HUMAN EVOLUTION Vol. 14- N.

1-2 (29-46)- 1999

J. Gibert A Spanish late Pliocene and early Pleistocene

D. Campillo B hominid, palaeolithic and faunal finds from
V. Eisenmann c Orce (Granada) and Cueva Victoria (Murcia)
E. Garcfa-Olivares D
A. Malgosa E
In SE Spain, recent excavations in the Orce basin and at Cueva
D. A. R o e F Victoria indicate presence of both hominids and hominid activity
M. J. Walker C from the Plio-Pleistocene boundary and early Lower Pleistocene.
C. Borja D
F. S~nchez A Keywords: Lower Pleistocene, hominid, palaeolithic.
F. Ribot A
L1. Gibert A
S. Albadalejo A
Introduction
A. Iglesias A
C. Ferrfindez A Western Eurasian Lower Pleistocene sites with
E. Maestro A reports of hominid or palaeolithic remains older than 1
M.yr. include Dmanisi in Georgia (Dean & Delson, 1993;
A lnstitut Paleontoldgic
D~aparidze et al., 1989; Gabounia & Vekua, 1995;
"Dr.M.Crusafont"
Carrer de l'Escola Industrial 23 Gabunia & Vekua, 1995) and 'Ubeidiya in Israel (Bar
08201 Sabadell - Barcelona-SPAIN Yosef, 1995; Bar Yosef & Goren-lnbar, 1993). Most
European Lower Pleistocene sites, however, are younger
a Carrer de la Diputaci6 455 - 5~ ~
08013 Barcelona SPAIN than 1 M.yr. (Carbonell et al., 1995; Roebroeks & van
Kolfschoten, 1993, 1996). Nevertheless, SW Europe
c Lab.12 du Centre Nat. de
Recherche Scient. -lnstitut de
holds out intriguing evidence for human presence long
Pal~ontologie -8 Rue de Buffon - before: namely, at the Spanish sites BL-5 and F N - 3 a i n
75005 Paris Cedex-FRANCE the Orce basin of eastern Andalusia and Cueva Victoria
o Seccidn de lnmunologia in nearby Murcia. Their relative proximity to the Strait
Dep de Bioquimica y Biologia of Gibraltar and NW Africa raises the conjecture of
Molecular limited trans-Mediterranean migration of animals and
lnstituto de Biotecnologia- hominids.
Universidad de Granada
18010 Granada - SPAIN
e Unitat d'Antropologia
Dep de Biologia Animal
Biologia Vegetal i d'Ecologia
Universitat Aut6noma de Barcelona
08193 Bellaterra - Barcelona SPAIN
F Oxford University Donald Baden-
Powell- Quaternary Research Centre
- 60 Banbury Road - Oxford OX2
6PN- UNITED KINGDOM
~;,4rea de Antropologia Fisica
Dep de Biologia Animal - Facultad
de Biologia - Universidad de Murcia
30100 Murcia SPAIN
30 J. GIBERT ET A L

