1

Chapter 1
Introduction to Kanyaka Parameshwari Engg. Ltd.

The company is located in the government accredited industrial land in the heart of
Hyderabad, Telangana, India. The location of the company is very convenient for local
transport and easily accessible for the suppliers and well connected to major national
highways. The company is equipped with sophisticated automatic equipment to ensure that
its products meet stringent quality requirements of its customers.

Fig:1.1. Company logo.

Kanyaka Parameshwari Engineering Limited is established in the year 1983 and is certified
the company is ISO 9001:2008 certified. We have a multilevel skill set and widespread
expertise with extensive knowledge and experience more than 15 years in manufacturing
Power & Distribution Transformers, with continuous R & D in manufacturing of energy
efficient transformers catering both public and private sectors. The transformers are
designed, manufactured and tested with IS:1180 up to 2500kVA. Company has a
manufacturing capacity for transformers up to 10MVA 33kV Class.v c

1.1. Vision:

"Become a company that is acknowledged by the world for producing the best and most
energy efficient products for transmission and distribution of power."
1.2. Mission:

"Our mission is to be the leading manufacturer of energy efficient for power distribution."

We offer a wide range of power distribution solutions. The product range includes BIS Level
3 Energy Efficient Transformers, Package Sub-Stations, Power Transformers, Inverter Duty
Transformers, Distribution Transformers, Dry Type Transformers, Cast Resin Transformers,
and Solar Transformers.
The company manufacture the following
1. Power transformers (2.5 to 6.5MVA),
2. Single phase transformers (5 to 25KVA),
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3. Distribution transformers (Single phase: 10 to 30KVA & Three phase: 16 to

400KVA),
4. VPI transformers,
5. Cast resin transformers, and
6. Solar transformers (45 to 5000KVA)
We supply transformers to all major discoms in India.

TSSPDCL, TSNPDCL, APSPDCL, APEPDCL, MSEDCL, BESCOM, MESCOM,

CESCOM, GESCOM, HESCOM, TANGEDCO, KSEB, CSEB, OPTCL, PGCIL, SBPDCL,
NBPDCL.
1.3. Power Transformers up to 6.35MVA.
Features:

 Rating – 2500 KVA to 6350 KVA

 Temperature Rise – Windings - 55°C, Oil - 45°C

 Type of Winding: Copper

 Core – CRGO

 Voltage – Primary 6.35/11/22/33KV, Secondary – 433V

 Tap changer – OLTC/OCTC

Fig:1.2. Power transformer.

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Standard Fittings:

 HV and LV Bushings

 HV and LV Metal Parts

 Bi-metallic Connectors

 Oil Level Gauge

 Thermometer pocket

 Dial Type Thermometer(Vertical/Horizontal)

 Pressure Relief Valve

 Magnetic Oil Gauge(MOG)

 Company Logo plate/label

 Rating and Diagram Marking Plate

 Hardware Fittings

 Gas Operating Relay(GOR)

 Radiators/Corrugation Panels

 Radiator Valve

 Conservator

 Drain valve

 Filter valve

 Terminal Tags-LV/HV

 Sampling valve

 Silica gel Breather

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 Oil and Winding Temperature Indicators

 Bi-directional Rollers

Optional Fittings:

 With OFTC (Off Circuit Tap Switch)

 With OLTC (On Load Tap Changer)

 Cable box for HV and LV Terminals

 CT's and PT's

 Nitrogen Filling while despatch

 RTCC Panels

 RG3 Fixing

 Marshalling Box for OTI/WTI/MDI components and its wiring

 Terminal Tags-for other fittings

 Conservator for OLTC

 Equaliser Pipe from main conservator to OLTC pipe

Technical Specification:

 Applicable Standards: IS, IEC, ANSI, BS.

 Cooling: ONAN/ONAF

 Insulating Oil: Mineral Oil

 Winding Material: Copper

 Winding Insulation: MPC/TPC

 Frequency: 50Hz, 60Hz

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 Polarity: As specified

 Taping Range: Off circuit/On load changer as per customer specification

 Impedance: As specified.
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Chapter 2
Transformer
Transformer is a static device which transfers electrical energy between two or more circuit
through electromagnetic induction. A varying current in one coil of the transformer produces
a varying magnetic field, which in turn induces the voltage in a secondary coil. Power can
be transferred between two coils through the magnetic field without a metallic connection
between the two circuits.

Fig:2.1. Transformer.
The working principle of transformer is very simple. It depends upon Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction between two or more winding is
responsible for transformation action in an electrical transformer.

Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

According to these Faraday's laws, "Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is
directly proportional to the induced EMF in a conductor or coil".
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2.1. Theory of transformer:

Say you have one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source. The
alternating current through the winding produces a continually changing flux or alternating
flux that surrounds the winding. If any other winding is brought nearer to the previous one,
obviously some portion of this flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually
changing in its amplitude and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second
winding or coil. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, there must be an
EMF induced in the second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be a
current flowing through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformer and this
is the most basic of working principle of transformer.

Fig:2.2. Transformer circuit

For better understanding, we are trying to repeat the above explanation in a briefer way here.
Whenever we apply alternating current to an electric coil, there will be an alternating flux
surrounding that coil. Now if we bring another coil near the first one, there will be an
alternating flux linkage with that second coil. As the flux is alternating, there will be
obviously a rate of change in flux linkage with respect to time in the second coil. Naturally
emf will be induced in it as per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
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Since the invention of the first constant potential Transformer in 1885, Transformers have
become essential for the transmission distribution and utilisation of alternating current
electrical energy. Wide range of Transformers designs are encountered in electronic and
electric power applications. Transformers range in size from RF transformers less than a
cubic centimetre in volume to units interconnecting the power grid weighing hundreds of
tons.

Fig: 2.3. Power transformer

Power transformers are used in HV/EHV/UHV systems as they transfer a huge amount of
power to the customers.

2.2. Construction of transformer:

The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding being wound
on a separate limb or core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary magnetic
circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to
provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of the
voltage between the two windings.
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However, this type of transformer construction were the two windings are wound on
separate limbs is not very efficient since the primary and secondary windings are well
separated from each other. This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two windings
as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself. But as well as
this “O” shapes construction, there are different types of “transformer construction” and
designs available which are used to overcome these inefficiencies producing a smaller more
compact transformer.

Fig:2.3. Manufacturing of transformers in company.

Manufacturing of a transformer is done by constructing the various parts of the transformer.

