N) between (N) (W 3– R)*100/ (W 3)
W1&W2
Graphical Method: Selected Scale = -----------------------
Draw proper Graph by using drawing tools
% Error during Graphical method: ---------------------

Experiment No 5
Verification of Lami’s theorem & Triangle law of Forces by
Gravesand’s Apparatus
Aim:
 Verify lami’s theorem

 Verify triangle law of forces
Lami’s theorem:
In statics, Lami’s theorem is an equation relating the three coplanar, concurrent and non-
collinear forces which keeps an object in static equilibrium with angles directly opposite to the
corresponding forces. According to the theorem
Here A, B and C are the magnitudes of three coplanar, concurrent and non-collinear forces,
which keep the object in static equilibrium and α , β and γ are the angles directly opposite to the
forces A, B and C respectively.
Fig 1: Lami’s theorem

Triangle law of Forces:
According to this law, if there are three forces acting over a body which is in equilibrium then
the two forces are represented as a two side of a triangle in same order with scaling their
magnitude to a suitable scale then the third side or the closing side of the triangle would be the
resultant in opposite order. This is graphical method to analyze equilibrium conditions.
Apparatus:

 Slotted weights
Procedure:
 To mark the direction of the force “P” acting along a string, place a mirror strip below
the string and adjust the position of the eye so that there is no parallax between the string
and its image and mark the two points at edges of the mirror where the image of string
leaves mirror.
 Similarly mark the directions of other two forces i.e. “Q” & “R”.
Fig 2: Bow’s notation of concurrent, coplanar forces

 Use Bow’s notation to name the forces P, Q and R as ab, bc and ac.
 Now select a suitable scale e.g. 1cm = 1 N or any other suitable scale and draw the line
“ab” parallel to force “P” and cut it equal to the magnitude of “P”. From “b” draw the
line “bc” parallel to force Q and cut it equal to the magnitude of “Q” Fig 2.
 Measure the length of “ac” and evaluate its magnitude by using selected scale named as
“R1” which should be equal to the third force “R”.
 Triangle should be closed, if not it means “R1” differs from original magnitude of “R”
then percentage error is found as follows
Percentage Error = (R – R1)* 100 / R
Precautions:

pencil.
it.
Verification of Lami’s theorem & Triangle law of Forces by

Gravesand’s Apparatus
Graphical Method: Selected Scale = -----------------------
Draw proper Graph by using drawing tools
Percentage Error: ---------------------
Verification of Lemi’s theorem:

By using your values show that
Points to Ponder
 What do you mean by “Plane” and “Space”?
 How many equilibrium equations are there while analyzing a structure in 2D and 3D?
 What are graphical methods to analyze equilibrium conditions?
 A wheel moving with constant velocity is in which type of equilibrium?
 Two fans facing each other separated by some distance. Both are turned on. In between
them, place a simple paper plane and it will fly like below. What do you believe is it fake
or real? If yes then what is science behind it?

 Effect of co-planar forces acting on a body is
a. Pure translation
b. Pure rotation
c. Translation & rotation
 Effect of collinear forces acting on a body is

a. Pure translation
b. Pure rotation
 Effect of couple acting on a body is

a. Pure translation
b. Pure rotation
 Effect of resultant of non-concurrent forces acting on a body is
a. Pure translation
b. Pure rotation
 What is free body diagram? A uniform ladder of length l rests against a smooth, vertical
wall. The mass of the ladder is m, and the coefficient of static friction between the ladder
and the ground is s.
A B C D
Gravity Force: Black Color, Friction force: Orange color, Normal reaction force due to smooth
surface: Green color
 What is Bow’s notation?

 What are Graphical methods to analyze three coplanar, concurrent, non collinear force
system?
Instructions:
 Answer each question very precisely.
 Submit an assignment of answers for above questions in hard form.
 Copying assignment is strictly prohibited.
 Submission time is one Week.
Date: -------------------------------

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Key Points to be known about Experiment No 1 & 2

 Close coiled Helical springs

a) Close coiled Helical springs:

b) Open coiled Helical spring

Fig 1: Open Coiled Helical spring

Fig 2: Tension spring

Fig 3: Flat Spiral shaped spring

Fig 4: Conical Helical spring

Fig 5: Leaf Springs

Classification of springs on the basis of stress distribution:

Fig 6: Torsion in close coiled helical springs

Compression stress in bottom fibers in top fibers

Fig 8: Leaf springs in cars Fig 9: Spiral springs in clocks

Fig 10: Shock absorbers in

 investigate relationship between force and strain

 Between load and axial strain

Serial No Load Applied Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness

Serial No Load Applied Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness

Paste Your Graph Here

Paste Your Graph Here

 Paste Properly Titled Graphs by using Excel

Paste Your Graph Here

Paste Your Graph Here

 Paste Properly Titled Graphs by using Excel

 Direct shear stress due to axial load (W)

G = Shear stress / Shear strain

 W = Axial Load (N)

To measure shear modulus of Helical springs

Do = ------------- Di = ------------- Dm = ------------- d = --------- n = -------------

Serial Load Forward Pass Backward Pass Mean Stiffness G = 64 W R3 n

Do = ------------- Di = ------------- Dm = ------------- d = --------- n = -------------

Co-planar parallel forces:

Spatial parallel forces:

Fig 1: Co-planar parallel forces Fig 2: Spatial parallel forces

Fig 3: Co-planar concurrent forces Fig 4: Co-planar collinear forces

Non-coplanar concurrent forces:

Non-coplanar non-concurrent forces:

Fig 5: Non-coplanar concurrent forces Fig 6: Co-planar non-concurrent forces

(-) Y-axis (+) Y-axis

Σ F(Y) = 0………….. (i)

Σ F (Z) = 0…………… (ii)

Σ M (X) = 0…………… (iii)

Equilibrium Equations in space:

Σ F(X) = 0………….. (i)

(A). Calculate the tension T in the top rope.

*Source of this example is http://www.antonine-education.co.uk

Wind Force = F = 28,000N

As whole system is in equilibrium hence applying equilibrium equation

T Y = 14,213 x sin 10°

Aim of this experiment is to

 Verify equilibrium conditions for co-planar concurrent forces.

 A vertical wooden board with two pulleys called as Gravesand’s apparatus

 Pulleys may have friction.

 The board should be kept vertical by using a plumb line.

Serial T1 Inclination T2 Inclination T1sinα+T2sinβ= % Error = (W actual –

Aim of this experiment is to

 Verify Parallelogram law of forces analytically and graphically

Parallelogram law of forces:

Fig 1: Parallelogram law of forces

Magnitude & Direction of Resultant vector is given by following formulae

α = tan -1 [QsinƟ / (P + QsinƟ)]

Magnitude of Resultant is determined by above formulae analytically. Analytical method has

 A vertical wooden board with two pulleys called as Gravesand’s apparatus