The Orce basin and Cueva Victoria evidence

At Orce, 100 metres of alternating lacustrine and fluviatile Upper Pliocene (stages MN-
15 to MN-17 of Mein's biochronology) and Lower Pleistocene sediments are exposed in the
Neogene Guadix-Baza depression north of the Baetic mountain chain (Gibert, Arribas et al.,
1994; Soria, L6pez-Garrido & Vera, 1987; Soria, 1986). Several former lacustrine sites with
vertebrate macro- and microfaunas form a sound basis for a biostratigraphical synthesis (Gibert,
Arribas et al., 1992a; see also Gibert, Gibert, Albaladejo et al., this volume) which is supported
by palaeomagnetic readings at the stations of Barranco de Orce (BO), Fuentenueva (FN)
(Gibert, Arribas, et al., 1994) and Galera (G) (Garc~s, 1993). FN is at the SE edge of a former
Plio-Pleistocene lake, G is near its former centre. At station G-C, the lacustrine sequence
begins around 3.22 M.yr. ago with a European Pliocene Ruscinian fauna of stage MN-15 and
the normal magnetic polarity of the Gauss magneto-chron which is followed by the reversed
polarity of the Matuyama magneto-chron. At station FN-1, the sequence begins with fluviatile
sediments; it then continues with lacustrine sediments and a European Pliocene fauna of
biochronological stage MN-17. They are followed here by red fluviatile silts, indicating a rise
in lateral stream activity.
Above the red silts at FN-1, inshore and offshore swamp deposits of dark clayey silt
(lutite) form the next, very conspicuous, feature in the sedimentary exposures around the Orce
basin. These deposits contain large (and small) mammals. Between those swamp deposits and
the earliest overlying palaeosols the sediments have normal magnetic polarity, implying the
Olduvai magneto-subchron of 1.98-1.76 M.yr.; this was determined by S6mah in 1985 at BO-
2 and it is also described by at BO-7 (Agustf, Garc6s et al., 1995; Agustf, Oms et al., 1997).
The sequence ends here with calcimorphous sands. The sands are sealed by a prominent hard
calcrete containing gastropods, which can be observed at stations from FN-1 to G-A, where
its normal polarity implies the Jaramillo magneto-subchron (Garc6s, 1993); at G, conglomerate
bands interrupt the calcimorphous palaeosols.
The dark lutite beds signal the start of an important faunal change especially at and near
FN-1, for example at BL-2, BL-3 and BO-2. Below these beds at FN-1 there is a Villafranchian
fauna that includes Equus stenonis, Gacela borbonica, and Mimomys cf. reidi. However, both
within the dark beds and also above them there are traces of a different fauna, especially at
Venta Micena, VM, where slender equid metapodials indicate Equus granatensis. As well as
typically European Plio-Pleistocene taxa from the dark lutite beds such as Homotherium
latidens, Cants etruscus, Ursus etruscus, Mammuthus meridionalis, Stephanorhinus etruscus,
in the calcium carbonate-rich palaeosols immediately overlying them there are also found
Allophaiomys pliocaenicus and, of doubtless of Asian origin, Praemegaceros sp, Cervidae
gen. et sp. indet., Bovini gen. et sp. indet., Soergelia minor, Praeovibos sp. and Hemitragus
alba. However, African taxa occur as well: in addition to Homo sp. there are Meguntereon
whitei, Hippopotamus amphibius antiquus, and Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Martfnez, 1992a,b,c;
Martfnez & Palmqvist, 1995, 1996; cf. Howell & Petter, 1980 on Pachycrocuta). The VM
fauna occupies a position intermediate in both the stratigraphical and geochronological Orce
sequence between the Plio-Pleistocene strata at Barranco de Orce (BO) and nearby Barranco
Le6n (BL) on the one hand, and Fuentenueva site 3a (FN-3a) on the other (Gibert, Gibert,
Albaladejo et al., this volume).
The African cercopithecoid baboon Theropithecus cf. oswaldi (Gibert, Ribot, Gibert et
al. 1995) occurs at Cueva Victoria in the limestone hill beside San Gin6s de la Jara near the
Mar Menor coastal lagoon in Murcia. Formed by Upper Miocene karstic erosion, the cave
was partly filled by piedmont scree in Plio-Pleistocene times when it became a hyaena den of
SPANISH LATE PLIOCENEAND EARLY PLEISTOCENEHOMINID 31