2.3. Transformer parts:

Transformer parts can be classified into two groups they are,

1. Major parts.
2. Minor parts.
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Fig:2.4. Transformer parts.

2.3.1. Major parts:

i. Transformer core, and

ii. Windings or coils.
i. Transformer core: The core is a magnetic link between primary and secondary.
The core of the transformer is used to support the windings. It is made of soft iron
to reduce eddy current loss and Hysteresis loss, and provides low reluctance path
to the flow of magnetic flux.
ii. Windings or coils: Windings consist of several copper coil turns bundled together,
each bundle connected to form a complete winding. Windings can be based either
on the input-output supply or on the voltage range. Windings that are based on
supply are classified into primary and secondary windings, meaning the windings
to which the input and output voltage is applied respectively. On the other hand,
windings based on voltage range can be classified into high voltage and low voltage
windings.
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2.3.2. Minor parts:

i. Conservator,
ii. Buchholz relay,
iii. Breather,
iv. Silica gel,
v. Transformer oil,
vi. Bushings,
vii. Transformer tank, and
viii. Insulating material.
i. Conservator: The conservator is an airtight metallic cylindrical drum fitted above the
transformer that conserves the transformer oil.
ii. Buchholz relay: It is a safety device which is generally used in large oil immersed
transformers (rated more than 500 kVA). It is used for the protection of a transformer
from the faults occurring inside the transformer.
iii. Breather: The breather is a cylindrical container filled with silica gel, which is used
to keep the air that enters the tank moisture-free.
iv. Silica gel: The purpose of these silica gel breathers is to absorb the moisture in the air
sucked in by the transformer during the breathing process.
v. Transformer oil: Transformer oil or insulating oil is an oil that is stable at high
temperatures and has excellent electrical insulating properties. It is used in oil-filled
transformers.
vi. Bushings: Bushings are used to bring windings terminals out of tank and also use for
insulation. For example, porcelain, oil filled and capacitor type bushings.
vii. Transformer tank: It is steel made box. Transformer core is placed inside this tank.
Windings and other helpful devices are placed inside this tank. It is filled with
insulating oil (mineral oil).
viii. Insulating material: Electrical insulation materials are a vital part of transformers,
as they must withstand the operating temperatures that occur during the transformer’s
operating life. The lifetime of a transformer depends on the reliability of the insulation
used.
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Chapter 3
Major parts

3.1. Transformer Core:

The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding being wound
on a separate limb or core of the soft iron form which provides the necessary magnetic
circuit.
This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the “transformer core” is designed to
provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of the
voltage between the two windings.

Fig:3.1. Transformer core.

However, the primary role of any transformer lies in the ferro-magnetic properties of the
core material. Such materials when subject to a weak external inducing magnetic field are
found to create magnetic flux densities within the transformer core material some 10000 to
20000 times stronger than in air. The transformer ferro-magnetic core material thus acts as
a virtual flux amplifier which allows lower rates of induction to be used (50/60 Hz) whilst
allowing very large amounts of power to be generated, transmitted and distributed over large
distances with relatively low losses (typically ~10% of total). This is why all electrical
machines use an iron core.

Transformer core is made with “Silicon steel material”, it is also called as “Electric steel”.
Silicon steel is a ferro-magnetic material it offers low reluctance and high permeability.
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Note: The low reluctance material required to improve the flux capability in the core.
Whereas, high permeability material required to reduce the amount of current required from
the source to crack the flux. As the flux is directly proportional to the MMF and inversely
proportional to the Reluctance. The flux density is directly proportional to the permeability.

𝑀𝑀𝐹
a. 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥, ∅ = 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

b. 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝐵 = 𝜇 𝐻

c. ∅(𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) = 𝜇 𝐼𝜇

We can see form the ‘c’ as the permeability high the current decreases to maintain the
constant flux.

Silicon steel is a composite material. 4 to 5% of silicon is added to the steel materials to

reduce the eddy current losses. If more than the 5% is added to the steel materials then the
conductivity of the material increases enormously thereby, the eddy current losses of the
transformer is increases. The eddy current losses occur in any magnetic material due to its
small value of conductivity. These losses are directly proportional to the conductivity.

The silicon steel has low hysteresis coefficient so, the hysteresis loss of transformer also
less.

The structure of silicon steel is “Body center cubic crystal” (BCCC) in structure. Molecules
or grains present along the edges of the cube has high permeability whereas molecules or
grains present along the diagonals of the cube has low permeability. So that overall
permeability is low.

In order to improve the permeability of steel the molecules or grains can be oriented in the
direction of magnetic field by using heating and cooling. This is the new form of steel is
called “CRGO (Cold-rolled grain oriented) steel”. The present transformer cores are made
up of CRGO steel. We are also using CRGO steel.

Note: CRGO steel is used instead of silicon steel for the construction of transformer core
then the requirement of magnetizing current is decreases to produce the same amount of flux.
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Fig:3.2. CRGO steel laminations.

In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed from of a highly
permeable material made from thin silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide
the required magnetic path with the minimum of losses. The resistivity of the steel sheet
itself is high reducing the eddy current losses by making the laminations very thin.

These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between 0.25mm to 0.5mm and
as steel is a conductor, the laminations are electrically insulated from each other by a very
thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the surface.

3.1.1. Construction of the transformer Core:

Transformer core is not a solid structure. It can be divided into small parts or strips in the
shape of “L, I & E”. Each small part of transformer core is called Lamination. These
laminations are get bunched together and forms a laminated core.

Each lamination part in the transformer core is insulated by the following insulating
materials they are,

1. Red oxide paint,

2. China clay,
3. Japan varnish,
4. Thin impregnated paper, and
5. PVC insulation.
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The red oxide paint is the most commonly used insulating material.

The laminations are required in transformer core to reduce the eddy current losses. For
example, take one solid transformer core and one laminated transformer core.

In solid transformer core, the area occupied by the current is more, the resistance is inversely
proportional to the area and the resistance decreases. Which means, the conductivity of the
core is high. The eddy current loss is directly proportional to the conductivity so, the eddy
current losses are more in solid transformer core.

In laminated transformer core, the area occupied by the current is less due to laminations.
The resistance is high. Which means, the conductivity of the core is low. The eddy current
loss is directly proportional to the conductivity so, the eddy current losses are less in
laminated transformer core compare to the solid transformer core.

The transformer has two cross section areas they are,

1. Gross cross section area of transformer and

2. Net cross section area of transformer.

Area occupied by both magnetic and insulating material in transformer core is called Gross
cross section area of transformer core. It is denoted by ′𝐴𝑔 ′.

Area occupied by both magnetic material only in transformer core is called Net cross section
area of transformer core. It is denoted by ′𝐴𝑛 ′. Net cross section area of transformer core is
used for all calculations of transformer. Since flux flows in the magnetic material only.

Stacking factor:

It is the ratio of the net cross section area of transformer core to the gross cross section area
of transformer core is called as Stacking factor.

𝐴𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑠 =
𝐴𝑔

Core staggering:

The process of bunching of all the laminations of transformer is called Core staggering. That
means tightly fitting process of laminations of transformer core.

If the core is not properly staggered then the following undesirable consequences takes place,
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1. Transformer draws high magnetizing current that means wastage of magnetizing

current to crate the same amount of flux.
When the transformer core is not properly staggered some lines takes place between
each lamination which in turn increases the reluctance of the transformer core. As
the reluctance increases the transformer draws high magnetizing current from the
source to maintain the flux constant.
2. Humming noise comes from the core of transformer.
When the transformer core is not properly staggered some dimensions changes
occurs in the transformer due to its air gap lines between each laminations. Whenever
the alternative nature of flux is passing through this type of magnetic material
(unproperly staggered core) some mechanical vibrations takes place between each
lamination due to magnetostriction phenomenon. Which in turn produce humming
noise. Magnetostriction is a tendency of a magnetic material when alternative nature
of flux passing through the transformer core.

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependent upon
how the primary and secondary windings are wound around the central laminated steel core.
The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are the Closed-core
Transformer and the Shell-core Transformer.

In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are
wound outside and surround the core ring. In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the
primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core) which forms a
shell around the windings as shown below.

Fig:3.3. Formation of core.

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In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and
secondary windings travels entirely within the core with no loss of magnetic flux through
air. In the core type transformer construction, one half of each winding is wrapped around
each leg (or limb) of the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.

The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the secondary on the
other but instead half of the primary winding and half of the secondary winding are placed
one over the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic coupling allowing
practically all of the magnetic lines of force go through both the primary and secondary
windings at the same time. However, with this type of transformer construction, a small
percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and this is called “leakage
flux”.

Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and secondary
windings are wound on the same centre leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area
of the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two closed magnetic
paths to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning
back to the central coils.

This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of this type of
transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the magnetic flux has a closed path around the
coils, this has the advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall efficiency.

3.1.2. Transformer Core Laminations:

Fig:3.4. Shape of laminations of transformer core.

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But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary windings are wound around
these laminated iron or steel cores for this type of transformer constructions. The coils are
firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross section to
suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core type transformer
constructions, in order to mount the coil windings, the individual laminations are stamped
or punched out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel resembling the
letters “E’s”, “L’s”, “U’s” and “I’s” as shown below.

3.1.. Transformer Core Types:

These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core shape. For
example, two “E” stampings plus two end closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core forming
one element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These individual laminations are
tightly butted together during the transformers construction to reduce the reluctance of the
air gap at the joints producing a highly saturated magnetic flux density.

Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to produce an
overlapping joint with more lamination pairs being added to make up the correct core
thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer the advantage
of reduced flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction is
mostly used in isolation transformers, step-up and step-down transformers as well as auto
transformers.

3.2. Transformer Winding or Coil:

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction, because

they are the main current-carrying conductors wound around the laminated sections of the
core. In a single-phase two winding transformers, two windings would be present. The one
which is connected to the voltage source and creates the magnetic flux called the primary
winding, and the second winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as a
result of mutual induction.

If the secondary output voltage is less than that of the primary input voltage the transformer
is known as a “Step-down Transformer”. If the secondary output voltage is greater than the
primary input voltage it is called a “Step-up Transformer”.
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The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a transformer winding is
either copper or aluminium. While aluminium wire is lighter and generally less expensive
than copper wire, a larger cross-sectional area of conductor must be used to carry the same
amount of current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger power transformer
applications.

Small KVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage electrical and electronic
circuits tend to use copper conductors as these have a higher mechanical strength and smaller
conductor size than equivalent aluminium types. The downside is that when complete with
their core, these transformers are much heavier.

Fig:3.6. Windings

3.2.1. Types of Windings:

Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to two types they are

i. Concentric coils.

ii. Sandwiched coils.

3.2.2. Concentric coils: In core-type transformer construction, the windings are usually
arranged concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the higher voltage
primary winding being wound over the lower voltage secondary winding.
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3.2.3. Sandwiched coils:

Sandwiched or “pancake” coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are so
named due to the arrangement of conductors into discs. Alternate discs are made to spiral
from outside towards the centre in an interleaved arrangement with individual coils being
stacked together and separated by insulating materials such as paper of plastic sheet.
Sandwich coils and windings are more common with shell type core construction.

Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very common cylindrical coil
arrangement used in low voltage high current transformer applications. The windings are
made up of large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side with the insulated
strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the cylinder, with suitable spacers
inserted between adjacent turns or discs to minimize circulating currents between the parallel
strands. The coil progresses outwards as a helix resembling that of a corkscrew.
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Chapter 4

Minor parts

4.1. Conservator Tank of a Transformer:

This is a cylindrical tank mounted on supporting structure on the roof the transformer main
tank. The main function of conservator tank of transformer is to provide adequate space for
expansion of oil inside the transformer.

Fig. 4.1. Conservator tank.

4.1.1. Function of Conservator Tank of a Transformer:

When transformer is loaded and when ambient temperature rises, the volume of oil inside
transformer increases. A conservator tank of transformer provides adequate space to this
expanded transformer oil. It also acts as a reservoir for transformer insulating oil.

4.1.2. Construction of Conservator Tank:

This is a cylindrical shaped oil container closed from both ends. One large inspection cover
is provided on either side of the container to facilitate maintenance and cleaning inside of
the conservator.
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Fig:4.2. Construction of conservator tank.

Conservator pipe, i.e. pipe comes from main transformer tank, is projected inside the
conservator from bottom portion. Head of the conservator pipe inside the conservator is
provided with a cap. This pipe is projected as well as provided with a cap because this design
prevents oil sludge and sediment to enter into main tank from conservator. Generally, silica
gel breather fixing pipe enters into the conservator from top. If it enters from bottom, it
should be projected well above the level of oil inside the conservator. This arrangement
ensure that oil does not enter the silica gel breather even at highest operating level.

4.1.3. Working of Conservator Tank:

When volume of transformer insulating oil increases due to load and ambient temperature,
the vacant space above the oil level inside the conservator is partially occupied by the
expanded oil. Consequently, corresponding quantity of air of that space is pushed away
through breather. On other hand, when load of transformer decreases, the transformer is
switched off and when the ambient temperature decreases, the oil inside the transformer
contracts. This causes outside air to enter in the conservator tank of transformer through
silica gel breather.

4.1.4. Atmoseal Type Conservator:

In this type conservator of transformer, an air cell made of NBR material is fitted inside the
conservator reservoir. The silica gel breather is connected at the top of this air cell. The oil
level in the power transformer rises and falls according to this air cell deflated and inflated.
When the air cell gets deflated the air inside the air cell comes out via breather and on the
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other hand if the cell is inflated the outside air comes in through breather. This arrangement
prevents direct contact of oil with air, thereby reduces ageing effect of oil.

Fig. 4.3. Atmoseal Type Conservator

The space available outside the cell in conservator tank is totally filled by oil. Air vents are
provided on the top of the conservator for venting accumulated air outside the air cell.
The pressure inside the air cell must be maintained 1.0 P

4.2. Silica Gel Breather of Transformer:

Whenever electrical power transformer is loaded, the temperature of the transformer

insulating oil increases, consequently the volume of the oil is increased. As the volume of
the oil is increased, the air above the oil level in conservator will come out. Again, at low oil
temperature; the volume of the oil is decreased, which causes the volume of the oil to be
decreased which again causes air to enter into conservator tank.

The natural air always consists of more or less moisture in it and this moisture can be mixed
up with oil if it is allowed to enter into the transformer. The air moisture should be resisted
during entering of the air into the transformer, because moisture is very harmful for
transformer insulation. A silica gel breather is the most commonly used way of filtering air
from moisture.