Pachycrocuta brevirostris, and perhaps other scavengers, as is clear from the faunal analysis
of the resulting bone breccia of the scavenged remains of Homo sp., Homotherium latidens,
Panthera cf. gombaszogensis, Lynx sp., Canis etruscus, Canis (Xenocyon) falconeri, Monachus
sp., Mammuthus meridionalis, Stephanorhinus etruscus, Equus sp., Equus cf. altidens or
perhaps numidicus, Praemegaceros sp., Cervus sp., Bovidae gen. et sp. indet., Allophaiomys
chalinei, Castillomys crusafonti, and Apodemus mystacinus (Ferr~indez et al., 1989; Gibert,
Ferr~indez et al., 1992). No stone artifacts occur in the bone breccia; without doubt hyaenas
must have brought in the hominid phalangeal bone, CV-0, of a right little finger, to which no
objection has ever been raised in the scientific literature (Gibert & P6rez-P6rez, 1989; Gibert
& Pons-Moyh, 1984, 1985; Gibert, Pons-Moy~ & Ruz, 1985, 1989; Palmqvist, P6rez-Claros
et al., 1996; P6rez-P6rez, 1989; Pons-Moy~, 1985; Santamarfa & Gibert, 1992) and hominid
humeral shaft fragments CV-1 and CV-2 (Gibert, Campillo et al., 1991; Gibert, Marffnez,
Caporicci et al., 1989; G ibert, S~nchez, Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992).
Hominid remains occur at the Orce site VM: namely, a cranial vault fragment, VM-0,
which comprises part of a child's occipital squame attached to small fragments of both
parietals at the lambdoid suture (Campillo, 1989; Gibert, 1986; Gibert, Ribot, Femlndez,
Martfnez & Caporicci, 1989; Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Marffnez, Caporicci & Campillo, 1989;
Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Martfnez & Ruz, 1989; - - and see Gibert, Campillo, Arqu6s et al.,
1998 for most exhaustive rebuttal of objections by Moyh-Solh & K6hler, 1998 and Palmqvist,
1998 which much recall earlier ones by Agustf & Moyh-Solh, 1987 and Moya-Sol~ & Agusff,
1989); a humeral shaft of a child, VM-1960 (Gibert, Campillo, Marffnez, S~inchez et al., 1991;
Gibert, Martfnez, Caporicci et al., 1989; Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992;
Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa & Martlnez, 1994; S~nchez et al., this volume - - no objections to
published accounts of its specifically human form, particularly demonstrated by its humeral
torsion, have been raised in the scientific literature); and an adult humeral shaft fragment,
VM-3691 (Gibert, S~nchez, Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992; Gibert, S~nchez, Malgosa &
Marffnez, 1994). Probably the most ancient hominid fragment from Orce is that of a human
molar tooth (BL5-0) comes from Barranco Le6n site 5 (BL-5) (Gibert, Gibert, Albaladejo et
al., this volume).
At some Orce stations, palaeolithic artifacts and apparent manuports have been excavated
in situ, sometimes associated with mammalian bones. The oldest ones come from the BL-5
dark bed that is correlated with one at BO-7 which shows the normal palaeomagnetic polarity
that should correspond to the Olduvai magneto-subchron (see above). Systematic excavation
at BL-5 has provided part of a human molar tooth crown (Gibert, Gibert, Albaladejo et al.,
this volume) and over 100 flint pieces including struck flakes, as well as an apparent manuport
of an abraded fractured cobble of recrystallized dolomitic Jurassic limestone. Other lithic
finds come from beds at VM, FN-3a and FN-3b, which lie somewhat above BL-5 in the
overall Orce stratigraphical sequence. At VM there are apparent manuports, associated with
bones fractured by blows (Gibert, Caporicci et al., 1985; Gibert & Caporicci, 1989; Gibert,
Ferr~indez, Martfnez, Caporicci & Jim6nez, 1992), which also have microstriations probably
caused by defleshing (Gibert, Campillo et al., 1991; Gibert & Jim6nez, t 991; Gibert, Marfinez,
Caporicci et al., 1989; Jim6nez & Gibert, 1992). In 1994, flint pieces including two struck
flakes were found during excavation in a closed stratified layer at FN-3a (Gibert, Gibert,
lglesias & Maestro, 1998; Marfinez et al., 1997; Roe, 1995; Tixier et al., 1995). Systematic
excavation here in 1995 has provided 100 artifacts, including struck flakes, fragments and
cores of flint, and apparent manuports of abraded dolomitic limestone cobbles. Apparent
manuports occur at other Orce sites also (Gibert, Campillo, Marffnez, S~nchez et al., 1991;
Gibert, Iglesias et al., 1992).
32 J. GIBERT ET A L

Palaeomagnetic readings in the Orce basin point to two separate episodes of reversal
to normal polarity within the Matuyama magneto-chron. One which has already been
mentioned seems to correspond to the Olduvai magneto-subchron. Another has been
identified at G-A (Garc6s, 1993; Garc6s et al., 1997), FN-1 and BO (Oms et al., 1994) in a
higher lithostratigraphical unit. This unit is a horizontally-bedded hard calcrete. It forms
a widespread conspicous bed that marks the end of the Lower Pleistocene sedimentary
sequence over a wide area of the Orce basin. The most plausible interpretation is that its
normal polarity signals the Jaramillo magneto-subchron. The remarkable horizontality of
the lacustrine beds over the 15 kilometres between VM and G-A makes stratigraphical
correlation quite easy. However, the predominantly calcimorphous nature of the lacustrine
sediments, which were of course derived from the surrounding limestone mountains, means
that they are less than ideal subjects for palaeomagnetic analysis, giving rise to plots with
scatters that require statistical analysis for determining the magnetostratigraphicai changes
in polarity (thus, 76 samples were analyzed at G, with special consideration being given
to clays and silts which give more reliable palaeomagnetic determinations: Garc6s, 1993).
FN-3 belongs in the Matuyama magneto-chron from both palaeomagnetic and
stratigraphical considerations (Gibert, Gibert, lglesias & Maestro, 1998) and is placed by
Oms as being somewhat earlier than the Jaramillo magneto-subchron (Martfnez et al.,
1997) and, by Agustf, as being undoubtedly earlier than the Gran Dolina (ca. 0.8 M.yr.)
at Atapuerca on the basis of presence of AUophaiomys bourgondiae and as broadly
contemporaneous (ibidem) with Cueva Victoria, CV.
At VM the abundant faunal remains were mostly brought by hunting hyaenas to a dry
refuge beside or within the swampy lake, which is probably why hominid bones are fragmentary
(Gibert & Caporicci, 1989; Martfnez, 1992b; Mendoza et al., 1993; Palmqvist et al., 1992).
Nevertheless, the unmistakably hominid nature is supported by intra- and interspecific
comparative analyses, including:
(1) comparative morphology, morphometry, and radiology of VM-0, VM-1960, VM-3691,
BLS-0, CV-0, CV-1, CV-2:
(VM-O: Campillo & Barcel6, 1985, 1989; Gibert, Campillo, Arqu6s et al., 1998; Gibert,
Ribot, Ferr~ndez, Martfnez & Caporicci, 1989; Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Martfnez,
Caporicci & Campillo, 1989; Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Martfnez & Ruz, 1989;
VM-1960: Gibert, Campillo et al., 1991; Gibert, Martfnez et al., 1989; Gibert, S~inchez,
Malgosa & Martfnez, 1994; Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992; P6rez-Claros
et al., 1995; S~inchez et al., this volume;
VM-3691: Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa & Martfnez, 1994; Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa et al.,
1992;
BLS-0: Gibert, Gibert, Albaladejo et al., this volume;
CV-0: Gibert & P6rez-P6rez, 1989; Gibert & Pons-Moy~ 1984; Gibert, Pons-Moy~ &
Ruz, 1985, 1989; P6rez-P6rez, 1989; Pons-Moy~, 1985; Santamarfa & Gibert, 1992;
CV-1, CV-2: Gibert, Campillo et al., 1991; Gibert, Martinez et al., 1989; Gibert, S~nchez,
Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992);
(2) independent comparative immunological analyses of VM-0 (Borja et al., 1992; Garcfa
Olivares et al., 1989; Gibert, Campilo, Arqu6s et al., 1998; Lowenstein, 1995);
(3) comparative anatomical analysis of fractal dimensions of sagittal and lambdoid sutures of
VM-0 (Gibert & Palmqvist, 1992, 1995);
(4) comparative canonical discriminant function analysis of Fourier-series harmonic descriptors
of computerized axial tomographs of VM-1960 and VM-3691 humeral shaft cross-sections
(P6rez-Claros et al., 1995);
SPANISH LATE PLIOCENEAND EARLY PLEIST(X~ENEHOMINID 33

(5) comparative correlation and discriminant-function analyses of VM-1960 with child and
juvenile humeri from Holocene and Pleistocene collections (S~nchez et al., this volume).
(6) comparative shape-coordinate analysis, and both principal and relative warp analyses, of
CV-0 (Paimqvist et al., 1996);
(7) comparative microscopic analysis of striae of Retzius, Hunter-Schreger bands, and
perikymata, of dental enamel of BLS-0 (Gibert, Gibert, Albaladejo et al., this volume).
Because no human remains come from a clear-cut palaeolithic occupation area, and
because conventional descriptors in (1) were seen as inconclusive by sceptics, the more
penetrating investigations (2,3,4,5,6) were designed to take account of possibilities that the
specimens are not human but, instead, belong to early Pleistocene animals found at Orce and
Cueva Victoria. These include baboon, horse, cervids, bovids and large carnivores including
bear. For good measure even anthropoids were included (great apes disappear in Spain after
the Miocene). Comparative palaeontological specimens were supplemented by appropriate
modern species selected by size, sex and age. Fossil hominid specimens and modern human
ones were likewise included (for further details, see references given above.)
The slight internal sagittal crest of the VM-0 occipital squame has parallels in both
modern people (Campillo & Barcel6, 1985, 1989), African Homo erectus/ergaster (KNM-
ER-3733) and the Javanese pithecanthropine holotype (Gibert, n.d.), and do not imply equid
identity (pace Agustf & Moy~-Sol~, 1987 and Moyh-Sol~ & Agustf, 1989). VM-0 is
demonstrably closer to immature humans and hominids than to other possible taxa (including
horse) both according to morphological and morphometrical studies (Campillo, 1989; Campillo
and Barcel6, 1985, 1989; Gibert, Campillo, Arqu6s et al., 1998; Gibert, Campillo, Martfnez et
al., 1991; Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Martfnez, Caporicci & Campillo, 1989; Gibert, Ribot,
Ferr~ndez, Martfnez, Caporicci & Campillo, 1989; Gibert, Ribot, Ferr~indez, Martfnez & Ruz,
1989) and also perhaps sutural fractal-dimension analyses (Gibert & Palmqvist, 1992,
1995), although Tobias, wilst neverless accepting that the fossil is "compatible with
hominid status" argues that "we cannot utilise the pattern of the sagittal suture for the
identification of the species represented by VM-O" (Tobias, 1998). VM-0 is shown to be
closer to humans than to horses both by enzyme-linked inmunosorbent assays (ELISA) of
polyspecific antisera against human and horse albumins and anti-human-albumin
monoclonal antibodies which do not cross-react with horse albumin (Borja et al., 1992;
Garcfa Olivares et al., 1989). Independent results of immunological bioassays of VM-0
confirm its human nature (Gibert, Campillo, Arqu6s et al., 1998; Lowenstein, 1995). It is
perhaps worth adding here that the authors who recently published reproducible
determinations of Neanderthal DNA sequences wrote that, because of hydrolytic and
oxidative damage, "'retrieval of DNA sequences older than about 100,000 years is expected
to be difficult, if not impossible, to achieve" (Krings et al., 1997), hence taxonomic use of
fossil DNA in a reproducible fashion is unlikely to be attained with Lower Pleistocene
fossil in any foreseeable future.
The VM-1960 and VM-3691 humeri are placed among immature humans and hominids
(including KNM-WT-15000), away from other taxa, not only by comparative morphology,
morphometry and radiology, where computer-aided axial tomography highlights both the
peculiarly human feature of humeral torsion and the thick cortical bone typical of hominid
limb bones (Gibert, S~inchez, Malgosa, Walker et al., 1992), but also by comparative correlation
and discriminant-function analyses with child and juvenile human humeri from Holocene and
Pleistocene collections (S;inchez et al., this volume), and comparative canonical discriminant
function analysis of Fourier-series harmonic descriptors of computerized axial tomographs of
shaft cross-sections of human and non-human humeri (P6rez-Claros et al., 1995) and further
34 J. GIBERT ET AL