Silica gel breather for transformer is connected with conservator tank by means of breathing
pipe.
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Fig. 4.4. Silica Gel Breather

4.2.1. Construction of Silica Gel Breather:

The silica gel breather of transformer is very simple in the aspect of design. It is nothing but
a pot of silica gel through which, air passes during breathing of transformer. The silica gel
is a very good absorber of moisture. Freshly regenerated gel is very efficient, it may dry
down air to a dew point of below -40oC. A well-maintained silica gel breather will generally
operate with a dew point of -35oC as long as a large enough quantity of gel has been used.
The picture shows a silica gel breather of transformer.

4.2.2. Working Principle of Silica Gel Breather:

Silica gel crystal has tremendous capacity of absorbing moisture. When air passes through
these crystals in the breather; the moisture of the air is absorbed by them. Therefore, the air
reaches to the conservator is quite dry, the dust particles in the air get trapped by the oil in
the oil seal cup. The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier between silica gel crystal and
air when there is no flow of air through silica gel breather. The colour of silica gel crystal is
dark blue but, when it absorbs moisture; it becomes pink. When there is sufficient difference
between the air inside the conservator and the outside air, the oil level in two components of
the oil seal changes until the lower oil level just reaches the rim of the inverted cup, the air
then moves from high pressure compartment to the low-pressure compartment of the oil seal.
Both of these happen when the oil acts as core filter and removes the dust from the outside
air.
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4.3. Buchholz relay:

Buchholz relay is a safety device which is generally used in large oil immersed
transformers (rated more than 500 kVA). It is a type of oil and gas actuated protection relay.
It is used for the protection of a transformer from the faults occurring inside the transformer,
such as impulse breakdown of the insulating oil, insulation failure of turns etc.

Fig:4.5. Location of buchholz relay.

4.3.1. Working Principle of Buchholz Relay:

Whenever a fault occurs inside the transformer, such as insulation failure of turns,
breakdown of core or excess core heating, the fault is accompanied by production of excess
heat. This excess heat decomposes the transformer insulating oil which results in production
of gas. The generation of gases depend on intensity the of fault. Gas bubbles tend to flow in
upward direction towards conservator and hence they are collected in the buchholz relay
which is placed on the pipe connecting the transformer tank and conservator.

4.3.2. Construction:

Buchholz relay consists of an oil filled chamber. There are two hinged floats, one at the top
and other at the bottom in the chamber. Each float is accompanied by a mercury switch. The
mercury switch on the upper float is connected to an alarm circuit and that on the lower float
is connected to an external trip breaker
 26

Fig:4.6. Buchholz relay

Whenever a minor fault occurs inside the transformer, heat is produced by the fault currents.
The produced heat causes decomposition of transformer oil and gas bubbles are produced.
These gas bubbles flow in upward direction and get collected in the buchholz relay. The
collected gas displaces the oil in buchholz relay and the displacement is equivalent to the
volume of gas collected. The displacement of oil causes the upper float to close the upper
mercury switch which is connected to an alarm circuit. Hence, when minor fault occurs, the
connected alarm gets activated. The collected amount of gas indicates the severity of the
fault occurred. During minor faults the production of gas is not enough to move the lower
float. Hence, during minor faults, the lower float is unaffected.

Fig:4.7. Operation of Buchholz relay

 27

During major faults, like phase to earth short circuit, the heat generated is high and a large
amount of gas is produced. This large amount of gas will similarly flow upwards, but its
motion is high enough to tilt the lower float in the buccholz relay. In this case, the lower
float will cause the lower mercury switch which will trip the transformer from the supply,
i.e. transformer is isolated from the supply.

4.4. Introduction of Insulating Oil:

Insulating oil in an electrical power transformer is commonly known as transformer oil. It is

normally obtained by fractional distillation and subsequent treatment of crude petroleum.
That is why this oil is also known as mineral insulating oil. Transformer oil serves mainly
two purposes one it is liquid insulation in electrical power transformer and two it dissipates
heat of the transformer i.e. acts as coolant. In addition to these, this oil serves other two
purposes, it helps to preserve the core and winding as these are fully immersed inside oil and
another important purpose of this oil is, it prevents direct contact of atmospheric oxygen
with cellulose made paper insulation of windings, which is susceptible to oxidation.

4.4.1. Types of Transformer Oil:

Generally, there are two types of transformer Oil used in transformer,

i. Paraffin based transformer oil

ii. Naphtha based transformer oil

Naphtha oil is more easily oxidized than Paraffin oil. But oxidation product i.e. sludge in the
naphtha oil is more soluble than Paraffin oil. Thus, sludge of naphtha-based oil is not
precipitated in bottom of the transformer. Hence it does not obstruct convection circulation
of the oil, means it does not disturb the transformer cooling system. But in the case of
Paraffin oil although oxidation rate is lower than that of Naphtha oil but the oxidation
product or sludge is insoluble and precipitated at bottom of the tank and obstruct the
transformer cooling system. Although Paraffin based oil has above mentioned disadvantage
but still in our country it is generally used because of its easy availability. Another problem
with paraffin-based oil is its high pour point due to the wax content, but this does not affect
its use due to warm climate condition of India.
 28

4.4.2. Properties of Transformer Insulating Oil:

Some specific parameters of insulating oil should be considered to determine the

serviceability of that oil.

4.4.3. Parameters of Transformer Oil:

The parameters of transformer oil are categorized as,

Electrical parameters: – Dielectric strength, specific resistance, dielectric dissipation factor.

Chemical parameter: - Water content, acidity, sludge content.

Physical parameters: - Inter facial tension, viscosity, flash point, pour point.

Electrical Parameter of Transformer Oil

Dielectric Strength of Transformer Oil

Fig.4.8. BDV testing kit.

Dielectric strength of transformer oil is also known as breakdown voltage of transformer

oil or BDV of transformer oil. Break down voltage is measured by observing at what voltage,
sparking strands between two electrodes immerged in the oil, separated by specific gap. low
value of BDV indicates presence of moisture content and conducting substances in the oil.
For measuring BDV of transformer oil, portable BDV measuring kit is generally available
at site. In this kit, oil is kept in a pot in which one pair of electrodes are fixed with a gap of
2.5 mm (in some kit it 4mm) between them. Now slowly rising voltage is applied between
the electrodes. Rate of rise of voltage is generally controlled at 2 KV/s and observe the
 29

voltage at which sparking starts between the electrodes. That means at which voltage
dielectric strength of transformer oil between the electrodes has been broke down.

Generally, this measurement is taken 3 to 6 times in same sample of oil and the average
value of these reading is taken. BDV is important and popular test of transformer oil, as it is
primary indication of health of oil and it can be easily carried out at site.

Dry and clean oil gives BDV results, better than the oil with moisture content and other
conducting impurities. Minimum breakdown voltage of transformer oil or dielectric strength
of transformer oil at which this oil can safely be used in transformer, is considered as 30 KV.