findings by this method imply similar separation also for CV-1 and CV-2. Thick cortical
bone is seen also in the CV-0 phalangeal bone which is placed among human and hominid
specimens, away from other taxa, not only by principal components analysis of normalized
measures (Gibert & P6rez-P6rez, 1989; Santamarfa & Gibert, 1992), but also by comparative
shape-coordinate analysis and both principal and relative warp analyses (Palmqvist et al.,
1996) in accordance with the established procedures of geometrical morphometry
(Bookstein, 1991). With regard to the VM-1960 and VM-3691 humeri, Tobias states
categorically that, "Front my examination of the original specimens..., reinforced by the
published morphological and quantitative data..., 1 have no difficulty in accepting the
two fossil humeri as human" (Tobias, 1998).

Implications for human evolution

Presence of both hominid remains and palaeolithic artifacts at Orce from the Olduvai
magneto-subchron and Matuyama magneto-chron prior to the Jaramillo magneto-subchron,
and hominid remains at Cueva Victoria during the Matuyama magneto-chron before the
Jaramillo magneto-subchron, implies that late Upper Pliocene hominids had reached SW
Europe by Plio-Pleistocene times. Bar Yosef (1995) has proposed that by 1.4 M.yr. ago
'Ubeidiya in Israel and by 1.6-1.2 M.yr. ago Dmanisi in Georgia were both reached by
hominids as part of a wide-ranging response to increasing African aridity. Bar Yosef points
out that a K-Ar date of 1.8+0.1 M.yr. at Dmanisi comes from the lava flow underneath the site
and thus can be only a terminus a quo, while accepting that aspects of its fauna seem slightly
more primitive than at 'Ubeidiya. Br~iuer & Schultz (1996) consider its typically Homo erectus
mandible to have some progressive features that "are more likely to occur in considerably
later H. erectus specimens" although Rosas & Bermudez Castro (1998) and Lumley-Woodyear
(in press) indicates that in some regards it is indeed quite comparable to African H.
erectus/ergaster. African components of the Georgian fauna include ostrich (Struthio
dmanisensis: Burchak-Abramovich & Vekua, 1971) and the machairodont Megantereon
whitei Broom (Martfnez & Palmqvist, 1996). Although both 'Ubeidiya and Dmanisi offer
access to SE Europe, and thence westwards overland to SW Europe, Bar Yosef does not
rule out direct crossings from North Africa to southern Europe, which could have been
facilitated by climatic change. It is therefore convenient to take a bird's eye view of late
Pliocene climatic and hominid evolution.
High-latitude ice sheets were growing sufficiently by 2.8 M.yr. ago to sustain glacial
periods approximating to precessional cycles 41 K.yr. long (deMenocal, 1995; deMenocal &
Bloemendal, 1995). in likely response to ensuing climatic and environmental changes in
Africa, both paranthropines and Homo make their first appearance in the hominid fossil record
at 2.5-2.3 M.yr. ago (ibid.; cf. Tobias, 1985). It is noteworthy that highland cooling took place
on the southern Ethiopian plateau 2.5-2.35 M.yr. ago (Bonnefille, 1995) and that Homo is
reported from Ethiopia at 2.4-2.3 M.yr. ago. Over 2,000 km to the south, a similar age has
been proposed for Homo in Malawi (Schrenk et al, 1993), implying a considerable geographical
range and mobility, already, for the incipient genus Homo. This is unsurprising, because at 3
M.yr. the genus Australopithecus had a range from South Africa 4,500 km north to both
Ethiopia and - - 2,500 km to the west - - Lake Chad (Brunet et al., 1995), where Homo occurs
in a Villafranchian context (Coppens, 1965). Lake Chad is 2,000 km south of the Mediterranean
Sea.
NW African palaeopalynology highlights arid-cold conditions at 2.60, 2.53 and 2.49
SPANISH LATE PLIOCENE AND EARLY PLEISTOCENE HOMINID 35