4.4.4. Specific Resistance of Transformer Oil:

This is another important property of transformer oil. This is measure of DC resistance

between two opposite sides of one cm3 block of oil. Its unit is taken as ohm-cm at specific
temperature. With increase in temperature the resistivity of oil decreases rapidly. Just after
charging a transformer after long shut down, the temperature of the oil will be at ambient
temperature and during full load the temperature will be very high and may go up to 90oC at
over load condition. So, resistivity of the insulating oil must be high at room temperature
and also it should have good value at high temperature as well. That is why specific
resistance or resistivity of transformer oil should be measured at 27oC as well as 90oC.
Minimum standard specific resistance of transformer oil at 90oC is 35 × 1012 ohm–cm and
at 27oC it is 1500 × 1012 ohm–cm.

Dielectric Dissipation Factor of Tan Delta of Transformer Oil

Dielectric dissipation factor is also known as loss factor or tan delta of transformer oil. When
an insulating material is placed between live part and grounded part of an electrical
equipment, leakage current will flow. As insulating material is dielectric in nature the current
through the insulation ideally leads the voltage by 90o. Here voltage means the instantaneous
voltage between live part and ground of the equipment. But in reality, no insulating materials
are perfect dielectric in nature. Hence current through the insulator will lead the voltage with
an angle little bit shorter than 90o. Tangent of the angle by which it is short of 90o is called
dielectric dissipation factor or simply tan delta of transformer oil. More clearly, the leakage
current through an insulation does have two component one is capacitive or reactive and
other one is resistive or active. Again, it is clear from above diagram, value of ′δ′ which is
also known as loss angle,
 30

Fig:4.9. Loss angle

is smaller, means resistive component of the current IR is smaller which indicates high
resistive property of the insulating material. High resistive insulation is good insulator.
Hence it is desirable to have loss angle as small as possible. So, we should try to keep the
value of tanδ as small as possible. High value of this tanδ is an indication of presence of
contaminants in transformer oil.

Hence there is a clear relationship between tanδ and resistivity of insulating oil. If resistivity
of the insulating oil is decreased, the value of tan-delta increases and vice versa. So, both
resistivity test and tan delta test of transformer oil are not normally required for same piece
of insulator or insulating oil.

In one sentence it can be said that, tanδ is measure of imperfection of dielectric nature of
insulation materials like oil.

Chemical Parameters of Transformer Oil

Water Content in Transformer Oil:

Moisture or water content in transformer oil is highly undesirable as it affects adversely the
dielectric properties of oil. The water content in oil also affects the paper insulation of the
core and winding of transformer. Paper is highly hygroscopic in nature. Paper absorbs
 31

maximum amount of water from oil which affects paper insulation property as well as
reduced its life. But in loaded transformer, oil becomes hotter, hence the solubility of water
in oil increases as a result the paper releases water and increase the water content in
transformer oil. Thus, the temperature of the oil at the time of taking sample for test is very
important. During oxidation acid are formed in the oil the acids give rise the solubility of
water in the oil. Acid coupled with water further decompose the oil forming more acid and
water. This rate of degradation of oil increases. The water content in oil is measured as pm
(parts per million unit).

Water content in oil is allowed up to 50 ppm as recommended by IS–335(1993). The accurate

measurement of water content at such low levels requires very sophisticated instrument like
Coulometric Karl Fisher Titrator.

Acidity of Transformer Oil:

Acidity of transformer oil, is harmful property. If oil becomes acidic, water content in the
oil becomes more soluble to the oil. Acidity of oil deteriorates the insulation property of
paper insulation of winding. Acidity accelerates thee oxidation process in the oil. Acid also
includes rusting of iron in presence of moisture. The acidity of transformer oil is measure
of its acidic constituents of contaminants. Acidity of oil is express in mg of KOH required
to neutralize the acid present in a gram of oil. This is also known as neutralization number.

Physical Parameters of Transformer Oil:

Inter Facial Tension of Transformer Oil:

Inter facial tension between the water and oil interface is the way to measure molecular
attractive force between water and oil. It is measured in Dyne/cm or milli-Newton/meter.
Inter facial tension is exactly useful for determining the presence of polar contaminants and
oil decay products. Good new oil generally exhibits high inter facial tension. oil oxidation
contaminants lower the IFT.

Flash Point of Transformer Oil:

Flash point of transformer oil is the temperature at which oil gives enough vapours to
produce a flammable mixture with air. This mixture gives momentary flash on application
of flame under standard condition. Flash point is important because it specifies the chances
 32

of fire hazard in the transformer. So, it is desirable to have very high flash point of
transformer oil. In general, it is more than 140o(>10o).

Pour Point of Transformer Oil:

It is the minimum temperature at which oil just start to flow under standard test condition.
Pour point of transformer oil is an important property mainly at the places where climate is
extremely cold. If the oil temperature falls below the pour point, transformer oil stops
convection flowing and obstruct cooling in transformer. Paraffin based oil has higher value
of pour point, compared to Naphtha based oil, but in India like country, it does not affect the
use of Paraffin oil due tits warm climate condition. Pour Point of transformer oil mainly
depends upon wax content in the oil. As Paraffin based oil has more wax content, it has
higher pour point.

Viscosity of Transformer Oil:

In few wards, viscosity of transformer oil can be said that viscosity is the resistance of flow,
at normal condition. Obviously, resistance to flow of transformer oil means obstruction of
convection circulation of oil inside the transformer. A good oil should have low viscosity so
that it offers less resistance to the convectional flow of oil thereby not affecting the cooling
of transformer. Low viscosity of transformer oil is essential, but it is equally important that,
the viscosity of oil should increase as less as possible with decrease in temperature. Every
liquid becomes more viscous if temperature decreases.

4.5. Bushings:

Fig:4.10. Bushings
 33

All materials carrying an electric charge generate an electric field. When an energized
conductor is near any material at earth potential, it can cause very high field strengths to be
formed, especially where the field lines are forced to curve sharply around the earthed
material. The bushing controls the shape and strength of the field and reduces the electrical
stresses in the insulating material.

4.5.1. Bushing condenser:

A bushing must be designed to withstand the electrical field strength produced in the
insulation, when any earthed material is present. As the strength of the electrical field
increases, leakage paths may develop within the insulation. If the energy of the leakage path
overcomes the dielectric strength of the insulation, it may puncture the insulation and allow
the electrical energy to conduct to the nearest earthed material causing burning and arcing.

A typical bushing design has a 'conductor', (usually of copper or aluminium, occasionally of

other conductive materials), surrounded by insulation, except for the terminal ends.

In the case of a busbar, the conductor terminals will support the busbar in its location. In the
case of a bushing, a fixing device will also be attached to the insulation to hold it in its
location. Usually, the fixing point is integral or surrounds the insulation over part of the
insulated surface. The insulated material between the fixing point and the conductor is the
most highly stressed area.

The design of any electrical bushing must ensure that the electrical strength of the insulated
material is able to withstand the penetrating 'electrical energy' passing through the conductor,
via any highly stressed areas. It must also be capable of enduring, occasional and exceptional
high voltage moments as well as the normal continual service withstand voltage, as it is the
voltage that directs and controls the development of leakage paths and not current.

Insulated bushings can be installed either indoor, or outdoor, and the selection of insulation
will be determined by the location of the installation and the electrical service duty on the
bushing.

For a bushing to work successfully over many years, the insulation must remain effective
both in composition and design shape and will be key factors in its survival. Bushings can
therefore vary considerably in both material and design style.
 34

4.5.2. Bushing types:

Porcelain Insulation:

The earliest bushing designs use electro porcelain for both indoor and outdoor
applications. Porcelain is impervious to moisture once sealed by fired glaze and is low cost
and flexible to manufacture. The main disadvantage with porcelain is that its small value of
linear expansion has to be accommodated by using flexible seals and substantial metal
fittings, both of which present manufacturing and operational problems.

A basic porcelain bushing is a hollow porcelain shape that fits through a hole in a wall or
metal case, allowing a conductor to pass through its centre, and connect at both ends to other
equipment. Bushings of this type are often made of wet-process fired porcelain, which is
then glazed. A semi-conducting glaze may be used to assist in equalizing the electrical
potential gradient along the length of the bushing.

The inside of the porcelain bushing is often filled with oil to provide additional insulation
and bushings of this construction are widely used up to 36 KV where higher partial
discharges are permitted.

Where partial discharge is required to conform to IEC60137, paper and resin insulated
conductors are used in conjunction with porcelain, for unheated indoor and outdoor
applications.

The use of resin (polymer, polymeric, composite) insulated bushings for high voltage
applications is common, although most high-voltage bushings are usually made of resin
impregnated paper insulation around the conductor with porcelain or polymer weather sheds,
for the outdoor end and occasionally for the indoor end.

Paper Insulation:

Another early form of insulation was paper; however, paper is hygroscopic and absorbs
moisture which is detrimental and is disadvantaged by the inflexible linear designs. Cast
resin technology, has dominated insulated products since the 1960s, due to its flexibility of
shape and its higher dielectric strength.

Typically, paper insulation is later impregnated either with oil (historically), or more
commonly today with resin. In the case of resin, the paper is film coated with a Phenolic
resin to become Synthetic Resin Bonded Paper, (SRBP) or impregnated after dry winding
 35

with epoxy resins, to become Resin Impregnated Paper or Epoxy Resin Impregnated Paper
(RIP, ERIP).

SRBP insulated bushings are typically used up to voltages around 72.5 kV. However, above
12 kV, there is a need to control the external electrical field and to even out the internal
energy storage which marginalises the dielectric strength of paper insulation.

To improve the performance of paper insulated bushings, metallic foils can be inserted
during the winding process. These act to stabilize the generated electrical fields,
homogenising the internal energy using the effect of capacitance. This feature resulted in the
Condenser/Capacitor bushing.

The condenser bushing is made by inserting very fine layers of metallic foil into the paper
during the winding process. The inserted conductive foils produce a capacitive effect which
dissipates the electrical energy more evenly throughout the insulated paper and reduces the
electric field stress between the energised conductor and any earthed material.

Condenser bushings produce electric stress fields which are significantly less potent around
the fixing flange than designs without foils and, when used in conjunction with resin
impregnation, produce bushings which can be used at service voltages over one million with
great success.

Resin Insulation:

Since the 1965s, resin materials have been used for all types of bushing up to the highest
voltages. The flexibility of using a castable form of insulation has replaced paper insulation
in many product areas and dominates the existing insulated bushing market.

As with paper insulation, the control of electric stress fields remains important. Resin
insulation has greater dielectric strength than paper and requires less stress control at
voltages below 25 kV. However, some compact and higher rated switchgear designs, have
earthed materials closer to bushings than in the past and these designs may require stress
control screens in resin bushings operating as low as 12 kV Fixing points are often integral
with the main resin form, and present fewer problems to earthed materials than the metal
flanges used on paper bushings. However, care must be observed in resin insulated bushings
designs which use internally cast screens such that the benefit of electrical stress field control
is not offset by increasing partial discharge caused by the difficulties of eliminating micro
voids in the resin around the screens during the casting process. The need to eliminate voids
 36

in resin becomes more sensitive as voltages increases, and it is normal to revert to resin
impregnated, foiled paper insulation for bushings rated over 72.5 kV.

4.6. Sheet Metal Transformer Box:

4.6.1. GENERAL INFORMATION:

Base of the transformer boxes are manufactured with NPU 100 / 120 / 160 / 200 mm profile.
Outer body case covers are manufactured with 1,5-2-2,5 mm DKP / Galvanized sheet metal.

Sheet metal boxes are manufactured in all RAL colours optionally. Manufacture is made in
all colours according to the customer request.

Sheet metal transformer boxes consist of 3 main sections. In MV (INPUT) section, there are
Medium Voltage Cells. In the middle section, there is Transformer, of which characteristics
are determined according to the customer requirements. In LV (OUTPUT) section, wall box
designed according to the customer requirements is used.

Sheet metal transformer boxes can be in desired sizes according to the contained
equipment’s and the customer request.

4.6.2. TECHNICAL INFORMATION:

Outer body bearing posts are manufactured with painted sheet metal in 2 – 2,5 mm thickness.

Case cover and whole body is manufactured with painted sheet metal in 2 mm thickness,
reinforced from behind.

Whole body is painted with external type water proof, polyester dye that is suitable for light,
dust and rain conditions.

Whole outer body and roof are coated with insulation material in 5 – 8 cm thickness.

There are thermostat fan and culverts on the outer case covers for ventilation.

Gaps between the transformers and the gaps between transformer and panels are segmented.

Lower main base is manufactured with 100 NPU iron profile.

Whole body is mounted on the main base with stainless steel bolts.

Inner body coating is coated on the insulation with 0,75-1 mm sheet metal.
 37

Assembly of transformers is made on mobile and slidable 100 NPU iron.

The modern electric power industry employs two basic transformer constructions:

I. core-form: which is predominant, and

II. shell-form.

Insulation for the core-form, oil-immersed power transformer consists of,

1. the main insulation, typically utilizing mineral oil which is also acting as the
cooling medium, and pressboard barriers in winding to winding, winding(s) to
ground, lead to lead, lead to ground spaces, and
2. the winding insulation: section to section, turn-to-turn, lead to winding.

Materials commonly used in insulation systems are:

(i) insulating fluid: mineral oil, synthetic, or vegetable oil (natural esters),
(ii) conductor insulation: paper (kraft, Nomex, enamel),
(iii) ‘solid’ insulation, i.e. barriers, blocks, spacers, made of pressboard, transformer
wood (densified wood), or wood (typically it is maple or beech wood).

The development of a breakdown in liquid is complex and still under ongoing investigations.
At present, there is no uniform theory explaining all processes leading to breakdown in oil.

Theoretical studies established the following main mechanisms of breakdown in liquids:

(i) electrical, with development of electron avalanche, leaders, and streamers,

(ii) ionic, utilizing the ion conduction in contaminated liquid,
(iii) suspended particles, which polarize in the field and concentrate, resulting in
breakdown,
(iv) gaseous, where presence of gas bubbles decreases the local dielectric strength,
(v) electro-convection, involving dynamics of space charge in liquid and charge
deposition on the cellulose insulation.