M.yr. (Dupont & Leroy, 1995). Similar studies in Europe have long provided evidence for a
Praetiglian cold phase (Suc, 1984; Zagwijn, 1985, 1992; Zagwijn & Suc, 1984). Deep-sea
palaeotemperature sequences offer secure independent evidence that is well correlated with
predictions from precessional insolation cycles (Beard et al., 1982; Hays et al., 1976; Roberts,
1992; Ruddiman & Raymo, 1988; Shackleton et at., 1984). However, the build up glacial
intensity took place over several cycles (Raymo et al., 1990; Shackleton, 1995). Sea level fell
during the Neogene (Haq et al., 1987, 1988). A major fall is documented around 2.5-2.2 M.yr.
ago, perhaps reaching -150 m (Roberts, 1992), albeit from a level 25-50 m higher than today
some 3 M.yr. ago. Sea level seems to have risen again towards 2.0 M.yr., and a new fall later
occurred during the Olduvai magneto-subchron.
In southern Europe widespread intense erosion is well documented (~,Fase Glaciale
dell'Acquatraversa,,: Azzaroli, 1995). In SE Spain, two beds representing regressions of the
Mediterranean Sea lie just beneath the Plio-Pleistocene boundary in southern Alicante (Cuenca
& Walker, 1986), and important late Pliocene erosion has also been recognized in the sea
floor beside the eastern Spanish coast (Stanley et al., 1976). The Acquatraversan erosion
presumably caused the Orce FN-1 red fluviatile sediments, js O findings from teeth and bones
of Equus stenonis in SE Spain (Sfinchez-Chill6n et al., 1994) are also pointers to the late
Pliocene cooling.
Despite many striking differences, a few similarities do exist between Plio-Pleistocene
African and SE Spanish faunas; attention has been drawn above to Megantereon whitei and
Theropithecus. Selective filtration of African taxa to Plio-Pleistocene Spain could have been
limited by ability to emigrate to low islands temporarily exposed in the Alboran Sea at a time
when the Strait of Gibraltar shrank from today's 13.8 to a mere 5 kilometres in width. The
shallowest parts of the sea bed just outside the Strait lie today at -125 metres below sea level
and may have been exposed as temporary islands during periods of low glacio-eustatic sea
level. Nevertheless, at the Strait itself the sea bed lies at -300 metres, surely ruling out a
continuous land bridge (pace Alimen, 1975). Because, however, the Strait was narrower than
at present, the surface current flowing in from the Atlantic may have been as strong as today
(Huang & Stanley, 1972), sweeping along the southern shore of the Alboran Sea at up to 2 m/
sec in summer and thus hampering migratory possibilities except when strong easterly winds
blew and the current was weaker in winter. Even so, on October 16th 1994 neither sharks (e.g.
Latona nasus), the heavy current, nor the prevailing strong winds could stop 12 year-old
Rupali Ramdas Repala from swimming across the Strait in only 6 hours and 12 minutes
(Ordaz, 1995). Even though evidence of human presence in NW Africa is often held to date
from only about 0.8 M. yr. ago at Ternifine (Tighenif) and elsewhere (Raynal et al., 1995),
palaeontological and palaeomagnetic indications indicate that Ain Hanech may very well
indeed be Plio-Pleistocene (Sahnouni, 1998: 15-19, Sahnouni & de Heinzelin, 1998). At
Ternifine there were Theropithecus babbons (Delson & Hofstetter, 1993); lying beside the
mediterranean Sea across from Algeria is Cueva Victoria (CV) which also has Theropithecus.
It might well be premature to dismiss sea crossings to Spain out of hand in the light of recent
findings which show that around 0.8 M.yr. ago humans had been able to cross tidal seas from
the then exposed Sunda continental shelf and to leave palaeolithic flakes on the remote east
Indonesian island of Flores (Morwood et al., 1998; van den Bergh et al., 1995).
Emigrations of many taxa together tended to accompany major climatic and ecological
shifts. Given that Upper Pliocene hominids arrived in southern Africa alongside mammalian
emigrants from East Africa (Turner, 1982), they could have likewise reached North Africa,
very likely as scavengers following the large carnivores (Gibert, 1992; Martfnez, 1992c;
Martfnez & Palmqvist, 1995, 1996). Rolland (1972) ignored evidence for late Pliocene falls in
36 J. GIBERT ET A L

sea level or the possibility of limited faunal filtration brought about ~island-hopping,,
and seems to have only considered the all-or-none possibility of a.continuous land bridge
(present only during the Riss glacial according to him, although probably never available
at all, see above). He therefore preferred, instead, the very different route, via Central Asia,
for late Lower Pleistocene hominid dispersal from Africa to Europe, associating it with
the Asian (~End-Villafranchian~ Galerian) faunal dispersal westwards about 1 M.yr. ago
(Azzaroli, 1983; Azzaroli et al., 1987; cf. Turner, 1992).
In that regard, it may be remarked that even though widespread presence of hominids in
Europe can only be inferred from the relative visibility of evidence in the archaeological
record after 0.5 M.yr. ago (Roebroeks & van Kolfschoten, 1994; 1995a), this argument does
not logically preclude their transient presence at earlier times (ibidem, 1995b; Gamble, 1995).
More disturbing is an assertion that when visibility is not agreed to be self-evident, ~,esoteric~,
techniques should not be employed to reveal it (Dennell & Roebroeks, 1996); the comment
referred specifically to scientific techniques applied to finds from Orce and Cueva Victoria,
mentioned above. The assertion reflects a continuing epistemological debility in archaeology,
which feels less comfortable than do genuinely scientific disciplines about abandonning the
cosy illusions offered by simple-minded realism for rigorous demonstrations of intangible
phenomena by scientific critical realism (Murray & Walker, 1988; cf. Bell, 1994; Dunnell,
1992). A brief analogy will suffice: somebody with merely superficial knowledge of Western
European palaeolithic archaeology, unlike Dennell & Roebroeks, might regard as r
evidently>, upper palaeolithic the 90,000 year-old flint blades from Seclin and Some other
northern French sites, whereas painstaking r162 research has demonstrated that middle
palaeolithic strategies of core reduction were in fact responsible (summarized by Mellars,
1986: 77-87).
Several cross-cutting arguments underlie scepticism about claims for Plio-Pleistocene
hominid presence outside Africa. Scientific challenging of empirical observations on their
own methodological terms is healthy - - always provided players agree not to throw dice that
are loaded with a priori conjectures drawn from theoretical inferences about how, when, and
where, species evolution occurred in Homo, and how they, and it, relate to emergent humanity.
These inferences are themselves suffused with opposing epistemological programmes that
inform taxonomic methodology and reflect different approaches to evolutionary genetics,
originally put forward to deal with altogether different problems in genetics. Prudence (not to
mention intellectual modesty) demands that speculative conjectures about human phylogeny
be constrained by palaeontological and palaeolithic evidence, rather than wielded as a
winnowing rod to decide beforehand what evidence is to be admitted for scientific discussion.
These comments are pertinent to the vexed matter of when early hominid dispersals took
place from Africa to Asia. This, in turn, could affect the timing of any subsequent early
dispersal into Europe from Central Asia (see above). The evidence is patchy. At Kul'dara, in
Tajikstan, the earliest stone tools can hardly be later than 0.8 M.yr. according to palaeomagnetic
determinations (Ranov, 1991; Ranov et ai., 1995). However, hominids may have been present
over a million years earlier less than 1,000 kilometres away in northern Pakistan, if the 2.0
M.yr. flaked stones and stone flakes from Riwat are indeed their handiwork (Dennell, 1989;
Dennell et al., 1988; contra Hemingway & Stapert, 1989).
Further east, matters are unclear. The chronology of the earliest of the Javanese hominid-
bearing formations near Mojokerto and Sangiran is far from precise, with claims that range
from 1.9-1.6 M.yr. (Swisher et al., 1994), through 1.5-1.0 M.yr. or less (de Vos et al., 1994;
Leinders et al., 1985; Matsu'ra, 1982; Orchiston & Siesser, 1982; Suzuki et al., 1985; Sartono
et al., 1981; S6mah, 1982; S6mah et al., 1981), to 1.0-0.7 M.yr. (ltihara et al., 1994; Hyodo et
al., 1992; Pope, 1988a).
SPANISH LATE PLIOCENEAND EARLY PLEISTOCENE HOMINID 37