For practical purposes of estimating the withstand of insulating mineral oil, somewhat
simplified approach is suggested, where the dielectric strength was expressed as a function
of inter-electrode gap, surface of electrodes, and the volume of oil contained between
electrodes, where the latter is a result of two former phenomena. The volume effect allows
for comparison of the breakdown strength in different electrode systems. In general, the
dielectric strength of an oil cellulose insulation system depends on the duration of voltage
 38

application, polarity of voltage, field enhancement factor, area and shape of electrodes, kind
and degree of contamination of the oil, its temperature and pressure.

The transformer insulation design should be prepared with careful consideration for all these
aspects. Ongoing development of insulating structures utilizing the moulded or formed
pressboard parts allows for operation at higher electric stresses and results in reduction of
size, weight and cost of transformer. The transformer designers optimize the pressboard
barrier structures using the two- and three-dimensional electric field calculations. The
transformer manufacturing processes are under continuous development. Physical
phenomena influencing the status of insulation during assembly, drying, during and after oil
impregnation are carefully considered to ensure the designed dimensions of windings and
active part and required clamping forces. The transformer in operation is subjected to
numerous phenomena affecting its insulation. Aging processes - pyrolysis, hydrolysis, and
oxidation, as well as partial discharges gradually weaken the solid insulation. Precise
assessment of the status of the insulation is still a challenge to power utilities, as available
methods (DGA, furan analysis, methanol analysis, partial discharge detection and location,
etc.) are far from perfect. There is a renewed interest in studying fast transient and very fast
transients resulting from interaction between a transformer and a switching device (typically
insulated with SF6 or vacuum). These fast-transient voltages, typically with smaller
magnitude than the lightning strokes, pass under the protection level of surge arrestors and
enter the transformer, causing significant excitation when they closely match the winding’s
natural resonant frequencies. These localized internal resonance phenomena may result in
significant amplification of voltage within the windings causing the breakdown of insulation.
 39

Chapter 5

Testing
When completing the installation of electrical transformers several tests are required
to determine the electrical, thermal and mechanical suitability for the system where they will
be applied or used. Most of the tests performed on power transformers are defined in national
standards created by IEEE, NEMA and ANSI.

Electrical Transformers: Transformer Turns Ratio

The Transformer Turns Ratio test is used to make sure that the Turns Ratio between the
windings of the transformer is correct.

With this information, you can decide what the output voltage of the transformer will be.
The ratio is calculated under no-load conditions.

Simultaneous readings of voltage are taken to low voltage and high voltage windings area
taken after the voltage is applied to one winding. The ratio is the division between the high
reading and low reading. If it is a three-phase transformer, each phase is tested individually.

Insulation Resistance Testing

Commonly known as the Megger test. It measures the quality of insulation within the
transformer. Some variations will be obtained depending on the moisture, cleanliness and
the temperature of the insulation. It is recommended that tank and core should always be
grounded when this test is performed. Each winding should be short-circuited at the bushing
terminals. Resistances are then measured between each winding and all other windings and
ground.

Electrical Transformers: Power Factor

This test will detect the dryness of transformer insulation.

It is the ratio of the power dissipated divided by the input volt-ampere multiplied by 100.
The test is made with a capacitance bridge, and the connections are the same as for the
Megger test. This test can be repeated during the service life of the transformer and verified
against the result obtained during manufacturing to check if the insulation is malfunctioning
or decaying.
 40

Electrical Transformers: Resistance

This test can be measured after the current has not passed through the transformer for several
hours, reaching the same temperature as its surroundings. Winding resistance is calculated
by measuring the voltage and current simultaneously, with the current as close to the rated
current as possible. Performing this test will allow you calculate and compensate for major
component of load losses as a whole.

Electrical Transformers: Transformer Polarity

This test on a transformer is either additive or subtractive. When voltage is applied between
the primary bushings and the resultant voltage between the secondary bushings is greater,
then it means that the transformer has additive polarity. Polarity is a vital concern if
transformers are to be paralleled or bank connected. Three-phase transformers are also
checked for polarity by the same means.

Electrical Transformers: Transformer Phase Relation

This test will detect if transformers have been connected in a correct phase relationship. It
calculates the angular displacement and relative phase sequence of the transformer, and can
be tested at the same time as ratio and polarity tests. The voltages of the phase of primary
and secondary can be recorded and comparisons made to get the phase relation.

Electrical Transformers: Oil Tests

An oil sample will detect several things on a transformer. The following tests can be
performed with the oil sample.

 Acid number
 Dielectric breakdown
 Power factor
 Moisture content
 Interfacial tension

Oil test are really useful to determine the condition of the insulation and the oil so based on
these results a maintenance program can be established.
 41

Electrical Transformers: Visual Inspection

The simplest of all. It can reveal potential problems that may not be detected by diagnostic
testing. A standard procedure must be established to perform the visual routine test.

These two tests are performed on a transformer to determine

 equivalent circuit parameters of transformer, and

 voltage regulation of transformer
 efficiency of transformer.

The power required for these open circuit test and short circuit test on transformer is equal
to the power loss occurring in the transformer.

Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The connection diagram for open circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure.
A voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in LV side of the transformer as
shown. The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that LV side with the help of a variac of
variable ratio auto transformer.

The HV side of the transformer is kept open. Now with the help of variac, applied voltage
gets slowly increased until the voltmeter gives reading equal to the rated voltage of the LV
side. After reaching at rated LV side voltage, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter,
Ammeter and Wattmeter readings) are recorded.

Fig:5.1. Open circuit test

The ammeter reading gives the no load current Ie. As no load current Ie is quite small
compared to rated current of the transformer, the voltage drops due to this current that can
be taken as negligible. Since, voltmeter reading V1 can be considered equal to secondary
induced voltage of the transformer, the input power during test is indicated by watt-meter
 42

reading. As the transformer is open circuited, there is no output, hence the input power here
consists of core losses in transformer and copper loss in transformer during no load
condition. But as said earlier, the no load current in the transformer is quite small compared
to full load current, so copper loss due to the small no load current can be neglected. Hence,
the wattmeter reading can be taken as equal to core losses in transformer. Let us consider

wattmeter reading is Po. Where, Rm is shunt branch resistance of transformer. If,

Zm is shunt branch impedance of transformer. T therefore, if shunt branch

reactance of transformer is Xm, These values are referred to the

LV side of transformer as because the test is conducted on LV side of transformer. These
values could easily be referred to HV side by multiplying these values with square of
transformation ratio.
Therefore it is seen that the open circuit test on transformer is used to determine core losses
in transformer and parameters of shunt branch of the equivalent circuit of transformer.

Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The connection diagram for short circuit test on transformer is shown in the figure. A
voltmeter, wattmeter, and an ammeter are connected in HV side of the transformer as shown.
The voltage at rated frequency is applied to that HV side with the help of a variac of variable
ratio auto transformer.

The LV side of the transformer is short circuited. Now with the help of variac applied voltage
is slowly increased until the ammeter gives reading equal to the rated current of the HV side.
After reaching at rated current of HV side, all three instruments reading (Voltmeter,
Ammeter and Watt-meter readings) are recorded. The ammeter reading gives the primary
equivalent of full load current IL. As the voltage applied for full load current in short circuit
test on transformer is quite small compared to the rated primary voltage of the transformer,
the core losses in transformer can be taken as negligible here.
 43

Fig:5.2. Short circuit test

Let’s say, voltmeter reading is Vsc. The input power during test is indicated by watt-meter
reading. As the transformer is short circuited, there is no output; hence the input power here
consists of copper losses in transformer. Since, the applied voltage Vsc is short circuit voltage
in the transformer and hence it is quite small compared to rated voltage, so core loss due to
the small applied voltage can be neglected. Hence the wattmeter reading can be taken as

equal to copper losses in transformer. Let us consider wattmeter reading is Psc.

Where Re is equivalent resistance of transformer. If, Ze is equivalent impedance of

transformer. Therefore, if equivalent reactance of transformer is Xe.

These values are referred to the HV side of transformer as because

the test is conducted on HV side of transformer. These values could easily be referred to LV
side by dividing these values with square of transformation ratio.

Therefore, it is seen that the short circuit test on transformer is used to determine copper loss
in transformer at full load and parameters of approximate equivalent circuit of transformer.
 44

Chapter 6

Maintenance
A power transformer is most costly and essential equipment of an electrical transformer. So,
for getting high performance and long functional life of the transformer, it is desired to
perform various maintenance activities. Not only that, a power transformer also requires
various maintenance actions including measurement and testing of different parameters of
the transformer. There are mainly two types of maintenance of transformer. We perform one
group is in routine basis, and second group is as when required. That means for getting
smooth performance from a transformer we have to perform some maintenance actions in
regular basis.

Some other type of maintenance of transformer we perform as when they are required. But
if one performs regular maintenance properly, he may not have any provision of performing
emergency maintenance. The regular checking and maintenance of transformer is also
known as condition maintenance. Hence by proper condition maintenance one can avoid
emergency and breakdown maintenance. That is why one technical personnel should mainly
concentrate on condition maintenance. As 100% condition maintenance causes 0%
breakdown of an equipment. There are many different maintenance action, to be performed
on a power transformer. Some of them in yearly basis, some of them are monthly basis, some
other are quarterly, some are half-yearly basis. These are mainly transformer maintenance
action, which to be performed in 3 to 4 years interval.

Fig:6.1. Maintenance of transformer.

 45

Monthly Basis Maintenance of Transformer:

Let us first discuss about the action to be taken on power transformer in monthly basis.

The oil level in oil cap under silica gel breather must be checked in one-month interval. If it
is found the transformer oil inside the cup comes below the specified level, oil to be top up
as per specified level.

Breathing holes in silica gel breather should also be checked monthly and properly cleaned
if required, for proper breathing action.

If the transformer has oil filled bushing the oil level of transformer oil inside the bushing
must be visually checked in the oil gage attached to those bushing. This action also to be
done monthly basis.

If it is required, the oil to be filled in the bushing up to correct level. Oil filling to be done
under shutdown condition.

Daily Basis Maintenance and Checking:

There are three main things which to be checked on a power transformer in daily basis and
they are,

Reading of MOG (Magnetic Oil Gage) of main tank and conservator tank.

Colour of silica gel in breather.

Leakage of oil from any point of a transformer.

In case of unsatisfactory oil level in the MOG, oil to be filled in transformer and also the
transformer tank to be checked for oil leakage. If oil leakage is found take required action to
plug the leakage. If silica gel becomes pinkish, it should be replaced.

Yearly Basis Transformer Maintenance Schedule:

The auto, remote, manual function of cooling system that means, oil pumps, air fans, and
other items engaged in cooling system of transformer, along with their control circuit to be
checked in the interval of one year. In the case of trouble, investigate control circuit and
physical condition of pumps and fans.

All the bushings of the transformer to be cleaned by soft cotton cloths yearly. During
cleaning the bushing should be checked for cracking.
 46

Oil condition of OLTC to be examined in every year. For that, oil sample to be taken from
drain valve of diverter tank, and this collected oil sample to be tested for dielectric strength
(BDV) and moisture content (PPM). If BDV is low and PPM for moisture is found high
compared to recommended values, the oil inside the OLTC to be replaced or filtered.

Mechanical inspection of Buchholz relays to be carried out on yearly basis.

All marshalling boxes to be cleaned from inside at least once in a year. All illumination,
space heaters, to be checked whether they are functioning properly or not. If not, required
maintenance action to be taken. All the terminal connections of control and relay wiring to
be checked a tighten at least once in a year.

All the relays, alarms and control switches along with their circuit, in R&C panel (Relay and
Control Panel) and RTCC (Remote Tap Changer Control Panel) to be cleaned by appropriate
cleaning agent.

The pockets for OTI, WTI (Oil Temperature Indicator & Winding Temperature Indicator)
on the transformer top cover to be checked and if required oil to be replenished.

The proper function of Pressure Release Device and Buchholz relay must be checked
annually. For that, trip contacts and alarm contacts of the said devices are shorted by a small
piece of wire, and observe whether the concerned relays in remote panel are properly
working or not.

Insulation resistance and polarization index of transformer must be checked with battery
operated megger of 5 KV range.

Resistive value of earth connection and riser must be measured annually with clamp on earth
resistance meter.

DGA or Dissolve Gas Analysis of transformer Oil should be performed, annually for 132
KV transformer, once in 2 years for the transformer below 132 KV transformer and in 2
years interval for the transformer above 132 KV transformer.

The Action to be taken once in 2 years:

The calibration of OTI and WTI must be carried once in two years.

Tan & delta; measurement of bushings of transformer also to be done once in two years.
 47

Maintenance of Transformer on Half Yearly Basis:

The transformer oil must be checked half yearly basis that means once in 6 months, for
dielectric strength, water content, acidity, sludge content, flash point, DDA,
IFT, resistivity for transformer oil.

In case of distribution transformer, as they are operating light load condition all the time of
day remaining peak hours, so there are no maintenance required.
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Chapter 7

Conclusion
In order to transfer the generated power from the generating station to the load centre and
further to the consumer, the transformer plays a major role in stepping up & stepping down
the voltages.

Any transformer, is a constant power device and is primarily used to make the transmission
of power over long distances more cost effective by reducing the transmission losses. It does
this by transforming the voltage to a much higher level and similarly reducing the current by
the same factor.

As the transformer plays the major role in the power system, maintenance of the transformer
should be done based on the regulations of maintenance of transformer for the better
performance, efficiency and reliability.
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Chapter 8
Reference
 IEEE, Transformer manufacturing process - Ronnie Minhaz, P.Eng
 IEEE, Transformer installation and maintenance.
 Electrical machinery – Dr. P.S. Bimbhra.