As already remarked, by about 0.8 M. yr. ago humans had reached even the distant east
Indonesian island of Flores that was separated by tidal seas from the then exposed Sunda
continental platform to its west - - which surely implies that H. erectus was far from being a
species with a "subhuman" behaviour scarcely changed from that of Australopithecus, and
that evolution of behavioural capacity to overcome the challenge of crossing tidal seas by
Lower Pleistocene Homo did not have to await the evolution of modern human behaviour in
Homo sapiens in late Middle or early Upper Pleistocene times.
Such behaviour belies relegating (by cladistical morphological procedures) eastern Asiatic
H. erectus to the r61e of a primitive hominid species that was but an early off-shoot of an
African Plio-Pleistocene Homo erectus/ergaster - - to be shunted off on to a species-specific
eastern Asiatic side-track away from mainstream human evolution, "too early" to be any more
than a distant by-stander (or feeble, premature side-shoot) from the standpoint of the subsequent
evolution of human behaviour in Afro-European precursors of earlier Middle Pleistocene H.
heidelbergensis and its successors who are later Middle Pleistocene H. sapiens of archaic
aspect. Whilst arguments for, and against, regarding African Lower Pleistocene Homo erectus/
ergaster as having more, or less, in common with Asiatic H. erectus have been amicably
offered, respectively, by Biisborough & Wood (1986), there nevertheless remains a niggling
epistemological worry (Harrison, 1993) about whether those who strive to separate them
taxonomically may be letting an empirical dog be wagged by a self-satisfying, not to mention
self-justifying, cladistical tail (?tale) that presumes just that what surely ought to be the task
of empirical scientific inquiry to demonstrate (cf. Szalay, 1993)! The presumption is, of
course, that natural selection must have caused separation and, thereby, origin of separate
species - - though this presumption may only be sustainable as long as a condition were to
hold such that Lower Pleistocene Homo - - was, like Australopithecus previously, still teetering
on the knife-edge (?of an artificially struck flake) between being dominated by the natural
environment and dominating it, i.e. between being a taxon over which natural selection
influenced macroevolutionary morphological adaptation (and thence divergent speciation
through dispersal) to a greater extent than microevolutionary intraspecific processes held it in
check (which might well include some backward movements, by people returning). That
condition may be a figment of our imagination, the wish being the father of the thought! There
must assuredly have existed some intermediate palaeoethological stage in human evolution,
during the Lower and earlier Middle Pleistocene, in order that, later on (say, 250,000-50,000
years ago), modern human behaviour could evolve at all: such an intermediate stage implies
that it is highly imprudent to regard evolution in e~irly Homo as being so much more similar to
that in other primate taxa than evolution in Homo since the closing stages of the Middle
Pleistocene.
In China matters are no better than in Indonesia. The ,~Wushan hominid~ jaw fragment
and teeth from Longgupo were not found in any sealed stratigraphical layer (Huang et al.,
1991) and may not even be hominid (Pope, 1995). Electron spin resonance determinations
from excavated layers are of 1.0-0.75 M.yr.,which could support a Jaramillo attribution for
their positive palaeomagnetic polarity. It is only the faunal identifications which imply
biochronological stage MN-17 and, thus, the possibility of an Olduvai magneto-subchron age
(Huang et al., 1995). Equally questionable (Pope, 1988a,b; 1995) is a similarly early
palaeomagnetic date for the Yuanmou hominid teeth (Hu, 1973; Li et al., 1977; Wei, 1988).
The ~Lantian hominids~ from Chenjiawo and Gongwangling seem, respectively, to date from
the early Brunhes amd late Mutayama magneto-chrons (Aigner, 1988; Pope, 1988a; 1995),
with the positive palaeomagnetic polarity at Gongwangling corresponding to the Jaramillo
magneto-subchron, or just possibly to the earlier brief Cobb Mountain one around 1.12 M.yr.
(Shaw et al., 1991). Nor is it possible to adduce firm support (Pope, 1988a; 1995) for claims
38 J. GIBERTEI' AL

that artifacts from Xihoudu, Xiaochangliang and Donggutuo (pace Wei, 1988) or hominid
teeth from Badong and Jianshi are any earlier.
The weight of the evidence, therefore, points to ' U b e i d i y a and Dmanisi as being at least
as early as the oldest Chinese and Javanese Lower Pleistcene sites. This is unsurprising.
Furthermore, from Israel (e.g. Gesher Benot Ya'aqov: Bar Yosef, 1995) to Spain (Atapuerca:
Carbonell et al., 1995) there are sites that are just as well documented from the subsequent
period (late Lower Pleistocene, 1.0-0.75 M.yr. ago) as any in eastern Asia. The age of the
northern Pakistan finds near Riwat is nevertheless much older, although the jury is still out on
their assessment.
Because the highest methodological rigour is necessary in order to evaluate the criteria
on which impartial assessments can be based, the evidence from S E Spain has been subjected
to a degree of scrutiny that would be perhaps regarded as excessive for Eurasian sites later
than 1.0 M.yr. or for P l i o - P l e i s t o c e n e A f r i c a n ones. The e v i d e n c e points to broad
contemporaneity between the Orce F N - 3 a and 'Ubeidiya, to a time immediately after the
Olduvai magneto-subchron for V M and to one within it for BL-5. C V belongs also to a Lower
Pleistocene characterized by African faunal emigrants such as Theropithecus. Maybe early
hominids in SE Spain became extinct during the Lower Pleistocene. Whatever may be the
case, it is undeneable that further field research in the region is an urgent priority for a fuller
understanding of Lower Pleistocene palaeontology, palaeanthropology and lower palaeolitic
presence in the Iberian Peninsula.

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